Shaheen, Michael
1940-2007
United States Justice Department official.
Michael Edmund Shaheen, Jr. was born in Boston on August 5, 1940, the son of
Michael and Mabel Shaheen. When Michael
Jr. was 5, his family moved to Como, Mississippi. Michael's father was a well-to-do doctor of
Lebanese descent who defied prevailing racist convention by opening his door to
both black and white patients. Imbued
with a strong sense of justice and patriotism, Shaheen attended Taft, an elite
prep school in Connecticut. He graduated
from Yale University in 1962 and received a law degree from Vanderbilt three
years later. After law school, he became
a clerk for a federal judge in Memphis, Tennessee. Shaheen later returned to Como to practice
law and, from 1970 to 1973, was the town's mayor.
Shaheen joined the Justice Department in 1973, where he would win the respect
of Attorney General Edward Levi for his work investigating FBI (Federal Bureau
of Investigations) counterintelligence excesses. In 1975, on Shaheen's suggestion, Levi
created the Office of Professional Responsibility, which instituted controls
over all FBI investigations. Levi chose
Shaheen to lead the new office.
Shaheen won a reputation for unflappability -- best illustrated by his first
meeting with Levi's successor, Attorney General Griffin Bell, in 1977. Shaheen had just issued an unflattering
report about the FBI 's surveillance and harassment of Martin Luther King, Jr.,
generating reams of bad press. Shaheen
was summoned to Attorney General Bell's office, where an agitated Bell said,
"Why did everyone on the Hill get a copy of this report before I did? And why has everyone else read the whole
thing when I'm only on page 38?"
Shaheen reportedly replied, "As to the first question, your predecessor
(Edward Levi) ordered that the report be sent to [Congress] in the final weeks
of his tenure. As to number two, maybe
you just read slowly."
The angry Bell exploded with laughter.
The report which Shaheen presented to Congress was an indictment of the FBI
under the Bureau's legendary director, J. Edgar Hoover. The report detailed a pattern of corruption
at the highest levels of the FBI, including the misuse of bureau employees for
the personal benefit of Hoover. The
report cited "improper favoritism" and "conflict of
interest" in the bureau's selection of equipment suppliers. It also pointed out the improper use of FBI
employees to construct a front porch and a fish pond at Hoover's home and to
repaint his house every year, mow his lawn and even reset his clocks. No charges were brought because the statute
of limitations had passed and Hoover had died in 1972.
In 1980, Shaheen reported that President Jimmy Carter was not fully cooperating
with an investigation of his brother Billy's status as a registered foreign
agent to the government of the Libyan dictator, Colonel Muammar el-Qaddafi, an
accusation the president strongly denied.
In 1989, during the Reagan administration, Shaheen found that Attorney General
Edwin Meese III (ostensibly Shaheen's boss) failed to document in his 1985 tax
return nearly $20,000 in capital gains from a stock sale. Shaheen's report said Mr. Meese engaged in
"conduct which should not be tolerated of any government employee,
especially the attorney general."
However, by the time of the report, Meese had resigned.
In a 1993 report by Shaheen's office, Shaheen reported that William S.
Sessions, the director of the FBI had repeatedly billed the government for
private trips aboard the bureau's aircraft and had improperly claimed a tax
exemption on his official limousine. The
report led to President Bill Clinton's dismissal of Mr. Sessions.
Shaheen spent 22 years as head of the Justice Department's internal
investigations office. During his
career, Shaheen probed or criticized nearly all of the eight attorneys general
he served under in both Democratic and Republican administrations. However, he seemed to always manage to
maintain the respect of them all.
He died of pancreatic cancer on November 29, 2007, at his home in Falls Church,
Virginia.
Shakira
b. 1977
Colombian-Lebanese singer, musician, and actress.
Shakira, in full Shakira Isabel Mebarak Ripoll (b. February 2, 1977,
Barranquilla, Colombia), was a Colombian musician who achieved success in both
Spanish and English-speaking markets and by the early 2000s was one of the most
successful Latin American recording artists.
Shakira, who had a Lebanese father and a native Colombian mother, started belly
dancing at an early age and by age 10 had begun writing songs and taking part
in talent competitions. A local theater producer helped her land an audition
with a Sony Corporation executive in 1990, and Shakira was subsequently signed
to a record deal. Her first two albums, Magia (1991) and Peligro (1993), were
only moderately successful, however. After taking a break from recording to act
in the Latin soap opera El oasis, Shakira resumed her music career in
impressive fashion with Pies descalzos (1995). The album produced several hits,
including “"Estoy aquí,"” “"Pienso en ti,"” and “"Un
poco de amor."”
After releasing ¿Dónde están los ladrones? in 1998, Shakira focused her efforts
on establishing herself in the American market. In 2001 her album MTV Unplugged
(2000) won the Grammy Award for best Latin pop album, and she released her
first English-language album, Laundry Service, that same year. Although her
English-language songwriting skills were questioned by some (Shakira wrote all
her own lyrics), Laundry Service sold more than 13 million copies worldwide.
Shakira continued her crossover success in 2005 with the release of the
Spanish-language Fijación oral, vol. 1 in June and the English-language Oral
Fixation, Vol. 2 in November. Both albums debuted in the top five in the United
States, and her single “"Hips Don’t Lie"” (featuring Wyclef Jean)
topped charts around the world in 2006. At that year’s Latin Grammy Awards, she
captured song-of-the-year and record-of-the-year awards for the single
“"La tortura,"” and Fijación oral, vol. 1 was named album of the year
as well as best female pop vocal album. A live recording, Oral Fixation Tour,
followed in 2007. Also that year Shakira performed in Hamburg as part of Live
Earth, a worldwide concert series organized to bring attention to climate
change and environmental sustainability.
For her next English-language album, She Wolf (2009), Shakira adopted an
electro-pop sound. The following year she scored another international hit with
“"Waka Waka (This Time for Africa),"” a collaboration with
Freshlyground, a South African band, after it was chosen as the official anthem
of the 2010 World Cup. The track later appeared on her breezily eclectic Sale
el sol (2010), which earned a Latin Grammy for best female pop vocal album.
Shakira devoted considerable time and energy to social causes. In 2003 she
became a UNICEF goodwill ambassador, traveling internationally to raise
awareness of the struggles of children in less-developed countries. She also
created the Pies Descalzos Foundation, which focused on helping children
displaced by violence in Colombia.
Shakira was born on February 2, 1977 in Barranquilla, Colombia. She was the
only child of Nidia Ripoll and William Mebarak Chadid and was of Lebanese,
Spanish (Catalan and Castilian) and Italian descent. She has eight older
half-siblings from her father's previous marriage. Shakira's father is
originally from the United States, born in New York City, at the age of 5 his
family moved to Sincelejo from New York City then relocated to Barranquilla.
Shakira spent much of her youth in Barranquilla, a city located in northern
Colombia. Shakira wrote her first poem, entitled "La Rosa De Cristal"
("The Crystal Rose") when she was only four years old. As she was
growing up, she was fascinated watching her father writing stories on a
typewriter, and asked for one as a Christmas gift. She got her wish at age
seven and continued writing poetry. These poems eventually evolved into songs.
At the age of two, an older half-brother was killed in a motorcycle accident
and at the age of eight, Shakira wrote her first song entitled "Tus gafas
oscuras" ("Your dark glasses"), which was inspired by her
father, who for years wore dark glasses, to hide his grief. When Shakira was
four, her father took her to a local Middle Eastern restaurant, where Shakira
first heard the doumbek, a traditional drum used in Arabic music and which
typically accompanied belly dancing. Before she knew it, Shakira was dancing on
the table, she then knew she wanted to be a performer. She enjoyed singing for
schoolmates and teachers (and even the nuns) at her Catholic school, but in the
second grade was rejected for the school choir because her vibrato was too
strong. The music teacher told her that she sounded "like a goat". At
school, she says she had been known as "the belly dancer girl", as
she would demonstrate every Friday at school a number she had learned.
When she was eight, Shakira's father declared bankruptcy. While the details
were sorted out, she stayed with relatives in Los Angeles. On returning to
Barranquilla, she was shocked to find that much of what her parents owned had
been sold; as she later said "In my childish head, this was the end of the
world." To show her that things could be worse, her father took her to a
local park to see orphans who lived there. The images stayed with her and she
said to herself "one day I’m going to help these kids when I become a
famous artist." Between the ages of ten and thirteen Shakira was invited
to various events in Barranquilla and gained some recognition in the area. It
was at about this time that she met local theater producer Monica Ariza, who
was impressed with her and as a result tried to help her career. During a
flight from Barranquilla to Bogotá, Ariza convinced Sony Colombia executive
Ciro Vargas to hold an audition for Shakira in a hotel lobby. Vargas held
Shakira in high regard and, returning to the Sony office, gave the cassette to
a song and artist director. However, the director was not overly excited and
thought Shakira was something of "a lost cause". Vargas, not daunted,
was still convinced that Shakira had talent, and set up an audition in Bogotá.
He arranged for Sony Colombia executives to arrive at the audition, with the
idea of surprising them with Shakira's performance. She performed three songs
for the executives and impressed them enough for her to be signed to record
three albums.
Shalala, Donna
b. 1941
American educator, administrator, and public official best known as the
secretary of health and human services under United States President Bill
Clinton.
Donna Shalala, in full Donna Edna Shalala (b. February 14, 1941, Cleveland,
Ohio), attended Western College in
Oxford, Ohio, earning a B.A. in 1962. After graduation she spent two years in
the Peace Corps in Iran. Upon her return, she entered Syracuse University, where
she earned a master’s degree in social science in 1968 and a Ph.D. in 1970. She
spent the next nine years teaching political science and education at the
university level at Bernard Baruch College (part of the City University of New
York [CUNY]) and at Columbia University’s Teachers College.
In 1975, while still teaching, she served as the director and treasurer of the
Municipal Assistance Corporation, credited with helping rescue New York City
from near bankruptcy. From 1977 to 1980, during the administration of President
Jimmy Carter, Shalala worked as the assistant secretary for policy research and
development at the Department of Housing and Urban Development in Washington,
D.C. In this position, she worked primarily on women’s issues—setting up shelters,
establishing mortgage credits, and pressing for anti-discrimination measures.
In 1980, she became president of CUNY’s Hunter College. At Hunter she added to
her reputation as a committed feminist by overseeing dramatic increases in the
percentages of female and minority faculty and administrators. In 1988 she
became the chancellor of the University of Wisconsin at Madison, one of the
largest universities in the United States. Confronted by a campus afflicted
with racial tension, she instituted the “Madison Plan,” which increased
recruitment of minority students and faculty and reflected her commitment to a
“multiethnic, multiracial, multicultural” academic environment.
A dynamic leader and a strong advocate, Shalala was selected to be secretary of
health and human services in 1993. Her main objectives in her new position
included revising the financial structure of the country’s health-care system,
implementing a nationwide immunization plan, combating tobacco use among
children and teens, and continuing and expanding AIDS research. She also worked
with Vice President Al Gore to increase organ donation.
Following her eight-year stint under Clinton, Shalala returned to education,
becoming president of the University of Miami in 2000. In 2007, President
George W. Bush appointed Shalala and Bob Dole to head a commission
investigating the problems at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. The following
year Shalala received a Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Shalala was born in Cleveland, Ohio to Maronite Catholic Lebanese immigrant
parents and has a twin sister, Diane Fritel. She graduated from West Tech High
School and received her bachelor's degree in 1962 from Western College for
Women (which, in 1976, was merged with Miami University in Oxford, Ohio).
Shamsur Rahman
1929-2006
Bangladeshi poet and journalist.
Shamsur Rahman was born in Dhaka on October 24, 1929. The fourth of thirteen children, he studied
at Pogos School from where he matriculated in 1945. Later he studied at Dhaka College.
Rahman started writing poetry afte graduating from Dhaka College at the age of
eighteen. Shamsur Rahman studied English
literature at Dhaka University for three years but did not take his
examination. After a break of three
years, he re-enrolled. He received his
bachelor of arts degree in 1953.
In his leisure after his matriculation in 1945, Shamsur Rahman read the Golpo
Guccho of Rabindranath Tagore. This book
changed his life.
In 1949, his poem "Unissho Unoponchash" was published in "Sonar
Bangla." Shamsur Rahman's first
poetry book "Prothom Gan Ditio Mrittur Agay" was published in
1960. The political turbulence of the
1960s and 1970s impacted Shamsur's poetry.
He wrote his famous poem "Asader Shirt," a poem dealing with
the Revolution of 69.
During the Bangladesh Liberation War, Shamsur Rahman wrote a number of
extraordinary poems based on the war.
These poems proved to be inspiring for the freedom fighters. Later these poems were published in
"Bondi Shibir Theke" in 1972.
Later he continued writing poems in the independent Bangladesh and
remained as the poet whose poems reflect the history of the nation. During the historical movement against
Ershad, he published his book "Buk Tar Bangladesher Hridoy"
indicating the great sacrifice of Nur Hossain.
Shamsur Rahman had a long career as a journalist. He became the co-editor of the English daily,
"Morning News" in 1957. Later
he left this and went to the Dhaka center of Radio Pakistan. However, again he returned back to his own
rank at "Morning News" in 1960 and was there until 1964. After the independence of Bangladesh, he
wrote columns in the "Daily Bangla" ("Dainik Bangla"). In 1977, he became the editor of this
daily. He also jointly worked as the
editor of "Bichitra."
During the period of Ershad, Shamsur Rahman became involved with the turmoil in
the
"Daily Bangla." The position
of "Main Editor" was created to take away his position as
editor. In 1987, he left the daily in
protest against Ershad. He worked as the
editor of "Odhuna" in 1987 and as the main editor of the weekly
"Muldhara" in 1989.
An outspoken critic of religious fundamentalism, Shamsur Rahman was attacked in
January 1999 by a group of young men who talked their way into his apartment
and then tried to behead him with an ax.
Shamsur escaped unharmed, but his wife, who came to his aid, was
seriously wounded. Neighbors in his
apartment building apprehended the men and held them until the police came. The attackers admitted that they intended to
kill the poet. They also stated that
they planned to attack more intellectuals like Rahman, who held outspoken
secular views.
Over his long career, Shamsur Rahman came to be known as the "unofficial
poet laureate" of Bangladesh. He
authored sixty collections of poetry in Bangla and is considered a key figure
in Bengali literature. He won numerous
awards including the Bangla Academy Award (1969), Ekushey Padak (1977), and
Swadhinata Award (1991).
Shamsur Rahman died on August 17, 2006, of kidney failure after several days in
a coma.
Shoman, Abdul Majid
1912-2005
Chairman of the Arab Bank.
Abdul Majid was born in Beit Hanina, a town located between Jerusalem and
Ramallah. His father, Abdul Hamid
Shoman, had left for the United States six months before the birth of Abdul
Majid. The son would not meet his father
until he was fourteen while on a visit to New York.
Abdul Hamid, a semi-literate stonemason, left for America in 1911. He made a fortune in textiles, and founded
the Arab Bank (al-Bank al-Arabi) in 1930, not to make a profit but rather to
serve the Arabs of Palestine and their national welfare. The bank would become a symbol of Palestinian
aspirations, representing a drive to create financial institutions for a new
nation.
After Israel's seizure of the West Bank, in 1948, including Jerusalem's
traditional eastern Arab sector, the Shomans moved to Jordan, where they set up
branches of the Arab Bank across the kingdom.
In 1964, Arab leaders named Abdul Majid chairman of the Palestine
Liberation Organization's Palestine National Fund. Indeed, the late Palestinian leader, Yasser
Arafat, had the Palestine Liberation Organization keep a large part of its
funds in the Arab Bank.
Abdul Majid assumed the chairmanship of the Arab Bank upon his father's death
in 1974. During his tenure, Abdul Majid
inspired the bank's 7,000 employees, re-invested the gushing oil profits of the
1970s and met the demand for personal banking services in the 1990s.
Abdul Majid wielded tremendous societal influence. He established Jerusalem Development
Committee and created a prize for intellectuals who contributed to Jerusalem's
Arab heritage. Amongst various
humanitarian organizations, he chaired a foundation that bore his name.
Abdul Majid's Arab Bank often rescued Jordan from fiscal disaster. In 2000, the bank released funds to support
the Jordanian dinar, which had collapsed after King Hussein died. Perhaps in recognition of this contribution,
Abdul Majid's burial in the royal cemetery in Amman reflected the great esteem
in which he was held in Jordan.
By 2004, the Arab Bank had become the largest privately owned financial house
in the Middle East. The bank spawned
378 branches in 27 countries with assets valued at $35.7 billion. In 2005, the bank announced that it was
closing its branch in New York where it faced lawsuits contending that it
supported terrorism by funneling donations to Palestinian suicide bombers and
their families.
Sijilmasi
?-1800
A Moroccan Maliki scholar.
Abu Abd Allah Mohammed ibn Abi al-Qasim al-Sijilmasi is especially well known
for his Sharh al-amal al-mutlaq: al-musammá bi-Fath al-jalīl al-samad fī sharh
al-takmīl wa-al-mutamad. It was finished
in 1782. According to al-Hajwi, Sijilmasi died of the plague in Boujad in 1800.
Simpson, Mona
b. 1957
American author.
Mona E. Simpson (b. Mona Jandali, June 14, 1957) became a professor of English
at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the Sadie Samuelson
Levy Professor in Languages and Literature at Bard College. She won the Whiting
Prize for her first novel, Anywhere but Here (1986). It was a popular success
and adapted as a film by the same name, released in 1999. Her novel Off Keck
Road (2000) won the Chicago Tribune Heartland Prize, and was a finalist for the
PEN/Faulkner Award. She is also the biological younger sister of the late Steve
Jobs, whom she did not meet until she was 25 years old.
Mona Jandali was born in Green Bay, Wisconsin in 1957 and grew up in Los
Angeles, California. Her father Abdulfattah "John" Jandali, originally
from Syria, taught at the University of Wisconsin. Her mother Joanne Carole
Schieble was his student; however, they were the same age because Jandali had
earned his PhD at a young age. Later Jandali made a career in the food and
beverage industry. Schieble became a speech language pathologist. The Jandalis
divorced in 1962 and Jandali lost touch with Mona. Joanne remarried and Mona
was given the last name of her stepfather, Simpson.
In 1993, Simpson married the television writer and producer Richard Appel and
they had two children together, Gabriel and Grace. Appel, a writer for The
Simpsons television show, used his wife's name for Homer Simpson's mother,
beginning with the episode "Mother Simpson". Simpson and Appel later
divorced.
Sirhan, Sirhan Bishara
1944-
Palestinian who was convicted of the June 5, 1968 assassination of Senator
Robert F. Kennedy. The assassination
took place just minutes after the senator had won the California presidential
primary.
Sirhan Bishara Sirhan was born on March 19, 1944, in Jerusalem. Though he is commonly thought to have been a
Muslim, he was actually raised a Christian.
However, in his adult years, he frequently changed his religious views.
On June 5, 1968, Sirhan fired a .22 caliber revolver eight times into the crowd
surrounding Kennedy in the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles
shortly after Kennedy finished addressing supporters in the hotel's main
ballroom, hitting Kennedy three times.
Kennedy was mortally wounded.
Sirhan was quickly detained at the scene by bystanders and then
arrested.
On March 3, 1969, in a Los Angeles courtroom, Sirhan confessed that he had
killed Kennedy (although later he would maintain that he had no memory of the
crime). The judge in the case did not
accept Sirhan's confession and it was subsequently withdrawn.
Sirhan supposedly believed that the Palestinians had been betrayed by Kennedy's
support for Israel in the June 1967 Six-Day War, which had begun exactly one
year before the assassination. However,
entries from Sirhan's diary manifest an obsessive interest in killing Kennedy
which predated the Six Day War.
Sirhan was convicted and sentenced to death.
However, the sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 after the
California Supreme Court's People v. Anderson decision resulted in the
invalidation of all then pending death sentences imposed in California prior to
1972.
Since 1972, Sirhan has routinely been eligible for parole, but has always been
denied.
Sistani, 'Ali al-Husseini al-
1930-
Grand Ayatollah and Twelver Shia marja'.
'Ali al-Husseini al-Sistani was born on August 4, 1930, in Masshad, Iran, to a
family of religious scholars. He began
studying the Qur'an, the sacred book of Islam, at age 5. His grandfather, for whom he was named, was a
famous scholar who had studied in Najaf. Sistani's family originally comes from
Isfahan. During the Safavid period, his forefather Sayyid Mohammad, was
appointed as Sheikh ul-Islam (Leading Authority of Islam) by King Hussain in
the Sistan province. He traveled to Sistan where he and his children settled,
which accounts for the title "al-Sistani" in his great grandson's
name today. Sistani began his religious education as a child, beginning in
Mashhad, and moving on to study at the Shia holy city of Qom in central Iran in
1949. After spending a few years there, in 1951, he went to Iraq to study in
Najaf under the late Grand Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei. (Al-Sistani was
named a grand ayatollah after al-Khoei's death in 1992.)
Sistani rose in religious rank to be named a Marja in 1960 under the military
dictatorship of Iraqi president Abd al-Karim Qasim. At the unusually young age
of 31 (1961) Ayatollah Sistani reached the senior level of accomplishment
called Ijtihad, which entitled him to pass his own judgments on religious
questions.
When Khoei died in 1992, Sistani ascended to the rank of Grand Ayatollah by the
traditional method — through peer recognition of his scholarship. His role as
successor to Khoei was symbolically cemented when he led the funeral prayers of
his widely esteemed teacher. He would go on to inherit Khoei's network and
following.
With the death of other leading ayatollahs in Iraq including Grand Ayatollah
Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr, Ali al-Sistani emerged as the preeminent Shia
cleric in Iraq. As the leading Ayatollah in Najaf, Sistani oversaw sums
amounting to millions of dollars. Sistani's followers offered him a fixed part
of their earnings, which he spent for educational and charitable purposes.
Al-Sistani took little part in political activities during the rule of Iraqi
President Saddam Hussein. He survived
the persecution that killed many other Shia clerics, although his mosque was
shut down in 1994, and did not reopen until after the 2003 invasion of Iraq
which toppled the Ba'ath regime. After the invasion, Sistani usually kept to
himself in his house in Najaf. His reclusive behavior was seen by many as a
protest against persecution, but others consider it to originate from the house
arrest orders issued by the Ba'ath Party.
Despite his seclusion and inaccessibility, Sistani had extensive influence
throughout the Shia Muslims all over the world especially in Iraq, Iran and
Lebanon, and developed a network of junior clerics who conveyed his teachings.
Sistani patronized several leading Shia charities and provided financial
support for most of the Shia religious schools or madrasas and mosques around
the world. Due to his influence, he played a quiet but important role in the
current politics of Iraq. He was particularly known for forcing the Coalition
Provisional Authority into a compromise on the constitutional process; for
issuing a fatwa calling on all Shia, especially women, to vote; and for calling
on Shia communities not to retaliate against Sunni sectarian violence.
Beginning in 2004, al-Sistani began to take an increasingly prominent role in
Iraq's political affairs. A moderate,
al-Sistani repeatedly urged Iraqi Shi'a not to offer military resistance to the
United States led coalition occupying Iraq.
In August of 2004, he also negotiated an end to the three weeks of
fighting between United States led coalition forces and Shi'a militia members
led by Muqtada al-Sadr, who had barricaded themselves in an important Shi'a
shrine (Imam Ali Mosque) in Najaf.
Sistani's edicts and rulings provided many Iraqi Shia religious backing for
participating in the January 2005 elections.
He also issued a fatwa telling women that they were religiously
obligated to vote, even if their husbands had forbidden them to do so.
While take a relatively moderate stance, at the same time, al-Sistani also
called for the establishment of an Islamic republic in Iraq. He also strongly opposed United States plans
to allow appointed, rather than democratically elected, officials to select the
members of Iraq's interim government.
In Al-Najaf, Sistani was devoted to ensuring power for a Shīʿite majority in
his adopted country of Iraq, which had been led by a Sunni minority for
centuries. Although he served as the spiritual leader of Iraq’s Shiʿite
community, Sistani also commanded the respect of Sunni Arabs and Kurds.
Sistani played a key role in the political proceedings that followed the
U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, and, although he preferred to give the
impression that he did not mix religion and politics, he proved to be an
important participant in the planning for Iraq’s first democratic government.
Sistani’s support for free elections in Iraq—underscored by a 2004 fatwa (legal
opinion) decreeing that Iraqis register to vote—carried great significance. In
some cases his credibility outweighed that of not only U.S. and United Nations
diplomatic envoys but even the interim government of Prime Minister Ayād
ʿAllāwī: his strong and moderating influence among the Iraqi populace as a whole
earned him the respect of U.S. diplomats and Iraqi leaders, who deferred to
many of his wishes.
Sistani developed a substantial following among Shia's all over the world in
his role of Nayb-i Imam (Preeminent
Marja) of the Twelver Sect of Shia Muslims. In Iran as a result of the
post-invasion opening of the Iraqi shrine cities of Najaf and Karbala to
Iranians, including "great popularity and influence among" the
bazaari of the city of Qom, many Iranians returned from pilgrimage in Iraq followers
of Sistani.
Sulahiyya, Sayyida
d.1087
Queen of Yemen.
al-Sayyida al-Hurrat-ul Malika Asma Bint Shibab al-Sulayhiyya (died 1087) was
Muslim Malika (Queen) of Yemen. The title means "The Most Noble Lady who
is independent, the woman sovereign who bows to no superior authority,
Queen". She was married to Sultan Ali al-Sulahi, who entrusted much of the
management of the realm to her. She also enjoyed the privilege of the Khutba -
having the Friday's prayer preached in her name - the ultimate proof of
sovereignty. In 1067, her husband was taken prisoner on a pilgrimage to Mecca
and she was taken prisoner by the Bane Najah family. When she was released she continued to direct
her son's rule along with her daughter-in-law 'Arwa, until her death in 1087.
Taliban
A movement of students (taliban) who attended religious schools in Pakistan and
suddenly emerged as a politico-military force in Afghanistan.
The Taliban emerged as a force for social order in 1994 in the southern Afghan
province of Kandahār and quickly subdued the local warlords who controlled the
south of the country. By late 1996 popular support for the Taliban among
Afghanistan’s southern Pashtun ethnic group, as well as assistance from
conservative Islamic elements abroad, enabled the faction to seize the capital,
Kabul, and gain effective control of the country. Resistance to the Taliban
continued, however, particularly among non-Pashtun ethnic groups—namely the
Tajik, Uzbek, and Ḥazāra—in the north, west, and central parts of the country,
who saw the power of the predominantly Pashtun Taliban as a continuation of the
traditional Pashtun hegemony of the country.
By 2001 the Taliban controlled all but a small section of northern Afghanistan.
World opinion, however, largely disapproved of the Taliban’s social
policies—including the near-total exclusion of women from public life
(including employment and education), the systematic destruction of non-Islamic
artistic relics (as occurred in the town of Bamiyan), and the implementation of
harsh criminal punishments—and only a few countries recognized the regime. More
significant was the fact that the Taliban allowed Afghanistan to be a haven for
Islamic militants from throughout the world, including an exiled Saudi Arabian,
Osama bin Laden, who, as leader of al-Qaeda, stood accused of organizing
numerous terrorist attacks against American interests. The Taliban’s refusal to
extradite bin Laden to the United States following the attacks on the World
Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C., on
September 11, 2001, prompted a military confrontation with the United States
and allied powers . The Taliban was subsequently driven from power.
Headed by Maulawi Muhammad Omar, a Nurzai from Oruzgan, and his deputy Maulawi
Muhammad Hasan, the movement first came to public attention in November 1994
when it rescued a Pakistani truck convoy bound for Central Asia from mujahedin
captors. The Taliban then captured the
city of Kandahar and moved north against Kabul.
On Monday, February 13, 1995, they captured Pul-i Alam and the next day
Charasiab, the stronghold of Hizb-i Islami leader Hekmatyar. Hekmatyar was forced to flee to Sarobi,
about 37 miles east of Kabul. In March
1995, the Shi'a Hizb-i Wahdat surrendered its enclave in Kabul to the Taliban,
and 'Abdul 'Ali Mazari while in Taliban captivity. On September 3, the Taliban captured
Shindand, an important airbase, and two days later the city of Herat. In September 1996, the Taliban renewed their
offensive and captured Jalalabad, Sarobi, and by the end of the month they were
installed as rulers in Kabul.
It was unclear who supported the "students" and their teachers and
how they were able to quickly defeat the supposedly battle-hardened
mujahedin. Most observers believe that
financial support from sympathizers provided funds and the Pakistani
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) financed, armed, and otherwise supported the
Taliban. Often they conquered without a
fight as ex-army officers and mujahedin commanders defected. The Taliban claimed not to be affiliated with
any of the mujahedin groups and only desired to unite Afghanistan, end the
power of the war lords, and create a "true" Islamic state.
For five years, the Taliban created and ruled the "Islamic state" of Afghanistan. In February, 2001, the Taliban leaders
created an international uproar when they ordered the destruction of all
statues and carvings of humans and animals.
The leaders claimed that the statues were idolatrous and contrary to the
teachings of Islam. Despite worldwide
protests over the destruction of a cultural heritage, Taliban workers smashed
relics of Afghanistan's Buddhist period, and in March of 2001, the Afghan army
blew up two 1,400 year old Buddhas. The
two statues that were destroyed, the largest of which was 175 feet (53 meters)
high, had been carved into a cliff in the central province of Bamiyan, 70 miles
(113 kilometers) west of Kabul.
In the Fall of 2001, a coalition of military forces led by the United States
launched a campaign against Afghanistan that toppled the ruling Taliban
regime. The United States military
action came in the wake of terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, which killed thousands
of people. United States intelligence
agents claimed that Osama bin Laden, a Saudi-born exile living in Afghanistan,
was behind the terrorist attacks, as well as attacks, such as the bombing of
two American embassies in Africa in 1998.
President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban turn over bin Laden
to the United States officials. The
Taliban leaders refused, claiming that United States officials had offered no
evidence that he was involved.
Armed forces from the United States and the United Kingdom launched air strikes
against Afghanistan on October 7, 2001.
The objective was to destroy both the Taliban, which harbored bin Laden,
and bin Laden's terrorist network, al-Qaida ("The Base" in
Arabic). In addition to the air strikes,
American armed forces supported the Northern Alliance, a group of anti-Taliban
rebels, in its ground attacks against Taliban forces.
United States bombers and fighter jets attacked Taliban ground troops,
barracks, and troop encampments across Afghanistan throughout October, November
and early December 2001. The United States
military also targeted Kabul, the capital, and Qandahar (Kandahar), a Taliban
stronghold. On October 21, jet fighter
pilots bombed a series of Taliban trenches, bunkers, and minefields
approximately 35 miles (56 kilometers) north of the capital, which had
separated Taliban forces from the rebels.
On November 9, rebel forces broke through Taliban defenses and entered Mazar-e
Sharif, a strategically important Taliban stronghold in northern
Afghanistan. On November 13, Taliban
forces offered little resistance as Northern Alliance rebels took Kabul.
Dozens of United States Special Operations troops moved into Afghanistan in
mid-November to pursue bin Laden, al-Qaida members, and Taliban leaders. By late November, Taliban soldiers were
fleeing the besieged city of Qonduz (Kunduz), the Taliban's last stronghold in
the north, and surrendered by the hundreds.
Rebel leaders captured Qonduz on November 25.
Leaders of the Taliban militia surrendered Qandahar, the last Taliban
stronghold, on December 6, 2001. On
December 10, officials with the United States Department of Defense announced
that Afghanistan's Taliban had been defeated.
By mid-December, the forces of al-Qaida had retreated into the mountains
of Afghanistan's rugged Tora Bora region southeast of Jalalabad, where United
States intelligence officials believed that bin Laden and other al-Qaida
leaders also had taken refuge. United
States jets bombarded the region to disable the terrorist network. Although hundreds of al-Qaida members were
killed or captured, United States officials theorized that others, including
the elusive bin Laden, continued to hind in complex cave systems in the region
or had escaped over the border into Pakistan.
The Taliban, alternative spelling Taleban, (Pashto, meaning
"students") was a Wahhabi Islamist political movement that governed
Afghanistan from 1996 until it was overthrown in late 2001. It regrouped after
2004 and revived as a strong insurgency movement governing mainly local Pashtun
areas during night and fighting a guerrilla war against the governments of
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force
(ISAF).
The Taliban movement was primarily made up of members belonging to ethnic
Pashtun tribes, along with volunteers from nearby Islamic countries such as
Uzbeks, Tajiks, Punjabis, Arabs, Chechens and others. It operated in
Afghanistan and Pakistan, mostly in provinces around the Durand Line border.
The main leader of the Taliban movement wass Mullah Mohammed Omar. Omar's original
commanders were a mixture of former small-unit military commanders and madrasa
teachers, while its rank-and-file was made up mostly of Afghan refugees who had
studied at Islamic religious schools in Pakistan. The Taliban received valuable
training, supplies and arms from the Pakistani government, particularly the
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and many recruits from madrasas for Afghan
refugees in Pakistan, primarily ones established by the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam
(JUI).
Although in control of Afghanistan's capital (Kabul) and most of the country
for five years, the Taliban regime, which called itself the "Islamic
Emirate of Afghanistan", gained diplomatic recognition from only three
states: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
While in power, the Taliban enforced one of the strictest interpretations of
Sharia law ever seen in the Muslim world, and became notorious internationally
for their treatment of women. Women were forced to wear the burqa in public.
They were allowed neither to work nor to be educated after the age of eight,
and until then were permitted only to study the Qur'an. They were not allowed
to be treated by male doctors unless accompanied by a male chaperon, which led
to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging in the street, and
public execution for violations of the Taliban's laws.
The word Taliban is Pashto meaning "students", the plural of ṭālib.
This is a loan word from Arabic tālib, plus the Indo-Iranian plural ending
"an"(the Arabic plural being ṭullāb, whereas ṭālibān is a dual form
with the incongruous meaning, to Arabic speakers, of "two students").
Since becoming a loanword in English, Taliban, besides a plural noun referring
to the group, has also been used as a singular noun referring to an individual.
For example, John Walker Lindh has been referred to as "an American
Taliban" rather than "an American Talib". In the English
language newspapers of Pakistan the word talibans is often used when referring
to more than one taliban. The spelling 'Taliban' has come to predominate over
'Taleban' in English.
The most credible and often-repeated story of how Mullah Omar first mobilized
his followers is that in the spring of 1994 Singesar neighbors told him that a
warlord commander had abducted two teenage girls, shaved their heads and taken
them to a camp where they were raped repeatedly. 30 Taliban (with only 16
rifles) freed the girls and hanged the commander from the barrel of a tank.
Later that year two warlord commanders killed civilians while fighting for the
right to sodomize a young boy. The Taliban freed him.
The Taliban's first major military activity was in 1994 when they marched
northward from Maiwand and captured Kandahar City and the surrounding
provinces, losing only a few dozen men. They captured a border crossing at Spin
Baldak and an ammunition dump from warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar on October 29.
Kandahar fell November 3–5. A few weeks later they freed a convoy trying to
open a trade route from Pakistan to Central Asia from another group of warlords
attempting to extort money for permission to pass their checkpoints. The convoy
owners, known as the "transport mafia" paid a large fee and promised
ongoing payments for this service.
Over the next three months this hitherto unknown force took control of twelve
of 34 provinces, disarming the "heavily armed population". Warlords
often surrendered without a fight. By September 1996 they had captured
Afghanistan's capital, Kabul. In newly conquered towns hundreds of religious police
beat offenders (typically men without beards and women who were not wearing
their burqas properly) with long sticks.
Closely tied with Pakistan's fundamentalist JUI party, the Taliban received
manpower from madrasas in Pakistan’s border region. After a request from Mullah
Omar in 1997, JUI's Maulana Samiul Haq shut down his 2,500+ student madrasah
(Darul Uloom Haqqania) and sent his entire student body hundreds of miles to
fight with the Taliban. The next year, he helped persuade 12 madrasas in
Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province to shut down for one month and send
8,000 students to reinforce the Taliban.
The Taliban returned the favor, helping spread its ideology to parts of
Pakistan. By 1998 some Pakistani groups along the "Pashtun belt" were
banning TV and videos, imposing Sharia punishments such as stoning and
amputation in defiance of the legal system, killing Pakistani Shiʻa and forcing
the people, particularly women, to adapt to the Taliban dress code and way of
life.
In December 1998 the Tehrik-i-Tuleba or Movement of Taliban in the Orakzai
Agency ignored Pakistan’s legal process and publicly executed a murderer in
front of 2,000 spectators. They also promised to implement Taliban-style
justice and ban TV, music and videos. In Quetta, Pashtun pro-Taliban groups
burned down cinema houses, shot video shop owners, smashed satellite dishes and
drove women off the streets.
In Kashmir Afghan Arabs attempted to impose a Wahhabi style dress code banning
jeans and jackets. On 15 February 15, 1999, they shot and wounded three
Kashmiri cable television operators for relaying Western satellite broadcasts.
Hazara people, among other ethnic minorities, faced large-scale massacre during
the Taliban regime. Thousands of Hazaras were killed by Pashtu Taliban and
thousands forced to flee. These massacres took place in the context of the
six-year war between the Taliban and parties now grouped in the United National
Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (the 'United Front'), in which
international human rights and humanitarian law have been repeatedly violated
by the warring factions. Ethnic and religious minorities, and the Hazaras in
particular, have been especially vulnerable in areas of conflict, and Taliban
forces have committed large-scale abuses against Hazara civilians with
impunity. In this report Human Rights Watch called upon the United Nations to
investigate both massacres and to systematically monitor human rights and
humanitarian law violations by all parties to Afghanistan's civil war.
The Taliban's strict policies and condescending behavior toward their local
allied troops caused an uprising in which thousands of the Taliban's best
troops were killed.
In 1997, Ahmad Shah Massoud attempted to use guerrilla tactics in the Shomali
plains to defeat the Taliban. In collaboration with the locals, Massoud
deployed his forces in civilian dwellings and other hiding places. Upon the
arrival of the Taliban, Massoud's forces, along with some locals who had vowed
peace with the Taliban, came out of hiding and in a surprise attack captured
the north of Kabul. Soon after, the Taliban put a major effort into retaking
the Shomali plains, indiscriminately killing young men, while uprooting and
expelling the population.
On August 8, 1998 the Taliban recaptured Mazar-i-Sharif, avenging their earlier
defeat and creating more international controversy by killing thousands of
civilians and several Iranian diplomats. This offensive left the Northern
Alliance in control of only 10–15% of Afghanistan in the north. Thereafter, the
Taliban retained control of most of the country until the NATO invasion. On
September 9, 2001, a suicide bomber, posing as an interviewer, now widely
thought to be connected to Al-Qaeda, assassinated Massoud.
After the September 11 attacks on the U.S. and the PENTTBOM investigation, the
United States made the following demands on the Taliban, and refused to discuss
them:
1. Deliver to the United States
all of the leaders of Al Qaeda
2. Release all foreign nationals
that have been "unjustly imprisoned"
3. Protect foreign journalists,
diplomats and aid workers
4. Close immediately every
terrorist training camp
5. Hand over every terrorist and
their supporters to appropriate authorities
6. Give the United States full
access to terrorist training camps for inspection
Over the course of the investigation, the United States petitioned the
international community to back a military campaign to overthrow the Taliban.
The United Nations Security Council and NATO approved the campaign as
self-defense against armed attack.
On September 21, the Taliban responded to the ultimatum, promising that if the
United States could bring evidence that bin Laden was guilty, they would hand
him over, stating that they had no evidence linking him to the September 11
attacks.
On September 22, the United Arab Emirates, and later Saudi Arabia, withdrew
recognition of the Taliban as Afghanistan's legal government, leaving
neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties. On
October 4 the Taliban agreed to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an
international tribunal that operated according to Islamic Sharia law, but
Pakistan blocked the offer as it was not possible to guarantee his safety. On
October 7, the Taliban ambassador to Pakistan offered to detain bin Laden and
try him under Islamic law if the United States made a formal request and
presented the Taliban with evidence. A Bush administration official, speaking
on condition of anonymity, rejected the Taliban offer, and stated that the US
would not negotiate their demands.
Still on October 7, and less than one month after the towers fell, the United
States, aided by the United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries including
several from the NATO alliance, initiated military action, bombing Taliban and
Al Qaeda-related camps. The stated intent of military operations was to remove
the Taliban from power and prevent the use of Afghanistan as a terrorist base
of operations.
The CIA's elite Special Activities Division (SAD) units were the first U.S.
forces to enter Afghanistan. They joined with the Afghan Northern Alliance to
prepare for the subsequent arrival of United States Special Operations forces.
SAD, Special Forces and the Northern Alliance combined to overthrow the Taliban
with minimal coalition casualties and without the use of international
conventional ground forces.
On October 14 the Taliban offered to discuss handing over Osama bin Laden to a
neutral country in return for a bombing halt, but only if the Taliban were
given evidence of bin Laden's involvement. Once again, the United States
rejected this offer and continued military operations. Mazari Sharif fell
November 9, triggering a cascade of provinces falling with minimal resistance.
Many local forces switched loyalties from the Taliban to the Northern Alliance.
On the night of November 12, the Taliban retreated south from Kabul. On
November 15, they released eight Western aid workers after three months in
captivity. By November 13 the Taliban had withdrawn from both Kabul and
Jalalabad. Finally, in early December, the Taliban gave up Kandahar, their last
stronghold, dispersing without surrendering.
The continued support from tribal and other groups in Pakistan, the drug trade
and the small number of NATO forces, combined with the long history of
resistance and isolation, indicated that Taliban forces and leaders were
surviving. Suicide attacks and other terrorist methods not used in 2001 became
more common. Observers suggested that poppy eradication, which destroyed the
livelihoods of rural Afghans, and civilian deaths caused by air strikes
encouraged the resurgence. These observers maintained that policy should focus
on "hearts and minds" and on economic reconstruction, which could
profit from switching from interdicting to diverting poppy production—to make
medicine.
In September 2006, Pakistan recognized the Islamic Emirate of Waziristan, an
association of Waziristani chieftains with close ties to the Taliban, as the de
facto security force for Waziristan. This recognition was part of the agreement
to end the Waziristan War which had exacted a heavy toll on the Pakistan Army
since early 2004. Some commentators viewed Islamabad's shift from war to
diplomacy as implicit recognition of the growing power of the resurgent Taliban
relative to American influence, with the US distracted by the threat of looming
crises in Iraq, Lebanon, and Iran.
By 2009, a strong insurgency had emerged, in the form of a guerrilla war. The
Pashtun tribal group, with over 40 million members (including Afghanis and
Pakistanis) had a long history of resistance to occupation forces, so the
Taliban probably comprised only a part of the insurgency. Most post-invasion
Taliban fighters were new recruits, mostly drawn from local madrasas.
In early December, the Taliban offered to give the U.S. "legal
guarantees" that it would not allow Afghanistan to be used for attacks on
other countries. The U.S. ignored the offer, and continued military action.
The Taliban initially enjoyed good will from Afghans weary of the warlords'
corruption, brutality, and incessant fighting. However, this popularity was not
universal, particularly among non-Pashtuns.
The Taliban's extremely strict and anti-modern ideology has been described as
an "innovative form of sharia combining Pashtun tribal codes," or
Pashtunwali, with radical Deobandi interpretations of Islam favored by JUI and
its splinter groups. Also contributing to the mix was the Wahhabism of their
Saudi financial benefactors, and the jihadism and pan-Islamism of Osama bin
Laden. Their ideology was a departure from the Islamism of the anti-Soviet
mujahideen rulers they replaced who tended to be mystical Sufis,
traditionalists, or radical Islamicists inspired by the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan).
Under the Taliban regime, Sharia law was interpreted to forbid a wide variety
of previously lawful activities in Afghanistan. One Taliban list of
prohibitions included:
“ pork, pig, pig oil, anything made from
human hair, satellite dishes, cinematography, and equipment that produces the
joy of music, pool tables, chess, masks, alcohol, tapes, computers, VCRs,
television, anything that propagates sex and is full of music, wine, lobster,
nail polish, firecrackers, statues, sewing catalogs, pictures, Christmas
cards.”
They also prohibited employment, education and sports for women, dancing,
clapping during sports events, kite flying, and depictions of living things,
whether drawings, paintings, photographs, stuffed animals, or dolls. Men were
required to have a beard longer than a fist placed at the base of the chin.
Conversely, they had to wear their head hair short. Men were also required to
wear a head covering.
Many of these activities were hitherto lawful in Afghanistan. Critics
complained that most Afghans were not Pashtuns and followed a different, less
strict and less intrusive interpretation of Islam. The Taliban did not eschew
all traditional popular practices. For example, they did not destroy the graves
of Sufi pirs (holy men) and emphasized dreams as a means of revelation.
Punishment was severe. Theft was punished by the amputation of a hand, rape and
murder by public execution, and married adulterers were stoned to death. In
Kabul, punishments including executions were carried out in front of crowds in
the city's soccer stadium. Rules were issued by the Ministry for the Promotion
of Virtue and Suppression of Vice (PVSV) and enforced by its "religious
police", importing that Wahhabi concept.
Like Wahhabi and other Deobandis, the Taliban do not consider Shiʻi to be
Muslims. The Taliban also declared the Hazara ethnic group, which totaled
almost 10% of Afghanistan's population, "not Muslims."
The Taliban were averse to debating doctrine with other Muslims. The Taliban
did not allow even Muslim reporters to question their edicts or to discuss
interpretations of the Qur'an.
Women in particular were targets of the Taliban's restrictions. They were
prohibited from working; from wearing "stimulating and attractive"
clothing; taking a taxi without the presence of a close male relative; washing
clothes in streams; or having their measurements taken by tailors.
Employment for women was restricted to the medical sector, because male medical
personnel were not allowed to examine them. One result of the banning of
employment of women by the Taliban was the closing down in places like Kabul of
primary schools not only for girls but for boys, because almost all the
teachers there were women. Women were made to wear the burqa, a traditional
dress covering the entire body except for a small screen to see out of. Taliban
restrictions became more severe after they took control of the capital. In
February 1998, religious police forced all women off the streets of Kabul and
issued new regulations ordering people to blacken their windows, so that women
would not be visible from the outside.
The Taliban were criticized for their strictness toward those who disobeyed the
novel (Bid‘ah) rules. Some Muslims complained that many had no basis in the
Qur'an or sharia. Another objection was
that the Taliban called their 20% tax on truckloads of opium "zakat",
which is traditionally limited to 2.5% of the zakat-payers' disposable income
(or wealth).
Muhammad Omar's title as Amir al-Mu'minin was criticized on the grounds that he
lacked scholarly learning, tribal pedigree, or connections to the Prophet's
family. Sanction for the title traditionally required the support of all of the
country's ulema, whereas only some 1,200 Pashtun Taliban-supporting Mullahs had
declared Omar the Amir. No Afghan had adopted the title since 1834, when King
Dost Mohammed Khan assumed the title before he declared jihad against the Sikh
kingdom in Peshawar. But Dost Mohammed was fighting foreigners, while Omar had
declared jihad against other Afghans.
The Taliban modeled their decision making process on the Pashtun tribal council
(jirga), together with what they believed to be the early Islamic model.
Discussion was followed by a building of a consensus by the
"believers". Before capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside
once a government of "good Muslims" took power and law and order were
restored.
As the Taliban's power grew, decisions were made by Mullah Omar without
consulting the jirga and without consulting other parts of the country. He
visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election,
their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah")
in imitation of the Prophet and the first four Caliphs. On April 4, 1996,
Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed," taken from its
shrine for the first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he
appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of
Pashtun mullahs below shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the
Faithful), in a pledge of support.
The Taliban were very reluctant to share power, and since their ranks were
overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled as overlords over the sixty percent (60%) of
Afghanis from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as Kabul city
council or Herat, Taliban loyalists, not locals, dominated, even when the
Pashto-speaking Taliban could not communicate with the roughly half of the
population who spoke Dari or other non-Pashtun tongues. Critics complained that
this lack of local representation in urban administration made the Taliban
appear as an occupying force.
Consistent with the governance of early Muslims was the absence of state
institutions or a methodology for command and control that is standard today
even among non-Westernized states. The Taliban did not issue press releases,
policy statements or hold regular press conferences. The outside world and most
Afghans did not even know what their leaders looked like, since photography was
banned. The regular army resembled a lashkar or traditional tribal militia
force with only 25,000 to 30,000 men, expanding as the need arose.
Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a madrasah education. Several
of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were
primarily military commanders who left their administrative posts to fight when
needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths
increased the chaos in the national administration. At the national level, all
senior Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara bureaucrats were replaced with Pashtuns, whether
qualified or not. Consequently, the ministries by and large ceased to function.
The Ministry of Finance had neither a budget nor a qualified economist or
banker. Mullah Omar collected and dispersed cash without book-keeping.
Opium poppies are a traditional crop in Afghanistan, and, with the war
shattering other sectors of the economy, opium became Afghanistan's largest
export.
The Taliban have provided an Islamic sanction for farmers to grow even more
opium, even though the Koran forbids Muslims from producing or imbibing
intoxicants.
In 2000 the Taliban banned opium production, a first in Afghan history. That
year Afghanistan's opium production still accounted for 75% of the world's
supply. On July 27, 2000, the Taliban again issued a decree banning
cultivation. By February 2001, production had been reduced from 12,600 acres to
only 17 acres.
However, with the 2001 expulsion of the Taliban, opium cultivation returned,
and by 2005 Afghanistan provided 87% of the world supply, rising to 90% in
2006.
During its time in power, the Taliban regime, or "Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan", gained diplomatic recognition from only three states: the
United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia all of which also provided
aid. Most other states, including Russia, Iran, India, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Tajikistan, and later the United States, opposed the Taliban and aided the
Northern Alliance.
Foreign powers, including the United States, briefly supported the Taliban,
hoping it would restore order in the war-ravaged country. For example, it made
no comment when the Taliban captured Herat in 1995 and expelled thousands of
girls from schools. These hopes faded as the Taliban began killing unarmed
civilians, targeting ethnic groups (primarily Hazaras) and restricting the
rights of women. In late 1997, American Secretary of State Madeleine Albright
began to distance the U.S. from the Taliban. The next year the American-based
oil company Unocal, withdrew from negotiations on pipeline construction from
Central Asia.
One day before the capture of Mazar, bin Laden affiliates bombed two U.S.
embassies in Africa, killing 224 and wounding 4,500, mostly Africans. The
United States responded by launching cruise missiles on suspected terrorist
camps in Afghanistan, killing over 20 though failing to kill bin Laden or even
many Al Qaeda. Mullah Omar condemned the missile attack and American President
Bill Clinton. Saudi Arabia expelled the Taliban envoy in protest over the
refusal to turn over bin Laden and after Mullah Omar allegedly insulted the
Saudi royal family. In mid-October the U.N. Security Council voted unanimously
to ban commercial aircraft flights to and from Afghanistan and freeze its bank
accounts worldwide.
Adjusting its counterinsurgency strategy, in October, 2009, the U.S announced
plans to pay Taliban fighters to switch sides.
There are many claims that the CIA directly supported the Taliban or Al Qaeda.
In the early 1980s, the CIA and the ISI (Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence
agency) provided arms and money and the ISI helped gather radical Muslims from
around the world to fight against the Soviet invaders. Osama Bin Laden was one
of the key players in organizing training camps for the foreign Muslim
volunteers. By 1987, 65,000 tons of U.S.-made weapons and ammunition a year
were entering the war.
India was one of the Taliban's most outspoken critics. India was concerned
about growing Islamic militancy in its neighborhood and refused to recognize
the Taliban regime. Ahmad Shah Massoud also had close ties to India.
In December 1999, Indian Airlines Flight 814 en route from Kathmandu to Delhi
was hijacked and taken to Kandahar. The Taliban moved its militias near the
hijacked aircraft supposedly to prevent Indian special forces from storming the
aircraft and stalled the negotiations between India and the hijackers for days.
As a part of the deal to free the plane, India released three militants. The
Taliban gave a safe passage to the hijackers and the released militants.
Following the hijacking, India drastically increased its efforts to help
Massoud, providing an arms depot in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. India also provided a
wide range of high-altitude warfare equipment, helicopter technicians, medical
services and tactical advice.
In early August 1998, relations with other countries became much more troubled.
After attacking the city of Mazar, Taliban forces killed several thousand
civilians and 10 Iranian diplomats and intelligence officers in the Iranian
consulate. Alleged radio intercepts indicate Mullah Omar personally approved
the killings. The Iranian government was incensed and crisis ensued as Iran
mobilized 200,000 regular troops, although war was eventually averted.
The vast majority of the Taliban's rank and file and most of the leadership,
(though not Mullah Omar), were Koranic students who had studied at madrasas set
up for Afghan refugees, usually by JUI. Maulana Fazal-ur-Rehman, JUI's leader,
was a political ally of Benazir Bhutto. After Bhutto became prime minister,
Rehman had access to the government, the army and the ISI, whom he influenced
to help the Taliban.
The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 from Afghanistan created a power vacuum.
Afghanistan was torn apart by warring mujahideen groups. Pakistan's ISI
supported a previously unknown Kandahari student movement. They continued to
support the Taliban, as the group conquered Afghanistan in the 1990s.
From 1994 through 2001, Pakistan was the Taliban's main sponsor. It provided military
equipment, recruiting assistance, training and tactical advice that enabled the
band of village mullahs and their adherents to control the country. Officially
Pakistan denied supporting the group, but its 1998 aid was an estimated $30
million in wheat, diesel, petroleum and kerosene fuel, and other supplies.
Conversely, the Taliban's unprecedented access among Pakistan's lobbies and
interest groups enabled it to play off one lobby against another and extend
their influence in Pakistan even further. At times they would defy even the
powerful ISI.
The Taliban created a new form of Islamic radicalism that spread beyond the
borders of Afghanistan, mostly to Pakistan. As of early 2007, Taliban influence
in Pakistan continued in conjunction with the Taliban insurgency.
The formation of a Pakistan Taliban umbrella group called Tehrik-i-Taliban
Pakistan was announced in December 2007.
On February 16, 2009, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari signed a deal with
the Taliban to implement Shariah law in some parts of Pakistan, including
banning girls from school. On April 13, 2009, Zardari signed into law a peace
deal for the Swat Valley, including sharia.
On June 30, 2009, the Taliban withdrew from the peace deal to protest the
continuing airstrikes by American drones. Soon after the announcement,
approximately 150 militants attacked a Pakistani military convoy near
Miramshah, killing an estimated 30 soldiers. An additional 4 were killed in
southwestern Pakistan by a car bomber who targeted NATO supply trucks.
A major issue during the Taliban's reign was its relations with the United
Nations (UN) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Twenty years of
continuous warfare had devastated Afghanistan's infrastructure and economy.
There was no running water, little electricity, few telephones, functioning
roads or regular energy supplies. Basic necessities like water, food, housing
and others were in desperately short supply. In addition, the clan and family
structure that provided Afghans with a social/economic safety net was also
badly damaged. Afghanistan's infant mortality was the highest in the world. A
full quarter of all children died before they reached their fifth birthday, a
rate several times higher than most other developing countries.
International charitable and/or development organizations (NGOs) were extremely
important to the supply of food, employment, reconstruction, and other
services. With one million plus deaths during the years of war, the number of
families headed by widows had reached 98,000 by 1998. Thus Taliban restrictions
on women were sometime a matter not only of human rights, but of life and
death. In Kabul, where vast portions of the city had been devastated from
rocket attacks, more than half of its 1.2 million people benefited in some way
from NGO activities, even for water to drink. The civil war and its
never-ending refugee stream continued throughout the Taliban's reign. The
Mazar, Herat, and Shomali valley offensives displaced more than three-quarters
of a million civilians, using scorched earth tactics to prevent them from
supplying the enemy with aid.
Despite the aid, the Taliban's attitude toward the UN and NGOs was often one of
suspicion, in place of gratitude or even tolerance. The UN operates on the
basis of international law, not Sharia, and the UN did not recognize the
Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. Additionally, most foreign
donors and aid workers, were non-Muslims.
Taliban decision-makers, particularly Mullah Omar, seldom if ever talked directly
to non-Muslim foreigners, so aid providers had to deal with intermediaries
whose approvals and agreements were often reversed. Around September 1997 the
heads of three UN agencies in Kandahar were expelled from the country after
protesting when a female attorney for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees was
forced to talk from behind a curtain so her face would not be visible.
When the UN increased the number of Muslim women staff to satisfy Taliban
demands, the Taliban then required all female Muslim UN staff traveling to
Afghanistan to be chaperoned by a mahram or a blood relative. In July 1998, the Taliban closed all NGO
offices by force after those organizations refused to move to a bombed-out
former Polytechnic College as ordered. One month later the UN offices were also
shut down. As food prices rose and conditions deteriorated,
In 2009 a top UN official called for talks with Taliban leaders. In 2010 the UN
lifted sanctions on the Taliban, and requested that Taliban leaders and others
be removed from terrorism watch lists. In 2010 the United States and Europe
announced support for President Karzai's attempt to negotiate peace with the
Taliban.
In 1996, Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan from Sudan. He came without
invitation, and sometimes irritated Mullah Omar with his declaration of war and
fatwas against citizens of third-party countries, but relations between the two
groups improved over time, to the point that Mullah Omar rebuffed his group's
patron Saudi Arabia, insulting Saudi minister Prince Turki while reneging on an
earlier promise to turn bin Laden over to the Saudis.
Bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. The
Al Qaeda-trained 055 Brigade integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and
2001. Several hundred Arab Afghan fighters sent by bin Laden assisted the
Taliban in the Mazar-e-Sharif slaughter.
Taliban-Al Qaeda connections were also strengthened by the reported marriage of
one of bin Laden's sons to Omar's daughter. While in Afghanistan, bin Laden may
have helped finance the Taliban. Perhaps the biggest favor Al-Qaeda did for the
Taliban was the Massoud assassination. This came at a time when Taliban human
rights violations and extremism were creating international support for
Massoud's group. The killing, reportedly arranged by Ayman Zawahiri and the Al
Qaeda's Egyptian Islamic Jihad wing, left the Northern Alliance leaderless, and
removed the last obstacle to the Taliban’s total control of the country.
After the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in Africa, Osama bin Laden and several
Al-Qaeda members were indicted in a United States criminal court. The Taliban
rejected extradition requests by the U.S., variously claiming that bin Laden
had gone missing, or that Washington could not provide any evidence or any
proof that bin Laden was involved in terrorist activities.
Bin Laden in turn, praised the Taliban as the "only Islamic
government" in existence, and lauded Mullah Omar for his destruction of
idols like the Buddhas of Bamyan. However, by the end of 2008, the Taliban had
severed all ties with Al Qaeda.
Tantawi, Muhammad Sayyid
1928-2010
Grand Imam of the al-Azhar Mosque and Grand Sheikh of al-Azhar University.
Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi (Mohamed Sayed Tantawi) (Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy) (28
October 1928 – 10 March 2010) was born on October 28, 1928. He joined the
Alexandria Religious Institute in 1944, and became a member of the faculty of
Ausol Aldeen in 1968. In 1972 he became a member of the faculty of Arabic &
Islamic Studies at the Islamic University of Libya. In 1980 he moved to Saudi
Arabia, where he became chief of the Tafsir branch of the Postgraduate studies
branch at the Islamic University of Madinah. He returned to Egypt in 1985, when
he became Dean of the Faculty of Ausol Aldeen at the prestigious Alexandria
Religious Institute.
In 1986, Tantawi was appointed as Grand Mufti of Egypt on his 58th birthday,
October 28, 1986. He held this position for almost ten years, until he was
appointed Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Mosque and Grand Sheikh of Al-Azhar University
by the President of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak, on March 27, 1996. The Al-Azhar Mosque is one of the most
influential and important Sunni Muslim institutions.
Tantawi completed a seven thousand page exegesis of the Qur'an (Al-tafser
al-waset). This Tafsir took over ten years to complete. He also wrote Bano
Israel (The Children of Israel) and Muamlat Al-bank (Bank's Dealings).
Tantawi led the funeral prayers at the funeral of Yasser Arafat in 2004, during
which he said that "Arafat has done his duty as a defender of the
Palestinian cause, with courage and honesty".
During the controversy of the French headscarf ban in schools, Tantawi issued a
fatwa allowing Muslim girls to take off their headscarves while attending
school, using the lesser of two evils principle.
Tantawi issued a fatwa which allowed abortion in cases where a woman had become
pregnant as a result of rape. This fatwa
generated controversy and Mufti Ali Gomaa said Tantawi was wrong, and that
irrespective of how the life was created, after 120 days an abortion becomes
haram -- forbidden.
Tantawi opposed female circumcision calling it un-Islamic, especially in 1997,
when he said "The ulema (theologians) of Islam are unanimous in agreeing
that female circumcision has nothing to do with religion" and revealed his
own daughter had not been circumcised.
Tantawi took a line against suicide bombings, and unlike his compatriot Yusuf
al-Qaradawi, he condemned the use of suicide bombings against Israelis,
rejecting the argument that all Israelis were legitimate targets, because at
some stage they could all carry a gun.
In 2003, he called suicide bombers "enemies of Islam", adding
"people of different beliefs should co-operate and not get into senseless
conflicts and animosity. Extremism is the enemy of Islam, whereas, jihad is
allowed in Islam to defend one's land and to help the oppressed. The difference
between jihad in Islam and extremism is like the earth and the sky"
Tantawi took an orthodox stance on women's place in Islam, opposing women as
Imams in mixed congregations during Friday prayers (Jumu'ah), saying when a
woman "leads men in prayer ... it is not proper for them to look at the
woman whose body is in front of them". He also called Haydar Haydar's
book, Feast for Seaweed, blasphemous. In
2001, Tantawi issued a fatwa banning women from acting as surrogate mothers or
from receiving frozen sperm from dead husbands.
Speaking after the September 11, 2001 attacks, Tantawi said "It's not
courage in any way to kill an innocent person, or to kill thousands of people,
including men and women and children." Tantawi noted that Osama bin
Laden's call for a Jihad against the west was "invalid and not binding on
Muslims", adding "Killing innocent civilians is a horrific, hideous
act that no religion can approve". Tantawi said the Qur'an
"specifically forbids the kinds of things the Taliban and al-Qaida are
guilty of".
Al Imam Tantawi passed away in the City of Riyadh on March 10, 2010, at the age
of 81, as result of a heart attack during a visit to Saudi Arabia.
Tanukhi, Abu 'Ali al-Muhassin al-
939-994
Arab writer.
Abu 'Ali al-Muhassin al-Tanukhi left a collection of proverbs, anecdotes and
sayings, called Joy follows Sorrow, which became very popular and played a part
in Persian, Turkish and Jewish literatures.
Tapas
1800s
In Brazil, slaves, possibly converts to Islam, imported from the Slave Coast
through the port of Lagos, Nigeria. In
the Bahia slave uprisings of 1835, six black tapas were brought to trial. The tapa language was spoken in Bahia during
the entire nineteenth century.
Thomas, Danny
1912-1991
Lebanese American comedian and actor.
Danny Thomas (January 6, 1912 - February 6, 1991) was a Lebanese American
nightclub comedian and television and film actor, best known for starring in
the television sitcom Make Room for Daddy (also known as The Danny Thomas
Show). He was also the founder of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. He was
the father of Marlo Thomas, Terre Thomas, and Tony Thomas.
Thomas was born in Deerfield, Michigan, to Charles Yakhoob Kairouz and his wife
Margaret Christen in 1912. His parents were Maronite Catholic immigrants from
Lebanon. Thomas was raised in Toledo, Ohio, attending St. Francis de Sales
Church (Roman Catholic), Woodward High School and finally The University of
Toledo, where he was a member of Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity. Thomas was
confirmed in the Catholic Church by the bishop of Toledo, Samuel Stritch.
Stritch, a native of Tennessee, was a lifelong spiritual advisor for Thomas,
and urged him to locate the St. Jude Hospital in Memphis. He married Rose Marie
Cassaniti in 1936, a week after his 24th birthday.
In 1932, Thomas began performing on radio in Detroit at WMBC on The Happy Hour
Club. Thomas first performed under his Anglicized birth name, "Amos Jacobs
Kairouz." After he moved to Chicago in 1940, Thomas did not want his
friends and family to know that he went back into working clubs where the
salary was better, so he came up with the pseudonym "Danny Thomas" (after
two of his brothers).
Thomas, Marlo
b. 1937
American actress of Lebanese descent.
Margaret Julia “Marlo” Thomas (born November 21, 1937) was an American actress,
producer, and social activist known for her starring role on the TV series That
Girl (1966–1971). She also served as National Outreach Director for St. Jude
Children's Research Hospital.
Thomas was born in Detroit, Michigan, the eldest child of Lebanese-American
comedian Danny Thomas (1912–1991) and his wife, the former Rose Marie Cassaniti
(1914–2000). On her mother's side, she was also the granddaughter of drummer
and percussionist, Marie "Mary" Cassaniti (1896–1972). Her brother,
Tony Thomas, was a television and film producer, and her sister, Terre Thomas,
was a former actress.
Marlo Thomas was raised in Beverly Hills, California. Her parents called her
Margo as a child, though she soon became known as Marlo, because of her
childhood mispronunciation of the nickname. She attended Marymount High School
in Los Angeles. Thomas graduated from the University of Southern California
with a teaching degree where she was also a member of the sorority Kappa Alpha
Theta.
Tiahahu, Martha Christina
1800-1818
A Moluccan freedom fighter and a National Heroine of Indonesia.
Martha Christina Tiahahu (January 4, 1800 – January 2, 1818) was born to a
military captain, Tiahahu was active in military matters from a young age. She
joined the war led by Pattimura against the Dutch colonial government when she
was 17, fighting in several battles. After being captured in October 1817, she
was released on account of her age. She continued to fight, and was captured
again. Sent to Java to be a slave laborer, she fell ill on the way and,
refusing to eat or take medicine, died on a ship in the Banda Sea.
Tiahahu is considered a National Heroine of Indonesia, with the date of her
death celebrated as a holiday. She has also been honored with two statues, one
in Ambon and one in Abubu. Other
namesakes include a warship, street, Moluccan social organization, and women's
magazine.
Tiahahu was born in Abubu village on Nusalaut Island, near Maluku, on January
4, 1800. Her father was Captain Paulus Tiahahu of the Soa Uluputi clan. After her mother died while she was an
infant, Tiahahu was raised by her father. As a child, she was stubborn and followed
her father wherever he went, at times joining him in planning attacks.
Beginning in 1817, Tiahahu joined her father in a guerrilla war against the
Dutch colonial government. They also backed Pattimura's army. She saw several
battles. In a battle at Saparua Island, the troops killed Dutch commander
Richement and wounded his replacement Commander Meyer. In another battle, she
and her troops succeeded in burning Duurstede Fortress to the ground. During
battles, Tiahahu was said to throw stones at the Dutch troops if her soldiers
were out of ammunition, while other accounts have her wielding a spear. After
Vermeulen Kringer took over the Dutch military in Maluku, Tiahahu, her father,
and Pattimura were captured in October 1817.
Carried on the HNLMS Evertsen to Nusalaut, Tiahahu was the only captured
soldier not punished. This was due to
her young age. After a period of time in holding in Fort Beverwijk, where her
father was executed in late 1817, Tiahahu was released. She continued to fight against the Dutch.
In a sweep in December 1817 Tiahahu and several other former rebels were
caught. The captured guerrillas were placed on the Evertsen to be transported
to Java. They were meant to be used as
slave labor on the coffee plantations there. However, on the way Tiahahu fell
ill. Refusing medication and food, she died on January 2, 1818 while the ship
was crossing the Banda Sea. Tiahahu received a burial at sea later that day,
Soon after Indonesia's independence, Tiahahu was declared a National Heroine of
Indonesia. January 2 was designated Martha Christina Tiahahu Day. On that day,
people in Maluku spread flower petals over the Banda Sea in an official
ceremony honoring her struggle. However, the ceremony is smaller than that
honoring Pattimura, on May 15.
Several monuments have been dedicated to Tiahahu. In Ambon, capital of the
province of Maluku, an 8-metre (26 ft) tall statue of her holding a spear was
erected in 1977; it stands in Karangpanjang overlooking the Banda Sea. In
Abubu, a statue of her leading soldiers while holding a spear was erected and
dedicated on the 190th anniversary of her death. She also has several items
named after her, including a street in Karangpanjang, Ambon, and a warship, the
KRI Martha Christina Tiahahu.
Other organizations have also taken Tiahahu's name as a symbol of bravery and
"spirit of struggle", including a social organization for Moluccans
in Jakarta and a women's magazine in Ambon.
Toure, 'Ali Farka
1939-2006
Self-taught Malian guitarist and songwriter who merged West African traditions
with the blues and carried his music to a worldwide audience winning two Grammy
Awards.
Ali Ibrahim “Farka” Touré was born October 31, 1939 in the village of Kanau, on
the banks of the Niger River in the cercle of Gourma Rharous in the
northwestern Malian region of Tombouctou. His family moved to the nearby
village of Niafunké when he was still an infant. He was the tenth son of his
mother but the only one to survive past infancy. He was given birthname of Ali Ibrahim, but
it’s a custom in Africa to give a child a strange nickname if you have had
other children who have died, Toure's nickname, “Farka”, was chosen by his
parents and means “donkey”, an animal admired for its tenacity and
stubbornness. He was descended from the ancient military force known as the
Arma, and was ethnically tied to the Songrai (Songhai) and Peul peoples of
northern Mali.
When Toure was about 13, after an encounter with a snake, he suffered attacks
he believed to have been caused by contact with the spirit world. Sent away for a year to be cured, he returned
as someone who was recognized for his ability to communicate with spirits.
Unlike many West African musicians, Toure was not born into a musical
dynasty. Instead, he was drawn to music
despite the wishes of his family.
Hearing the music of spirit ceremonies, he taught himself to play the
njurkle, a one-stringed West African lute.
In 1950, he learned to play the n'jarka, a one-stringed fiddle, and
later the n'goni, a four-stringed lute.
After seeing the Guinean guitarist Keita Fodeba, he took up the guitar in the
mid-1950s and joined a local band. Mali
became independent of France in 1960, and in 1962 Toure became the leader of
the Niafunke village cultural troupe, dedicated to preserving local
culture. At the same time, he was
listening to American soul, blues and funk, which he heard as rooted in the
music of West Africa.
In 1970, Toure moved to Bamako, Mali's capital, where he became an engineer at
Radio Mali and a frequent performer on the air.
Six albums of music recorded at Radio Mali were released in France in
the 1970s. In 1980, he returned to his
hometown, Niafunke, and established a farm that he tended between musical
engagements. He toured Africa widely,
establishing a reputation across West Africa.
As the first African bluesman to achieve widespread popularity on his home
continent, Touré was often known as “the African John Lee Hooker”. Musically,
the many superpositions of guitars and rhythms in his music were similar to
John Lee Hooker’s blues style. Toure usually sang in one of several African
languages, mostly Songhay, Fulfulde, Tamasheq or Bambara as on his breakthrough
album, "Ali Farka Touré", which established his reputation in the
world music community.
In 1987, he performed in Britain and began recording for international release
the album, "'Ali Farka Toure."
The stark propulsion of his music, and its hints of electric blues, made
him a star on the world music circuit, and he toured the United States, Europe
and Japan.
Toure collaborated widely, winning Grammys for albums he made with the American
guitarist Ry Cooder ("Talking Timbuktu" in 1994) and with the Malian
griot Toumani Diabate ("In the Heart of the Moon" in 2005). He also recorded with the American bluesman
Taj Mahal.
1994’s "Talking Timbuktu", a collaboration with Ry Cooder, sold
promisingly well in Western markets, but was followed by a hiatus from releases
in America and Europe. Toure reappeared in 1999 with the release of
"Niafunké", a more traditional album focusing on African rhythms and
beats.
In 2002, Toure appeared with African American blues and reggae performer Corey
Harris, on an album called "Mississippi to Mali". Toure and Harris
also appeared together in Martin Scorsese's 2003 documentary film Feel Like
Going Home, which traced the roots of blues back to its genesis in West Africa.
The film was narrated by Harris and features Ali’s performances on guitar and
njarka.
Around 2000, Toure retired from touring to return to his farm. He often said that he considered himself a
farmer above all, and in 2004 he was elected mayor of the village of
Niafunke. Touré spent his own money
grading the roads, putting in sewer canals and fuelling a generator that
provided the impoverished village with electricity.
Toure established the 'Ali Farka Toure Foundation, nurturing younger Malian
musicians, and he continued to perform in Mali.
However, he still made occasional international forays. His final concert was in 2005 at a festival
in Nice, France.
In September 2005, Toure released the album "In the Heart of the
Moon", a collaboration with Toumani Diabaté, for which he received a
second Grammy award. His last album, "Savane", was posthumously
released in July 2006. It was received with wide acclaim by professionals and
fans alike and was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category “Best
Contemporary World Music Album”. The panel of experts from the World Music
Chart Europe (WMCE), a chart voted by the leading World Music specialists
around Europe, chose "Savane" as their Album of the Year 2006, with
the album topping the chart for three consecutive months (September to November
2006). The album was also listed as No. 1 in the influential Metacritic’s “Best
Albums of 2006” poll, and No. 5 in its all-time best reviewed albums.
Toure's deep grounding in Malian traditions made him one of African music's
most profound innovators. In Mali, he
was considered a national hero.
Toure forged connections between the hypnotic modal riffs of Malian songs and
the driving one-chord boogie of American bluesmen like John Lee Hooker. He mingled the plucked patterns of
traditional songs with the aggressive lead-guitar lines of rock. He sang in various West African languages --
his own Sonrai as well as Songhai, Bambara, Peul, Tamasheck and others --
reflecting the traditional foundations of the songs he wrote. His lyrics, in West African style,
represented the conscience of a community, urging listeners to work hard, honor
the past and act virtuously.
Some of Ali Farka Touré’s songs and tunes have been used in different
programmes, films and documentaries. For example, his guitar riff on the song
“Diaraby”, from the album "Talking Timbuktu", was selected for the
"Geo-quiz" segment of The World PRI-BBC program, and was retained by
popular demand when put to a vote of the listeners. This song was likewise used
in 1998 as a soundtrack for the film L’Assedio (Besieged) by the Italian
director Bernardo Bertolucci. His songs "Cinquante six", "Goye
Kur" and "Hawa Dolo" from the album "The Source" were
also used as a soundtrack in the French film Fin août, début septembre
("Late August, Early September") directed in 1998 by Olivier Assayas.
'Ali Farka Toure died in his sleep on March 6, 2006, at his farm in the village
of Niafunke in northwestern Mali, reportedly from bone cancer. At the news of his death, government radio
stations there suspended regular programming to play his music.
Tun Muhammad Tahir
1803-1863
The last Bendahara of the Old Johor Sultanate.
Tun Muhammad Tahir, better known as Tun Mutahir (Bendahara Seri Maharaja, Raja
Bendahara Pahang V (1847-1863)), became the last Bendahara of the Old Johor
Sultanate. As also the last Raja Bendahara of Pahang, he ruled the vassal state
of Pahang until his death in 1863 following the Pahang Civil War.
Tun Mutahir (1803-1863) was born in 1803. His father was Tun Ali, Bendahara
Siwa Raja and his mother was Che Wan Ngah of the Bendahara family. He was
privately educated as was the custom of the nobility then. In 1832, he was
proclaimed as Bendahara Muda (Bendahara in waiting) in a ceremony in Lingga,
then capital of the Johore Empire. He had 3 spouses: Tengku Kechik, the
princess of the Johore Sultan, Sultan Abdul Rahman; Tengku Chik, the princess
of the Kedah Sultan, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin II; and Tengku Chik princess of the
Johore Sultan, Sultan Muhammad. Tun Ali also married Chik Puan Lingga in 1832
and Tun Ahmad was born from this union.
Tun Ali entered into a semi-retirement in 1847 and handed the reins to Tun Mutahir.
Tun Mutahir followed the policy of Bendahara Ali and not much is written about
his reign. In 1857 Bendahara Ali signed a proclamation indicating that Tun
Ahmad be put to death due to his misconduct. Bendahara Ali wanted Tun Ahmad and
his accomplice be put to death.
Tun Ahmad immediately fled to Singapore and returned to Pahang at the time of
the death of Tun Ali. Conflict broke between both parties which resulted in a
civil war which engulfed Pahang. This conflict not only involved the Pahang
princes but also involved Temenggung of Johore, the Terengganu Sultan as well
as the British playing a political role. The war was the most decisive in the
history of the Old Johore Sultanate. The conflict ended when Tun Mutahir was
mortally wounded in 1863.
Tun Mutahir was buried in Bukit Timbalan, Johor Bahru, Johor. Although Tun Ahmad ousted Tun Mutahir, he had
no interest in continuing as the Bendahara of Johor. Instead, he was proclaimed
as Sultan Ahmad I in 1882 and founded the modern Pahang Sultanate which sealed
the breakup of the Johor Sultanate. The Temenggung of Johor (Maharaja
1868–1885) was given recognition by the British and proclaimed the Sultan of
Johor three years later.
Turkoglu, Hidayat
1979-
Professional basketball player.
Hidayet "Hedo" Türkoğlu was born on March 19, 1979 in Gaziosmanpaşa,
Istanbul, Turkey. Türkoğlu stands 6 ft
10 in (2.08 m) tall. He was a versatile player who played four positions from
point guard to power forward during his career, but he most often played the small
forward position. His media nicknames included 'Mr. Fourth Quarter' and 'The
Michael Jordan of Turkey,' both likely in reference to his frequent late-game
clutch performances.
Türkoğlu was selected with the 16th pick by the Sacramento Kings in the first
round of the 2000 NBA Draft, from Efes Pilsen in Istanbul.
He was a finalist for the league's Sixth Man of the Year Award in his sophomore
season, after averaging 10.1 points per game, 4.5 rebounds per game, and 2.0
assists per game coming off the bench. His name also inspired a Burger King
menu called Hido Menu in Turkey during the first years of his NBA career.
In 2003, Türkoğlu was traded to the San Antonio Spurs in a three-team trade
that sent Brad Miller of the Indiana Pacers to the Kings while Indiana acquired
Scot Pollard from the Kings and Danny Ferry from the Spurs; the Spurs also
acquired Ron Mercer from the Pacers. Turkoglu signed with the Orlando Magic
when he became a free agent in 2004. He scored a career-high 39 points on April
4, 2007 against the Toronto Raptors and on March 19, 2008, his 29th birthday in
a loss to the Washington Wizards.
Türkoğlu has represented Turkey at all levels of international competition, but
declined to play in the 2006 World Basketball Championship.
On April 28, 2008, Türkoğlu was given the NBA's Most Improved Player Award for
the 2007-2008 NBA Season. Türkoğlu helped the Orlando Magic win 52 games, and
averaged career highs in points per game (19.5), rebounds per game (5.7) and
assists per game (5.0), starting all 82 regular season games.
A Muslim, Turkoglu and his wife Banu are the parents of a son named Lapo and a
daughter named Ela (born February 26, 2009).
Tyson, Mike
1966-
A world heavyweight boxing champion.
Mike Tyson, in full Michael Gerald Tyson, byname Iron Mike (born June 30, 1966, Brooklyn, New York,
U.S.), American boxer who, at age 20, became the youngest heavyweight champion
in history.
A member of various street gangs at an early age, Tyson was sent to reform
school in upstate New York in 1978. At the reform school, social worker and
boxing aficionado Bobby Stewart recognized his boxing potential and directed
him to renowned trainer Cus D’Amato, who became his legal guardian. Tyson
compiled a 24–3 record as an amateur and turned professional in 1985.
D’Amato taught Tyson a peekaboo boxing style, with hands held close to his
cheeks and a continuous bobbing motion in the boxing ring that made his defense
almost impenetrable. At 5 feet 11 inches (1.8 metres) tall and weighing about
218 pounds (99 kg), Tyson was short and squat and lacked the classic
heavyweight boxer’s appearance, but his surprising quickness and aggressiveness
in the ring overwhelmed most of his opponents. On November 22, 1986, he became
the youngest heavyweight champion in history, with a second-round knockout of
Trevor Berbick, to claim the crown of the World Boxing Council (WBC). On March 7,
1987, he acquired the World Boxing Association (WBA) belt when he defeated
James Smith. After he defeated Tony Tucker on August 1, 1987, Tyson was
unanimously recognized as champion by all three sanctioning organizations (WBC,
WBA, and International Boxing Federation [IBF]).
After the deaths of D’Amato and manager Jimmy Jacobs, Tyson aligned with
controversial promoter Don King. He made 10 successful defenses of his world
heavyweight title, including victories over former champions Larry Holmes and
Michael Spinks. In 1988 Tyson married actress Robin Givens, but the couple
divorced in 1989 amid allegations that Tyson had physically abused her. A
myriad of assault and harassment charges were subsequently filed against Tyson.
On February 11, 1990, in one of the biggest upsets in boxing history, Tyson
lost the championship to lightly regarded James (“Buster”) Douglas, who scored
a technical knockout in the 10th round. Tyson rebounded from the loss with four
straight victories. In 1991, however, he was accused of having raped a beauty
pageant contestant, Desiree Washington. Tyson was convicted on the rape charge
on February 10, 1992 after the jury deliberated for nearly 10 hours.
Alan Dershowitz filed an appeal on Tyson's behalf alleging that the victim had a
history of at least one false accusation of rape and that the judge had blocked
testimony from witnesses who would have contradicted Washington. The Indiana
Court of Appeals ruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote.
On March 26, 1992, Tyson was sentenced to six years in prison followed by four
years on probation. He was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now the
Plainfield Correctional Facility) in April 1992, and he was released in March
1995 after serving three years. During his incarceration, Tyson converted to
Islam.
Following his release from prison in 1995, Tyson resumed boxing and in 1996
regained two of his championship belts with easy victories over Frank Bruno and
Bruce Seldon. On November 9, 1996, in a long-anticipated bout with two-time
heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield, Tyson lost for the second time in his
professional career, by a technical knockout in the 11th round. In a rematch
against Holyfield on June 28, 1997, he was disqualified after he twice bit his
opponent’s ears, and, as a result of the infraction, he lost his boxing
license.
Tyson eventually was relicensed, and he returned to the ring on January 16,
1999, when he knocked out Franz Botha in the fifth round. On February 6,
however, Tyson was sentenced to one year in jail, two years of probation, and
200 hours of community service and was fined $2,500 after he pleaded no contest
to charges that he had assaulted two elderly men following a 1998 automobile
accident. Tyson was released after serving just a few months of the one-year
sentence.
Nevertheless, Tyson’s self-control problems continued. After the referee
stopped a fight in June 2000 with American Lou Savarese, Tyson continued
punching and inadvertently injured the referee. In comments made to the press
after this fight, Tyson outraged boxing fans with bizarre and vicious remarks
about British heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis. In his October 2000 bout with
Andrew Golota, Tyson won in the third round, but the fight was later declared a
no contest because Tyson tested positive for marijuana. Tyson had only one more
fight between October 2000 and his June 2002 fight with Lewis.
It had been difficult to schedule this fight. Both men were contractually bound
to different promoters and cable television companies. Tyson had attacked and
bitten Lewis during a press conference, which also had a dampening effect.
Tyson’s legal problems caused him to be denied a boxing license by the
sanctioning bodies of the U.S. states that usually hold major boxing matches
(such as Nevada). It had been so long since Tyson had fought a boxer of his own
calibre that no one knew the level of his skills. The question was settled when
Lewis twice knocked Tyson to the canvas during the course of the fight before
knocking him out in the eighth round.
Tyson had his final professional win in 2003, a 49-second first-round knockout.
Later that year he filed for bankruptcy, claiming to be $34 million in debt
after earning an estimated $400 million over the course of his career. Tyson
lost bouts in 2004 and 2005, and he retired in the aftermath of the latter
fight. In 2007 he served 24 hours in prison after pleading guilty to drug
possession and driving under the influence, charges that stemmed from a 2006
arrest.
Tyson’s personal and professional exploits were recounted in the documentary
Tyson, which premiered at the Cannes film festival in 2008, and in a one-man
stage show, Mike Tyson: Undisputed Truth, which he first performed in Las Vegas
in 2012. (The show was subsequently mounted on Broadway in a production
directed by filmmaker Spike Lee.) He also appeared as himself in a number of
television shows and films, including the blockbuster comedy The Hangover
(2009) and its sequel (2011). Tyson was inducted into the International Boxing
Hall of Fame in 2011.
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua
1951-2010
President of Nigeria from May 29, 2007 to May 5, 2010.
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua (August 16, 1951 – May 5, 2010) was the President of
Nigeria and the 13th Head of State. He served as governor of Katsina State in
northern Nigeria from May 29, 1999 to May 28, 2007. He was declared the winner of the
controversial Nigerian presidential election held on April 21, 2007, and was
sworn in on May 29, 2007. He was a member of the ruling People's Democratic
Party (PDP). In 2009, Yar'Adua left for Saudi Arabia to receive treatment for
pericarditis. He returned to Nigeria in 2010, where he died on May 5, 2010.
Yar'Adua was born into an aristocratic Fulani family in Katsina. His father, a former Minister for Lagos
during the First Republic, held the royal title of Mutawalli ("custodian
of the treasury") of the Katsina Emirate, a title which Yar'Adua
inherited. Yar'Adua began his education
at Rafukka Primary School in 1958, and moved to Dutsinma Boarding Primary
School in 1962. He attended the Government College at Keffi from 1965 until
1969. In 1971, he received a Higher School Certificate from Barewa College. He
attended Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria from 1972 to 1975, attaining a
Bachelor of Science in Education and Chemistry, and then returned in 1978 to
earn a Master of Science Degree in Analytical Chemistry.
Yar'Adua married Turai Umaru Yar'Adua of Katsina in 1975. They had seven children (five daughters and
two sons). Their daughter Zainab married Kebbi State governor Usman Saidu
Nasamu Dakingari. Their daughter Nafisat married Bauchi State governor Isa
Yuguda. Yar'Adua married to Hauwa Umar Radda as a second wife from 1992 to
1997. They had two children.
Yar'Adua's first employment was at Holy Child College in Lagos (1975–1976). He
later served as a lecturer at the College of Arts, Science, and Technology in
Zaria, Kaduna State, between 1976 and 1979. In 1979 he began working as a
lecturer at College of Art Science, remaining in this position until 1983, when
he began working in the corporate sector.
He worked at Sambo Farms Ltd. in Funtua, Katsina State as its pioneer General
Manager between 1983 and 1989. He served as a Board Member, Katsina State
Farmers' Supply Company between 1984 and 1985, Member Governing Council of
Katsina College of Arts, Science and Technology Zaria and Katsina Polytechnic
between 1978 and 1983, Board Chairman of Katsina State Investment and Property
Development Company (KIPDECO) between 1994 and 1996. Yar'Adua served as a
director of many companies, including Habib Nigeria Bank Ltd. 1995–1999;
Lodigiani Nigeria Ltd. 1987–1999, Hamada Holdings, 1983–1999; and Madara Ltd.
Vom, Jos, 1987–1999. He was Chairman, Nation House Press Ltd., Kaduna, from
1995 to 1999.
During the Second Republic (1979–1983), Yar'Adua was a member of the leftist
People's Redemption Party, while his father was briefly the National Vice
chairman of the National Party of Nigeria. During the Transition Programme of
President Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida, Yar'Adua was one of the foundation members
of the Peoples Front, a political association under the leadership of his elder
brother, the late Major-General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. That association later
fused to form the Social Democratic Party. Yar'Adua was a member of the 1988
Constituent Assembly. He was a member of the party's National Caucus and the
SDP State Secretary in Katsina and contested the 1991 Governorship election,
but lost to Saidu Barda, the candidate of the National Republican Convention
and an ally of Babangida. In 1999, he ran for the same position and won. He was
re-elected in 2003. He was the first governor to publicly declare his assets.
In 2000, during his administration as governor, Katsina became the fifth
northern Nigerian state to adopt sharia, or Islamic law. In 2002, Amina Lawal,
a woman from Katsina, was sentenced to death by stoning by a sharia court in
the town of Bakori for committing adultery. The story attracted international
attention. Her sentence was at first upheld by a court in the town of Funtua,
then overturned a year later following an appeal.
On December 16-17, 2006, Yar'Adua was chosen as the presidential candidate of
the ruling PDP for the April 2007 election, receiving 3,024 votes from party
delegates. His closest rival, Rochas Okorocha, received 372 votes. Yar'Adua's success in the primary was
attributed to the support of incumbent President Olusegun Obasanjo. At the time of his nomination he was an
obscure figure on the national stage, and had been described as a
"puppet" of Obasanjo who could not have won the nomination under fair
circumstances. Shortly after winning the nomination, Yar'Adua chose Goodluck
Jonathan, governor of Bayelsa State, as his vice-presidential candidate.
Another view of the support Yar'Adua received from President Obasanjo is that
he was one of few serving governors with a spotless record, devoid of any
suspicions or charges of corruption. He also belonged to the People's
Democratic Movement (PDM) – a powerful political block founded by his late
brother, Shehu Musa Yar'Adua, who was also Obasanjo's vice president during his
military rule.
In 2007, Yar'Adua, who suffered from a kidney condition, challenged his critics
to a game of squash in an endeavor to end speculations about his health. On March 6, 2007 Yar'Adua was flown to Germany
for medical reasons, further fomenting rumors about his health. His
spokesperson said this was due to stress and quoted Yar'Adua as saying he was
fine and would soon be back to campaigning. Another report, which was rejected
by Yar'Adua's spokesperson, claimed that Yar'Adua collapsed after suffering a
possible heart attack.
In the presidential election, held on April 21, 2007, Yar'Adua won with seventy
percent (70%) of the vote (24.6 million votes) according to official results
released on April 23,2007. The election was highly controversial. Strongly
criticized by observers, as well as the two primary opposition candidates,
Muhammadu Buhari of the All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) and Atiku Abubakar of
the Action Congress (AC), its results were largely rejected as having been
rigged in Yar'Adua's favor.
After the election, Yar'Adua proposed a government of national unity. In late
June 2007, two opposition parties, the ANPP and the Progressive Peoples
Alliance (PPA), agreed to join Yar'Adua's government. On June 28, 2007, Yar'Adua publicly revealed
his declaration of assets from May (becoming the first Nigerian Leader to do
so), according to which he had ₦856,452,892 (US$5.8 million) in assets, ₦19
million ($0.1 million) of which belonged to his wife. He also had
₦88,793,269.77 ($0.5 million) in liabilities. This disclosure, which fulfilled
a pre-election promise he made, was intended to set an example for other
Nigerian politicians and discourage corruption.
Yar'Adua's cabinet was sworn in on July 26, 2007. It included 39 ministers, including two for
the ANPP.
Buhari and Abubakar filed petitions to have the results of the 2007
presidential election invalidated due to alleged fraud, but on February 26,
2008 a court rejected the petitions. Buhari and Abubakar said that they would
appeal to the Supreme Court. Marred by corruption, many argued that this
election was rigged by Obasanjo as well, as he wanted his successor to have the
same basic ideals that he possessed as President.
President Yar'Adua left Nigeria on November 23, 2009, and was reported to be
receiving treatment for pericarditis at a clinic in Saudi Arabia. His absence
created a dangerous power vacuum in Nigeria.
In December 2009 Oluwarotimi Odunayo Akeredolu, president of the Nigerian Bar
Association (NBA), stated that Yar'Adua should have handed over power to
Vice-President Goodluck Jonathan in an acting capacity during his illness, a
statement that was backed up by the NBA national executive committee. On
January 22, 2010, the Supreme Court of Nigeria ruled that the Federal
Ministries of Nigeria had 14 days to decide on a resolution about whether he
"is incapable of discharging the functions of his office". The ruling
also stated that the Federal Ministries should hear testimony of five doctors,
one of whom should be Yar'Adua's personal physician.
On February9, 2010, the Senate determined that presidential power should be
transferred to Vice President Goodluck Jonathan, and that he should serve as
Acting President, with all the accompanying powers, until Yar'Adua returned to
full health. The power transfer was called a "coup without the sword"
by opposition lawyers and lawmakers. However, there were others that felt the
power vacuum would lead to instability and a possible military takeover.
On February 24, 2010, Yar'Adua returned to Abuja. His state of health was
unclear, but there was speculation that he was still on a life support machine.
Various political and religious figures in Nigeria visited him during his
illness saying he would make a recovery.
Yar'Adua died on May 5, 2010 at the Aso Rock presidential villa. An Islamic
burial took place on May 6, 2010 in his hometown.
Ustad Sultan Khan
1940-2011
Indian sarangi player and singer who performed Hindustani classical music.
Ustad Sultan Khan (b. 1940, Jaipur, Indian Empire – d. November 27, 2011,
Mumbai, India) was one of the members of the Indian fusion group Tabla Beat
Science, with Zakir Hussain and Bill Laswell. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan,
India's third highest civilian honor, in 2010.
Sultan Khan was born near Jaipur in the princely state of Sikhar in the Indian
Empire. He learned music from his father Gulab Khan.
Khan gave his first performance at the All-India Conference at the age of 11,
and performed on an international scale with Ravi Shankar on George Harrison's
1974 Dark Horse World Tour.
He won numerous musical awards including, twice, the Sangeet Natak Akademi
Award, also known as the President's Award, as well as the Gold Medalist Award
of Maharashtra and the American Academy of Artists Award in 1998.
Khan taught music producers such as Sukshinder Shinda and Ram Gopal Varma (who
provided the music for his film, Deyyam) to play the sarangi. Belonging to the
Indore Gharana, Khan played the Sarangi and sang. He had many students, but few
gandhabandha disciples (notables include Anand Vyas and Ikram Khan). He was the
teacher of Deeyah, a Norwegian born singer, and he performed on her debut album
I Alt Slags Lys in 1992. He contributed vocals and sarangi to Gavin Harrison's
1998 solo album Sanity & Gravity. He sang "Albela sajan aayo
re..."along with Kavita Krishnamurthy and Shankar Mahadevan in the Hindi
film Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam in 1999.
Sultan Khan performed for the Tamil film Yogi. He played a solo sarangi for
Yogi's theme and also for the song "Yaarodu Yaaro" from the same
album.
Khan died on November 27, 2011, in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India after a prolonged
illness.
Webb, Mohammed Alexander Russell
1846-1916
An early American convert to Islam.
Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb (November 9, 1846, Hudson, New York – October
1, 1916, Rutherford, New Jersey) was an American writer, publisher, and the
United States Ambassador to the Philippines.
His father, Alexander Nelson Webb, was a leading journalist of his day and
perhaps influenced his son’s later journalistic exploits.
Webb received his early education at the Home School in Glendale,
Massachusetts, and later attended Claverack College, an advanced high school
near Hudson, New York. He became editor of the Unionville Republican,
Unionville, Missouri. His prowess as a journalist was soon apparent, and he was
offered the city editorship of the St. Joseph Gazette in St. Joseph, Missouri.
Next he became associate editor of the Missouri Morning Journal. Later he
became the Assistant City Editor of the Missouri Republican in St. Louis. This
newspaper was the second oldest and largest daily newspaper at that time.
While working for the Missouri Republican, he was appointed (in September,
1887) by President Cleveland to be Consular Representative to the Philippines
at the United States office at Manila. According to the editor of his book The
Three Lectures, he had given up any concept of religion at least fifteen years
before that point.
In 1887 Webb was introduced to Islam by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India.
Webb wrote two letters to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. Webb's first clear step
toward Islam was expressed in these correspondence. These letters were
published then in Mirza Ahmad's book "Shahne e Haqq".
He started his life as a Presbyterian but found it dull and restraining. As
early as 1881 he started a search for his true faith by reading books from a
well-stocked library of over 13,000 volumes. He started his study with Buddhism
and finding it lacking, he began to study Islam. In 1888, he formally declared
himself to be a Muslim.
At that time he had yet to meet a Muslim but was put in contact with several
Muslims in India by a local Parsi businessman. A newspaper publisher, Budruddin
Abdulla Kur of Bombay, published several of Webb's letters in his paper. A
local businessman, Hajee Abdulla Arab, saw these letters and went to Manila to
see Webb.
After the visit, Webb began plans to tour India and then return to the United
States to propagate Islam. Webb's wife, Ella G. Webb, and their three children
had also accepted Islam by this time. Hajee Abdulla returned to India and
raised funds for Webb's tour. Webb visited Poona, Bombay, Calcutta, Hyderabad,
and Madras and gave speeches in each town.
All of his speeches were published at least once separately and some were
published in a collection. His Islam in America and all later works were
basically derived from rewrites of these successful speeches.
He resigned his post in 1892 and toured India then returned to the United
States. His family stayed in San Francisco until he sent for them.
Settling in New York, he established the Oriental Publishing Company at 1122
Upper Broadway. This company published his writings (including his magnum opus-
Islam in America). The table of contents
for Islam in America follows:
* Islam in America - contained 70
pages divided into eight chapters namely:
I) Why I Became a Muslim
II) An Outline of Islamic Faith
III) The Five Pillars of Practice
IV) Islam in Its Philosophic Aspect
V) Polygamy and the Purdah
VI) Popular Errors Refuted
VII) The Muslim Defensive Wars
VIII) The American Islamic Propaganda
Along with this venture he started the organ of the American Muslim Propagation
Movement called Moslem World. The first issue appeared on May 12, 1893, and was
dedicated to The Interests of the American Islamic Propaganda and "[t]o
spread the light of Islam in America". It lasted for seven monthly issues
(May to November 1893).
In December 1893, John A. Lant and Emin L. Nabakoff broke from Webb's movement
and formed the First Society for the Study of Islam and set up shop in Union
Square.
Webb was the main representative for Islam at the 1893 World Parliament of
Religions in Chicago. On September 20th and 21st, 1893, he gave two speeches.
His speeches were entitled: The Influence of Islam Upon Social Conditions and
The Spirit of Islam and were published in the large two volume proceedings of
the Parliament called The First World's Parliament of Religions (1894).
For the rest of his life he was the main spokesman for Islam in America. Many
of America’s most prominent thinkers heard him speak on the Islamic Faith,
including Mark Twain.
On Broadway, in Manhattan, he founded a short-lived masjid (Mosque). The
reasons for the termination of this Masjid are unknown, but it could be due to
a lack of financial support from India. Throughout the rest of America he
started study circles, i.e. in Chicago, Washington, D.C., Newark, Manhattan,
Kansas City, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland. They were named Mecca
Study Circle No. I (NYC), Koran Study Circle, Capital Study Circle No. 4, etc.
Each using an Islamic city or reference in its title. It is likely they studied
Webb's works and those he suggested. The last meeting was in 1943 in Manhattan
and was attended by his daughter Aliyyah.
Webb is also known for his writing of two booklets about the Armenian Genocide
from a Muslim point of view: The Armenian Troubles and Where the Responsibility
Lies and A Few Facts About Turkey Under the Rule of Abdul Hamid II. He was
appointed the Honorary Turkish Consul in New York by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The
Sultan had been shown plans by Webb for a Muslim cemetery and Masjid and
complimented Webb on them. These plans never materialized.
From 1898 to the time of his death on October 1, 1916, Webb lived in
Rutherford, New Jersey. There he owned and edited the “Rutherford Times”. He
was buried in Hillside Cemetery, Lyndhurst, on the outskirts of Rutherford.
Ya'qubi, Ahmad ibn Abi Ya'qub ibn Wadih al-
d. 897
Arab historian and geographer.
Ahmad ibn Abi Ya‘qub ibn Wadih al-Ya‘qubi was a Shi‘a of the moderate
Musawis. His fame is based on his Book
of the Countries, a geographical work for which he had been collecting material
by research in literature and making inquiries of travelers. His style is simple and his text free from
fables. He also wrote a history of the
world, which he brought down to the year 872.
Al-Ya‘qubi is important in African history because in his writings, he
described the Ghana empire, as well as the kingdoms of Kawkaw, Kanem and
Mallel. The latter may have been a
reference to Mali. Al-Ya‘qubi was the
first to mention the existence of Awdaghast.
His writings are among the first descriptive works of African geography
which go beyond the mere listing of names.
Yulayev, Salawat
1754-1800
A Bashkir national hero who participated in Pugachev’s rebellion.
Salawat Yulayev (b. June 16, 1754, Tekeyevo (Bashkortostan), Shaytan-Kudeevsky
volost, Ufa province, Orenburg Governorate, Russia – d. September 26, 1800,
Paldiski) is a Bashkir national hero who participated in Pugachev's rebellion.
The Bashkirs are a Turkic people indigenous to Bashkortostan extending on both
parts of the Ural Mountains, on the place where Europe meets Asia. Groups of
Bashkirs also live in the republic of Tatarstan, Perm Krai, Chelyabinsk,
Orenburg, Tyumen, Sverdlovsk, Kurgan, Samara and Saratov Oblasts of Russia, as
well as in Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and other countries. They speak the
Kypchak-based Bashkir language. The Bashkirs are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi
madhhab.
Salawat Yulayev was born in the village of Tekeyevo of Shaytan-Kudeevsky volost
of Ufa province of Orenburg Governorate (now Salavatsky District) of
Bashkortostan. Tekeyevo no longer exists, because it was burned in 1775.
Salawat Yulayev was at the head of all of rebel Bashkortostan from the very
beginning of the country war of 1773-1775. He was seized by imperial
authorities on November 24, 1774, and his father Yulay Aznalin was seized even
earlier. Put into irons they were sent to Moscow.
In 1768 the Orenburg governor prince Putyatin appointed Yulay as the foreman of
the Bashkir command. But soon the merchant Tverdyshev, granted to collegiate
asessory rank, bereaved Yulay Aznalin of his land to build Simsky plant and
villages. The Bashkir land was bringing to ruin, that is why Yulay Aznalin and
it nineteen years old son Salawat stood up under Yemelyan Pugachev’s banners.
In ten months after Salawat’s capture, in September, 1775, he and his father
were publicly punished by lashes in those places where the largest battles with
the governmental armies passed. They both were branded on their foreheads and
faces. On October 2, 1775 chained by hands and legs, Salawat and Yulay on two
carts under protection were sent to transportation for life to the Baltic
fortress Rogervik (nowadays the city of Paldiski in Estonia). The transport
with convicts passed Menzelinsk, Kazan, Nizhni Novgorod, Moscow, and on
November 14 they reached Tver. Then there was Novgorod, Pskov, and Revel and on
November 29th they reached Rogervik.
The Baltic port Rogervik, was founded by Peter the Great. However by 1775, when
the Rogervik participants of the Bashkir revolt turned out, the fortress was
practically deserted. There was only a small garrison and small number of
prisoners. Salawat and Yulay met there their brothers-in-arms: Pugachev Colonel
I. S. Aristov, Colonel Kanzafar Usaev, and others. It was there that Salawat Yulayev
and his father lived the rest of their lives.
Salawat Yulayev died on September 26, 1800.
Many things in modern-day Bashkortostan are named after Yulayev including a
town, a hockey team, and the republic's State Prize.
Yunus, Mohammed
1940-
Bangladeshi economist and the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize recipient.
Yunus was born to a well-to-do family in Chittagong, a business center in
Bangladesh, in 1940. His father was a
successful goldsmith who always encouraged his sons to seek higher education. However, his biggest influence was his
mother, Sofia Khatun, who always helped any poor that knocked on the door. The example set by his mother inspired
Mohammed to seek the eradication of poverty.
Yunus was an outstanding student who won a Fulbright Fellowship to do doctorate
work at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1965. He returned home in 1972 to become the head
of the economics department at the Chittagong University. He found the situation in the newly
independent Bangladesh worsening day by day.
The terrible famine of 1974 in Bangladesh literally changed Yunus' life
forever. He felt uncomfortable with the
fact that while people were dying of hunger on the streets, he was teaching
elegant theories of economics. He felt
the inadequacies of elegant theories of economics and decided to make the poor
his teachers. He began to study them and
question them on their lives. One day,
interviewing a woman who made bamboo stools, he learned that, because she had
no capital of her own, she had to give up more than 93% of her proceeds to the
middleman. Dr. Yunus identified the
problem as one of structure. He
theorized that people are poor today because of the failure of the financial
institutions to support them in the past.
Thus, the idea of micro-credit was born.
One of the first practices of micro-credit occurred in 1976 when Mohammed Yunus
himself loaned $27 out of his own pocket to a group of poor craftsmen in the
nearby town of Jobra. To boost the
impact of that small sum, Yunus volunteered to serve as guarantor on a larger
loan from a traditional bank, kindling the idea for a village-based enterprise
called the Grameen Project. It never
occurred to Yunus that his gesture would inspire a whole category of lending
and propel him to the top of a powerful institution.
By 2006, the Grameen Bank (in Bengali, "grameen" means
"rural") had become the largest rural bank in Bangladesh. It had over two million borrowers and was in
operation in 35,000 villages in a country of 68,000 villages. 94% of its borrowers were women. The bank is based on simple, sensible rules,
meticulous organization, imagination and peer pressure among borrowers. The break that Grameen Bank offers is a
collateral-free loan, sometimes equivalent to just a few United States dollars
and rarely more than $100. In rural
areas, it makes things happen. 98% of
its loans are honored. Thus he had
turned into reality a philosophy that the poorest of the poor are the most
deserving in the land and that given the opportunity they can lift themselves
out of the mire of poverty. Yunus' ideas
combine capitalism with social responsibility.
The micro-credit concept became a global phenomenon. By 2006, it was being practiced in 58
countries. The work of the Grameen Bank
and of Mohammed Yunus caught the attention of the five member Nobel Committee
and resulted in the Grameen Bank and Mohammed Yunus being awarded the 2006
Nobel Peace Prize. In awarding a prize
more traditionally given to those who sign treaties to end wars or fight for
human rights, the Nobel Committee said that eliminating poverty was a path to
peace and democracy. In the words of the
Committee, "Lasting peace cannot be achieved unless large population
groups find ways in which to break out of poverty. Microcredit is one such means. Development from below also serves to advance
democracy and human rights."
Mohammed Yunus lived in Dhaka, Bangladesh, with his physicist wife, Afrozi, and
their daughter Deena.
Yusuf
1626-1699
One of the founders of Islam in South Africa.
Abadin ('Abidin) Tadia Tjoessoep (1626–1699), more commonly known as Sheikh
Yusuf, was an Indonesian muslim of noble descent. In 1693 he was exiled to the
Cape of Good Hope which resulted in his establishing Islam in the Cape.
Yusuf was born in Makassar, Indonesia, the nephew of King Biset of Goa. In 1644
he embarked on the Haj to Mecca and spent several years in Arabia learning
under various pious scholars. During this period the Dutch and British East
India Companies were fighting for control of the region due to its lucrative
trade in spices and gold. When Yusuf left Arabia in 1664, Makassar had been
captured by the Dutch, and he was unable to return home.
Instead, Yusuf headed for Bantam on the island of Java, where he was welcomed
by Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa (Sultan Ajung). Ageng gave Yusuf one of his daughters
hands in marriage, and made him his chief religious judge and personal advisor.
Yusuf stayed in Bantam for 16 years until 1680, when Ageng's son, Pangeran
Hajji, rose against his father, possibly at the urgings of the Dutch East India
Company (DEIC). Ageng rallied his forces, including Yusuf, and in 1683 besieged
Hajji in his fortress at Soerdesoeang. Ageng was defeated but managed to escape
capture, along with an entourage of about 5,000, among them the 57-year-old
Yusuf. Ageng was captured later that year but Yusuf managed to escape a second
time and continued the resistance.
In 1684, Yusuf was persuaded to surrender on the promise of a pardon, but the
Dutch reneged on their promise and instead imprisoned him at the castle of
Batavia. Suspecting that he would attempt escape, the Dutch transferred him to
the Castle in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in September that year, before
exiling him to the Cape on June 27, 1693 on the ship Voetboeg.
Fearing Yusuf's influence in Ceylon the Dutch exiled him to the Cape of Good
Hope ten years after his initial surrender. The Sheikh arrived on board `De
Voetboog' on April 2, 1694 along with his retinue of 49 which included his two
wives (Carecontoe and Carepane), two slave girls (Mu'minah and Na'imah), 12
children, 12 imams (religious leaders) and several friends with their families.
Yusuf along with 49 followers, including two wives and twelve children, were
received in the Cape on April 2, 1694 by Governor Simon van der Stel. On June
14, 1694, they were moved to the farm Zandvliet, near the mouth of the Eerste
River, outside of Cape Town in an attempt to minimise Yusuf's influence on the
DEIC's slaves. The plan failed however. Sheikh Yusuf's settlement soon became a
sanctuary for slaves and it was here that the first cohesive Islamic community
in South Africa was established. From here the message of Islam was
disseminated to the slave community of Cape Town.
Sheikh Yusuf died at Zandvliet on May 23, 1699.
There were a number of Muslims at the Cape before Yusuf's arrival, and
thousands more were to follow during the succeeding decades, most of them
slaves, but some of them spiritual leaders of distinction. Yusuf, however, is regarded as the founder of
the region's Islamic community and is venerated as such. His tomb, or kramat, is close to the town of
Faure. It is one of six such holy places
-- five on or near the Peninsula and one on Robben Island -- which together
form a "sacred circle," within which those who live enjoy special
protection from the elements.
The
area surrounding Zandvliet farm was renamed Macassar in honor of Yusuf's place
of birth. Yusuf was buried on the hills of Faure, overlooking Macassar. A
shrine was erected over his grave and to this day Muslims in the area visit it
to pay their respects.
On September 27, 2005 Sheikh Yusuf was posthumously awarded the The Order of
the Companions of Oliver Tambo in Gold for his contribution to the struggle
against colonialism.
Yusuf Mohamed Ibrahim
c.1800-1848
A sultan of Geledi (Somalia).
Yusuf Mohamed Ibrahim (c.1800-1848) was probably the most renowned of the
sultans of Geledi, a group which dominated the hinterlands of Mogadishu and
Brava throughout most of the 19th century.
Yusuf Mohamed Ibrahim is remembered as a great religious and political
leader. His most famous military
expedition occurred in 1843, when he led an army of some 40,000 warriors
against the religious reformers of Bardera.
In 1848, Yusuf died in a battle with the Bimal, the traditional enemies
of the Geledi.
Zardari, Asif Ali
b. 1955
President of Pakistan (2008- ).
Asif Ali Zardari (b. July0 26, 1955, Karachi, Pakistan) became president of
Pakistan in 2008 and became de facto leader of the Pakistan People’s Party
(PPP) following the assassination of his wife, former prime minister Benazir
Bhutto, on December 27, 2007.
Zardari—the son of Hakim Ali Zardari, a Sindhi landlord, businessman, and
politician—was educated at Saint Patrick’s School in Karachi and later studied
business in London. He gained a reputation as a playboy and gadfly for his
easygoing lifestyle. An avid polo player
and an intense competitor, Zardari demonstrated little interest in the
political scene. His betrothal to Bhutto, who was the daughter of former
president (1971–73) and prime minister (1973–77) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and whom
he had first met five days prior to the public announcement of their
engagement, surprised many observers. On December 18, 1987, the two were
married in an arranged and relatively simple ceremony, and they went on to have
three children: a son, Bilawal, and two daughters, Bakhtwar and Asifa.
The couple had been married less than a year when President Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq
was killed, ending more than a decade of military rule. Bhutto’s subsequent
success at the polls ushered her into office as prime minister. In 1990, her
tenure was cut short by corruption-related scandal, however, and both Zardari
and his wife were the focus of attacks from opposition politicians as well as
disgruntled members of the PPP, Bhutto’s own party. Arrested on kidnapping and
extortion charges, Zardari was imprisoned in 1990, and, following his release
in 1993, corruption allegations against him multiplied (some labeled him “Mr.
Ten Percent,” alleging he took kickbacks on large government contracts during
Bhutto’s tenure in office).
Zardari served as a member of the National Assembly from 1990 to 1993—during
which time he was periodically released from prison to attend sessions—and from
1993 to 1996. After Bhutto’s return to power in 1993, he served as minister of
the environment (1993–96) and federal minister for investment (1995–96) in her
government. Zardari aggressively sought control of the PPP, but he was the
subject of ever-increasing criticism from opponents within and outside the
party. In addition, Zardari was deeply involved in a Bhutto family feud led by
Bhutto’s brother, Murtaza, and mother, Nusrat. The conflict between Zardari and
Murtaza over leadership of the Bhutto clan ruptured the PPP and destabilized
Bhutto’s government. The Murtaza-Zardari rivalry ended abruptly on September
20, 1996, when Murtaza was shot and killed by police.
Zardari was implicated in Murtaza’s death, and, following the second
dissolution of Bhutto’s government in November 1996, he was arrested on charges
that included corruption, money laundering, and murder. Although never
convicted, Zardari was imprisoned from 1997 to 2004. He was elected to the
Senate from his jail cell during this time. The toll exacted on Zardari’s
health by his imprisonment was considerable. Following his release, Zardari
sought medical treatment in the United States for psychological distress. He
returned to Pakistan with Bhutto’s resumption of political activity in 2007 and
was given amnesty for his alleged offenses. Following Bhutto’s death in
December 2007, Zardari named his son, Bilawal, chairman of the PPP and made
himself the party’s co-chairman.
In the parliamentary elections of February 2008, the PPP captured one-third of
the available seats, while the party of former prime minister Nawaz Sharif won
one-fourth of the seats. In March the two parties formed a coalition
government. Although disagreements destabilized the administration in the
months following its formation, in August 2008 Zardari and Sharif led the
movement to impeach President Pervez Musharraf. To avoid further public
embarrassment, Musharraf resigned his office. Sharif and Zardari were not
reconciled, however, and their sustained feuding ultimately caused Sharif to
withdraw his party from the coalition. Zardari easily won the September 2008
presidential elections.
Friction between the two rivals intensified further in early 2009, when the
Supreme Court voted to disqualify Sharif’s brother from his position as chief
minister of the Punjab and to uphold a ban prohibiting Sharif himself from
holding political office (the ban stemmed from his 2000 hijacking conviction).
Sharif alleged that the court’s rulings were politically motivated and backed
by Zardari. Meanwhile, the status of the Supreme Court judges dismissed under
Musharraf who had yet to be reinstated—one of the issues that had undermined
the Sharif-Zardari coalition—remained another major source of contention. Faced
with the prospect of a Sharif-led protest in the capital, in March 2009 the
government agreed to reinstate Chief Justice Iftikhar Mohammad Chaudhry and a
number of other Supreme Court judges who had not been returned to their posts
(Sharif’s brother was also returned to his position shortly thereafter). The
move was seen as a political victory for Sharif and a significant concession on
the part of Zardari, who is thought to have opposed Chaudhry’s return because
of the possibility that the amnesty Zardari had enjoyed under Musharraf might be
overturned. Indeed, in December 2009 the Pakistani Supreme Court ruled as
unconstitutional the 2007 amnesty protecting politicians accused of corruption.
Zardari was among the thousands of people affected by the ruling, which
essentially reactivated cases against them.
As president, Zardari was a consistently strong United States ally in the war
in Afghanistan, despite prevalent public disapproval of the nation's
involvement in the conflict. He came under domestic criticism in 2008 after
flirting with American vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin. In late 2008,
his government obtained a three-year multi-billion dollar loan package from the
International Monetary Fund in an effort to steer the nation out of an economic
crisis. In early 2009, his attempt to prevent the reinstatement of Supreme
Court judges failed in the face of massive protests led by Nawaz Sharif, his
chief political rival. The passage of the 18th Amendment in 2010 reduced his
vast presidential powers to that of a ceremonial figurehead. He again aroused
widespread public uproar for his trip to Europe in the midst of the devastating
2010 floods across Pakistan.
Zarqawi, Abu Musab al-
1966-2006
Jordanian guerrilla leader and the self-proclaimed leader of Al-Qaeda in
Iraq.
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was born on October 20, 1966, with the name Ahmad Fadeel
al-Nazal al-Khalayleh. He was the son of
a native Jordanian family (al-Khalayleh of the Bani-Hassan tribe). He grew up amidst poverty and squalor in the
Jordanian town of Zarqa, a town located about 30 miles northeast of the capital
Amman. It is from Zarqa that Zarqawi got
his "nom de guerre," since "Zarqawi" literally means
"man from Zarqa."
At the age of 17, Zarqawi dropped out of school. According to Jordanian intelligence reports,
Zarqawi was jailed briefly in the 1980s.
Subsequently, he was active as a militant in Afghanistan, Jordan, Iraq,
and elsewhere.
In 1989, Zarqawi traveled to Afghanistan to join the insurgency against the
Soviet invasion, but the Soviets were already leaving by the time Zarqawi
arrived. It is believed that Zarqawi met
and befriended Osama bin Laden while there.
However, instead of becoming a fighter, Zarqawi became a reporter for an
Islamist newsletter.
Zarqawi was arrested in Jordan in 1992, and spent seven years in a Jordanian
prison for conspiring to overthrow the monarchy to establish an Islamic
caliphate. In prison, Zarqawi reportedly
became a feared leader among inmates according to some reports.
Upon his release from prison in 1999, Zarqawi was involved in an attempt to
blow up the Radisson SAS Hotel in Amman, Jordan, where many Israeli and
American tourists lodged. He fled Jordan
and traveled to Peshawar, Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border. In Afghanistan, Zarqawi established a
guerrilla training camp near Herat.
According to the United States government, the training camp specialized
in poisons and explosives.
Jordanian and European intelligence agencies claim that Zarqawi formed the
group Jund al-Sham in 1999 with $200,000 of startup money from Osama bin
Laden. The group originally consisted of
150 members. It was infiltrated by
members of Jordanian intelligence and scattered by Operation Enduring Freedom
but in March 2005, a group of the same name claimed responsibility for a
bombing in Doha, Qatar.
Sometime in 2001, Zarqawi was arrested in Jordan but was soon released. Later, he was convicted in absentia and
sentenced to death for plotting the attack on the Radisson SAS Hotel.
After the September 11 attacks, Zarqawi again traveled to Afghanistan and was
allegedly wounded in a United States bombardment. He moved to Iran to organize al-Tawhid, his
former militant organization. Zarqawi
supposedly traveled to Iraq to have his wounded leg treated at a hospital run
by Uday Hussein. In the summer of 2002,
Zarqawi was reported to have settled in northern Iraq, where he joined the
Islamist Ansar al-Islam group that
fought against Kurdish nationalist forces in the region. He reportedly became a leader in the group,
although his leadership role has not been established.
In Secretary of State Colin Powell's now famous February 2003 speech to the
United Nations urging war against Iraq, Zarqawi was cited as an example of
Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism.
In his speech, Powell mistakenly referred to Zarqawi as a Palestinian,
but Powell and the Bush administration continued to stand by statements that
Zarqawi linked Saddam Hussein to al-Qaeda.
At the time, Zarqawi's group was actually a rival to bin Laden's. A CIA report in late 2004 concluded that it
had not evidence Saddam Hussein's government was involved with, or aware of,
Zarqawi's medical treatment, and that there was no conclusive evidence that
Saddam Hussein's regime had harbored Zarqawi.
According to some sources, the Pentagon had pushed to "take out"
Zarqawi's operation at least three times prior to the invasion of Iraq, but had
been vetoed by the National Security Council.
The council's decision was made because they thought it would make it
harder to convince other countries to join the United States in a coalition
against Iraq.
During Zarqawi's time in Iraq, a number of attacks and kidnappings were
attributed to him and his organization.
The following is a listing of the incidents:
10/28/02: Laurence Foley, a diplomat and administrator of United States aid
programs in Jordan was gunned down outside his home in Amman.
08/19/03: A truck bombing of United Nations headquarters in Baghdad killed 23,
including top United Nations envoy Sergio Vieira de Mello.
08/29/03: A car bomb in Najaf killed more than 85 people, including Ayatollah
Mohammad Baqr al-Hakim, leader of the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution
in Iraq.
03/02/04: Coordinated blasts from suicide bombers, mortars, and planted
explosives struck Shiite Muslim shrines in Karbala and Baghdad, killing at
least 181. United States and Iraqi
officials linked the attacks to al-Zarqawi.
05/11/04: Kidnapped American businessman Nicholas Berg was beheaded while being
videotaped, and the voice of the knife welder was identified as being that of
al-Zarqawi.
05/18/04: A car bomb assassinated Iraqi Governing Council president
Abdel-Zahraa Othman.
06/14/04: A car bomb attacked on a vehicle convoy in Baghdad killed 13,
including three General Electric employees.
06/22/04: Kidnappers beheaded South Korean hostage Kim Sun-il. Al-Jazeera television said that the killing
was carried out by al-Zarqawi's group.
06/29/04: Bulgarian truck drivers Georgi Lazov and Ivaylo Kepov were
kidnapped. Al-Zarqawi's followers were
suspected of decapitating both men.
08/02/04: Video from followers of al-Zarqawi showing shooting death of hostage
Murat Yuce of Turkey.
09/13/04: Video purportedly from al-Qaeda in Iraq showed Durmus Kumdereli, a
Turkish truck driver, being beheaded.
09/14/04: A car bomb ripped through a busy market near a Baghdad police
headquarters where Iraqis were waiting to apply for jobs, killing 47.
09/16/04: British engineer Kenneth Bigley, and United States engineers Jack
Hensley and Eugene "Jack" Armstrong were kidnapped in Baghdad. By October 10, 2004, all three men had been
confirmed beheaded.
09/30/04: Bombings in Baghdad killed 35 children and seven adults as United
States troops handed out candy at the inauguration of a sewage treatment
plant. Al-Zarqawi's group claimed
responsibility for attacks that day, but it was unclear if these included the
explosions that killed the children.
10/30/04: The body of hostage Shosei Koda, of Japan, was found decapitated in
Baghdad, his body was wrapped in an American flag.
12/19/04: Car bombs tore through a funeral procession in Najaf and the main bus
station in nearby Karbala, killing at least 60 in the Shiite holy cities.
02/28/05: Suicide car bombers struck a crowd of police and Iraqi National Guard
recruits in the southern city of Hillah, killing 125 people.
05/07/05: Two explosives-laden cars plowed into an American security company
convoy in Baghdad, killing at least 22 people, including two Americans.
08/19/05: A rocket attack in the Jordanian port city of Aqaba, killing
Jordanian soldier. One Katyusha rocket
landed in neighboring Israel -- causing no casualties -- and another missed a
United States Navy ship docked at Aqaba.
11/09/05: A triple suicide bombing against hotels in Amman, Jordan, killed 60.
12/27/05: A volley of rockets were fired from southern Lebanon into Israel.
At 6:15 pm (Iraqi time) on June 7, 2006, al-Zarqawi, along with seven aides,
was killed by two 500 pound laser guided bombs dropped by United States F-16
jets while attending a meeting in an isolated safehouse approximately 8
kilometers/5 miles north of Baqubah. The
joint task force had been tracking him for some time, and although there were
some close calls, he had eluded them on many occasions. United States intelligence officials then
received tips from Iraqi senior leaders from al-Zarqawi's network that he and
some of his associates were in the Baqubah area. Jordanian intelligence reportedly helped to
identify his location. The area was
subsequently secured by Iraqi security forces, who were the first ground forces
to arrive. On June 8, 2006, coalition
forces confirmed that al-Zarqawi's body was identified by facial recognition,
fingerprinting, and known scars. They
also confirmed the death of one of his key lieutenants, spiritual adviser Sheik
'Abd-al-Rahman.
Zevi, Sabbatai
1626-1676
Jewish messianic rabbi who converted to Islam.
Shabbetai Tzevi (Sabbatai Zebi) (Sabbatai Zevi) (Shabbetai Tzvi) (Shabbetai Ẓevi)
(Sabbatai Sevi) (Sabetay Sevi) (b. July 23/August 1, 1626, Smyrna, Ottoman
Turkey [now İzmir, Turkey] — d. September 17, 1676, Dulcigno (present day
Ulcinj), Albania), was a Jewish messianic figure who developed a mass following
and threatened rabbinical authority in Europe and the Middle East.
Sabbatai Zevi was a Sephardic Rabbi and kabbalist who claimed to be the
long-awaited Jewish Messiah. He was the founder of the Jewish Sabbatean
movement. At the age of forty, he was forced by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV to
convert to Islam. Some of his followers also converted to Islam, about 300
families who were known as the Dönmeh (aka Dönme) (converts).
As a young man, Shabbetai steeped himself in the influential body of Jewish
mystical writings known as the Kabbala. His extended periods of ecstasy and his
strong personality combined to attract many disciples, and at the age of 22 he
proclaimed himself the messiah.
Driven from Smyrna by the aroused rabbinate, he journeyed to Salonika (now
Thessaloníki), an old Kabbalistic center, and then to Constantinople (now
Istanbul). There he encountered an esteemed and forceful Jewish preacher and
Kabbalist, Abraham ha-Yakini, who possessed a false prophetic document
affirming that Shabbetai was the messiah. Shabbetai then traveled to Palestine
and after that to Cairo, where he won over to his cause Raphael Halebi, the
wealthy and powerful treasurer of the Turkish governor.
With a retinue of believers and assured of financial backing, Shabbetai
triumphantly returned to Jerusalem. There, a 20-year-old student known as
Nathan of Gaza assumed the role of a modern Elijah, in the traditional role of
forerunner of the messiah. Nathan ecstatically prophesied the imminent
restoration of Israel and world salvation through the bloodless victory of
Shabbetai, riding on a lion with a seven-headed dragon in his jaws. In
accordance with millenarian belief, he cited 1666 as the apocalyptic year.
Threatened with excommunication by the rabbis of Jerusalem, Shabbetai returned
to Smyrna in the autumn of 1665, where he was wildly acclaimed. His movement spread
to Venice, Amsterdam, Hamburg, London, and several other European and North
African cities.
At the beginning of 1666, Shabbetai went to Constantinople and was imprisoned
on his arrival. After a few months, he was transferred to the castle at Abydos,
which became known to his followers as Migdal Oz, the Tower of Strength. In
September, however, he was brought before the sultan in Adrianople and, having
been previously threatened with torture, converted to Islām. The placated
sultan renamed him Mehmed Efendi, appointed him his personal doorkeeper, and
provided him with a generous allowance. All but his most faithful or
self-seeking disciples were disillusioned by his apostasy. Eventually,
Shabbetai fell out of favor and was banished, dying in Albania.
The movement that developed around Shabbetai Tzevi became known as
Shabbetaianism. It attempted to reconcile Shabbetai’s grandiose claims of
spiritual authority with his subsequent seeming betrayal of the Jewish faith.
Faithful Shabbetaians interpreted Shabbetai’s apostasy as a step toward
ultimate fulfillment of his messiahship and attempted to follow their leader’s
example. They argued that such outward acts were irrelevant as long as one
remains inwardly a Jew. Those who embraced the theory of “sacred sin” believed
that the Torah could be fulfilled only by amoral acts representing its seeming
annulment. Others felt they could remain faithful Shabbetaians without having
to apostatize.
After Shabbetai’s death in 1676, the sect continued to flourish. The nihilistic
tendencies of Shabbetaianism reached a peak in the 18th century with Jacob
Frank, whose followers reputedly sought redemption through orgies at mystical
festivals.
Zewail, Ahmed Hassan
b. 1946
Recipient of the 1999 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
Ahmed Hassan Zewail (b. February 26, 1946, Damanhur, Egypt) was an
Egyptian-born chemist who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1999 for
developing a rapid laser technique that enabled scientists to study the action
of atoms during chemical reactions. The breakthrough created a new field of
physical chemistry known as femtochemistry.
After receiving a bachelor of science (1967) and master of science (1969)
degrees from the University of Alexandria, Zewail attended the University of
Pennsylvania, where he earned a doctorate in 1974. Two years later he joined
the faculty at the California Institute of Technology and in 1990 was selected
as the school’s first Linus Pauling professor of chemical physics. Zewail also
served as a visiting professor at a number of institutions, including Texas
A&M University, the University of Iowa, and American University at Cairo.
Because chemical reactions last only 10 to 100 femtoseconds (fs)—one
femtosecond is 0.000000000000001 second, or 10-15—many believed it would be impossible
to study the events that constitute a reaction. In the late 1980s, however,
Zewail was able to view the motion of atoms and molecules using a method based
on new laser technology capable of producing light flashes just tens of
femtoseconds in duration. During the process, known as femtosecond
spectroscopy, molecules were mixed together in a vacuum tube in which an
ultrafast laser beamed two pulses. The first pulse supplied the energy for the
reaction and the second examined the ongoing action. The characteristic
spectra, or light patterns, from the molecules were then studied to determine
the structural changes of the molecules. Zewail’s discovery enabled scientists
to gain more control over the outcome of the chemical reaction, and it was
expected to have many applications.
“With femtosecond spectroscopy we can for the first time observe in ‘slow
motion’ what happens as the reaction barrier is crossed,” the Nobel Assembly
said. “Scientists the world over are studying processes with femtosecond spectroscopy
in gases, in fluids and in solids, on surfaces and in polymers. Applications
range from how catalysts function and how molecular electronic components must
be designed, to the most delicate mechanisms in life processes and how the
medicines of the future should be produced.”
