Firuz
Firuz (Firuz Shah III Tughluq) (Firoz Shah Tughluq) (Firoz Shah Tughlaq) (1309-1388). Delhi sultan of the Tughluqid dynasty (r.1351-1388). He founded the cities of Firuzabad (Delhi) and Jawnpur. {See also Delhi, Sultans of; Sultan; and Tughluqs.}
Firuz Shah Tughluq was a Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty from 1351 to 1388. He was the son of a Hindu Rajput princess of Dipalpur. His father's name was Razzab and he was the younger brother of Gazi Malik. Gazi Malik is another name for Gayasuddin Tughluq. Firuz succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughluq following the later's death from a fatal illness, but due to widespread unrest Firuz's realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Firuz was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He was known as an iconoclast.
The "Tarikh-i-Firuz Shah" is a historical record written during his reign that attests to the systematic persecution of Hindus under his rule. In particular, it records atrocities on Hindu Brahmin priests who refused to convert to Islam. Under Firuz's rule, Hindus who were forced to pay the mandatory Jizya tax were recorded as infidels, their communities monitored and, if they violated Imperial ordinance and built temples, these were destroyed. In particular, an incident in the village of Gohana in Haryana was recorded in the "Insha-i-Mahry" (another historical record written by Amud Din Abdullah bin Mahru) where Hindus had erected a deity and were arrested, brought to the palace and executed en-masse.
In 1230, the powerful Ganga Vanshi Hindu King of Orissa, Anangabhima III consolidated his rule and proclaimed that an attack on Orissa constituted an attack on the king's god. A sign of Anangabhima's determination to protect Hindu culture is the fact that he named his new capital in Cuttack “Abhinava Varanasi.” His anxieties about further Muslim advances in Orissa proved to be well founded. In 1361, the Indian region of Orissa was conquered by the Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah and he destroyed the Jagannath temple and the stone deity of Krishna, but the indigenous wooden image of the deity was saved.
Firuz tended not to reconquer areas that had broken away. He decided to keep nobles and the Ulema happy so that they would allow him to rule his kingdom peacefully. Indeed, there were hardly any rebellions during his rule. Firuz allowed a noble's son to succeed to his father's position and jagir after his death. The same was done in the army, where an old soldier could send his son, son-in-law or even his slave in his place. He won over the Ulemas by giving them grants of revenue, which gave him political power. He increased the salary of the nobles. He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments such as cutting off hands. Firuz also lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised.
Firuz was the first Muslim ruler to think of the material welfare of his people. Many rest houses, gardens and tombs were built. A number of madrasas (Islamic schools which provided Koranic education) were opened to encourage literacy. He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor. He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families. He commissioned many public buildings in Delhi. He built over 300 villages and dug 5 major canals for irrigation bringing more land under cultivation for growing grain and fruit.
Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages. He brought 2 Ashokan Pillars from Meerut and Topara, carefully wrapped in silk, to Delhi. He re-erected one of them in his palace at Firuz Shah Kotla.
Firuz had about 180,000 slaves, who had been brought from all over the country, trained in various arts and crafts. They, however, turned out to be undependable. Transfer of capital was the highlight of his reign. When the Qutb Minar struck by lightning in 1368, knocking off its top storey, it was replaced by the existing two floors by Firoz.
Firuz Shah's death led to many rebellions. His lenient attitude had weakened the sultan's position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak. Slowly the empire shrank in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi.
Firoz Shah Tughluq see Firuz Tughluq, Firoz Shah see Firuz Tughluq, Firuz Shah III see Firuz Firuz Shah III Tughluq see Firuz Firoz Shah Tughlaq see Firuz Tughlaq, Firoz Shah see Firuz
Firuz (Firuz Shah III Tughluq) (Firoz Shah Tughluq) (Firoz Shah Tughlaq) (1309-1388). Delhi sultan of the Tughluqid dynasty (r.1351-1388). He founded the cities of Firuzabad (Delhi) and Jawnpur. {See also Delhi, Sultans of; Sultan; and Tughluqs.}
Firuz Shah Tughluq was a Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty from 1351 to 1388. He was the son of a Hindu Rajput princess of Dipalpur. His father's name was Razzab and he was the younger brother of Gazi Malik. Gazi Malik is another name for Gayasuddin Tughluq. Firuz succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughluq following the later's death from a fatal illness, but due to widespread unrest Firuz's realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Firuz was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He was known as an iconoclast.
The "Tarikh-i-Firuz Shah" is a historical record written during his reign that attests to the systematic persecution of Hindus under his rule. In particular, it records atrocities on Hindu Brahmin priests who refused to convert to Islam. Under Firuz's rule, Hindus who were forced to pay the mandatory Jizya tax were recorded as infidels, their communities monitored and, if they violated Imperial ordinance and built temples, these were destroyed. In particular, an incident in the village of Gohana in Haryana was recorded in the "Insha-i-Mahry" (another historical record written by Amud Din Abdullah bin Mahru) where Hindus had erected a deity and were arrested, brought to the palace and executed en-masse.
In 1230, the powerful Ganga Vanshi Hindu King of Orissa, Anangabhima III consolidated his rule and proclaimed that an attack on Orissa constituted an attack on the king's god. A sign of Anangabhima's determination to protect Hindu culture is the fact that he named his new capital in Cuttack “Abhinava Varanasi.” His anxieties about further Muslim advances in Orissa proved to be well founded. In 1361, the Indian region of Orissa was conquered by the Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah and he destroyed the Jagannath temple and the stone deity of Krishna, but the indigenous wooden image of the deity was saved.
Firuz tended not to reconquer areas that had broken away. He decided to keep nobles and the Ulema happy so that they would allow him to rule his kingdom peacefully. Indeed, there were hardly any rebellions during his rule. Firuz allowed a noble's son to succeed to his father's position and jagir after his death. The same was done in the army, where an old soldier could send his son, son-in-law or even his slave in his place. He won over the Ulemas by giving them grants of revenue, which gave him political power. He increased the salary of the nobles. He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments such as cutting off hands. Firuz also lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised.
Firuz was the first Muslim ruler to think of the material welfare of his people. Many rest houses, gardens and tombs were built. A number of madrasas (Islamic schools which provided Koranic education) were opened to encourage literacy. He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor. He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families. He commissioned many public buildings in Delhi. He built over 300 villages and dug 5 major canals for irrigation bringing more land under cultivation for growing grain and fruit.
Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages. He brought 2 Ashokan Pillars from Meerut and Topara, carefully wrapped in silk, to Delhi. He re-erected one of them in his palace at Firuz Shah Kotla.
Firuz had about 180,000 slaves, who had been brought from all over the country, trained in various arts and crafts. They, however, turned out to be undependable. Transfer of capital was the highlight of his reign. When the Qutb Minar struck by lightning in 1368, knocking off its top storey, it was replaced by the existing two floors by Firoz.
Firuz Shah's death led to many rebellions. His lenient attitude had weakened the sultan's position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak. Slowly the empire shrank in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi.
Firoz Shah Tughluq see Firuz Tughluq, Firoz Shah see Firuz Tughluq, Firuz Shah III see Firuz Firuz Shah III Tughluq see Firuz Firoz Shah Tughlaq see Firuz Tughlaq, Firoz Shah see Firuz
Firuzabadi
Firuzabadi (al-Firuzabadi) (Abu ʾl-Tāhir Muḥammad ben Yaʿḳūb ben Muḥammad ben Ibrāhīm Majd al-Dīn al-Shāfiʿī al-Shīrāzī al-Fīrūzābādī) (February or April 1326, Kazerun, Iran - January 13, 1414, Zabid, Yemen). Lexicographer who lived in Jerusalem, Mecca and in Yemen. He compiled an extensive dictionary of Arabic, known as Al-Qamus (The Ocean). This dictionary served as the basis of later European dictionaries of Arabic.
After teaching in Jerusalem (1349–59), al-Fīrūzābādī traveled through western Asia and Egypt and settled at Mecca (1368), where he remained for 15 years. Travels to India and another 10 years at Mecca preceded his appointment in 1395 as chief judge (qadi) of Yemen.
al-Firuzabadi see Firuzabadi
Abu ʾl-Tāhir Muḥammad ben Yaʿḳūb ben Muḥammad ben Ibrāhīm Majd al-Dīn al-Shāfiʿī al-Shīrāzī al-Fīrūzābādī see Firuzabadi
al-Firuzabadi see Firuzabadi
Abu ʾl-Tāhir Muḥammad ben Yaʿḳūb ben Muḥammad ben Ibrāhīm Majd al-Dīn al-Shāfiʿī al-Shīrāzī al-Fīrūzābādī see Firuzabadi
FIS
FIS. See Front Islamique du Salut.
Front Islamique du Salut see FIS.
FIS. See Front Islamique du Salut.
Front Islamique du Salut see FIS.
Fitrat
Fitrat (Fitra) (Abdalrauf Fitrat) (1886-1938). Bukharan, writer, educator, and social activist. He was inspirer and theorist of the reform movement in Turkestan of the twentieth century. In his works, he studied the causes of the spiritual and temporal decay of the Muslim world, as seen in the example of Bukhara.
Abdalrauf Fitrat was born in 1886 in the emirate of Bukhara to a merchant family, and little is known of his early years. As a young student he attended the Mir-I Arab madrasah (Islamic school) until 1909, when he received a scholarship to continue his education in Istanbul. He spent five years there and traveled broadly throughout the Ottoman empire, Iran, and Xinjiang, China. In 1911, he published his well-known and popular Bayanat-I sayyah-I hindi (Tales of an Indian Traveler) in Persian. It was published in Samarqand in Russian in 1914. The novel denounces Bukhara's poverty-ridden conditions and the corrupt practices of many Islamic clerics and teachers. It challenges the emirate's social order, which was a common theme in his professional and social activities. In 1917, Fitrat was elected secretary of the jadidist- (new method) influenced Young Bukharan Party, which seized power in Bukhara during the Russian Civil War. Following the Bolshevik victory, he became the minister for education in the newly established Soviet republic. He is credited with revising the educational system and helping to establish a European-style university in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. In 1923, he was removed from office after being accused of bourgeois nationalism. He was arrested in 1938 and executed during the Stalinist party purges.
Fitra see Fitrat
Abdalrauf Fitrat see Fitrat
Fitrat (Fitra) (Abdalrauf Fitrat) (1886-1938). Bukharan, writer, educator, and social activist. He was inspirer and theorist of the reform movement in Turkestan of the twentieth century. In his works, he studied the causes of the spiritual and temporal decay of the Muslim world, as seen in the example of Bukhara.
Abdalrauf Fitrat was born in 1886 in the emirate of Bukhara to a merchant family, and little is known of his early years. As a young student he attended the Mir-I Arab madrasah (Islamic school) until 1909, when he received a scholarship to continue his education in Istanbul. He spent five years there and traveled broadly throughout the Ottoman empire, Iran, and Xinjiang, China. In 1911, he published his well-known and popular Bayanat-I sayyah-I hindi (Tales of an Indian Traveler) in Persian. It was published in Samarqand in Russian in 1914. The novel denounces Bukhara's poverty-ridden conditions and the corrupt practices of many Islamic clerics and teachers. It challenges the emirate's social order, which was a common theme in his professional and social activities. In 1917, Fitrat was elected secretary of the jadidist- (new method) influenced Young Bukharan Party, which seized power in Bukhara during the Russian Civil War. Following the Bolshevik victory, he became the minister for education in the newly established Soviet republic. He is credited with revising the educational system and helping to establish a European-style university in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. In 1923, he was removed from office after being accused of bourgeois nationalism. He was arrested in 1938 and executed during the Stalinist party purges.
Fitra see Fitrat
Abdalrauf Fitrat see Fitrat
FLN
FLN. See Front de Liberation Nationale.
Front de Liberation Nationale see FLN.
FLN. See Front de Liberation Nationale.
Front de Liberation Nationale see FLN.
Fongoro
Fongoro. The Fongoro call themselves Gelege, but no one else does. The Fur call them Kole, the rest of the world, Fongoro. They are a disappearing Muslim ethnic group inhabiting a vast hilly territory along the Chadian-Sudanese frontier. The area commonly known as Dar (home of) Fongoro hosts small colonies of Fongoro/Gelege, Sinyar, Formono, Fur-Dalinga, Daju-Galfige and families of larger ethnic groups such as the Masalit and Kajakse. The Chadian half of Dar Fongoro is especially inhospitable as a result of the tsetse fly, the lack of water and an almost complete absence of services (medical, police, health, trade). The area is wooded and very rich in small and large game. As a result of its topography and its surfeit of wildlife, agriculture is limited to fermentation in pits of the fruits of the doleib-palm (Borassus flabellifer) and the cultivation of early maturing sorghum. Animal husbandry not being feasible, the inhabitants rely to a large extent on hunting and gathering. The main products of the area are honey, dried fish and meat, a little elephant ivory and the leaves of the palm, which are used for weaving mats.
Fur infiltration is held to have begun in the eighteenth century, resulting in the indigenous pagan populations being pushed to the less fertile western part of Dar Fongoro. In the nineteenth century, pastoral nomadic Arabs made incursions into the region from the southeast. The Fur sultans countered these, dismissed the still functioning Fongoro chief and parcelled part of Dar Fongoro estates, to be administered by their agents. Five of these estates were the domain of the sultans, and they supplied the court with game, fish and honey. In the late nineteenth century Dar Fongoro and Dar Sinyar were given as a present to the Daju Sultan of Dar Sila. Throughout the reign of the Daju the inhabitants of Dar Fongoro suffered greatly from raids by various neighboring groups. The area was divided into French and Anglo-Egyptian parts during the 1923 settlement of the international frontier between the two powers. The leader of the French delegation, Lieutenant Colonel Grossard, later commented in his book that the Fongoro had withstood the onslaughts of their neighbors less well than the Sinyar.
Gelege see Fongoro.
Kole see Fongoro.
Fongoro. The Fongoro call themselves Gelege, but no one else does. The Fur call them Kole, the rest of the world, Fongoro. They are a disappearing Muslim ethnic group inhabiting a vast hilly territory along the Chadian-Sudanese frontier. The area commonly known as Dar (home of) Fongoro hosts small colonies of Fongoro/Gelege, Sinyar, Formono, Fur-Dalinga, Daju-Galfige and families of larger ethnic groups such as the Masalit and Kajakse. The Chadian half of Dar Fongoro is especially inhospitable as a result of the tsetse fly, the lack of water and an almost complete absence of services (medical, police, health, trade). The area is wooded and very rich in small and large game. As a result of its topography and its surfeit of wildlife, agriculture is limited to fermentation in pits of the fruits of the doleib-palm (Borassus flabellifer) and the cultivation of early maturing sorghum. Animal husbandry not being feasible, the inhabitants rely to a large extent on hunting and gathering. The main products of the area are honey, dried fish and meat, a little elephant ivory and the leaves of the palm, which are used for weaving mats.
Fur infiltration is held to have begun in the eighteenth century, resulting in the indigenous pagan populations being pushed to the less fertile western part of Dar Fongoro. In the nineteenth century, pastoral nomadic Arabs made incursions into the region from the southeast. The Fur sultans countered these, dismissed the still functioning Fongoro chief and parcelled part of Dar Fongoro estates, to be administered by their agents. Five of these estates were the domain of the sultans, and they supplied the court with game, fish and honey. In the late nineteenth century Dar Fongoro and Dar Sinyar were given as a present to the Daju Sultan of Dar Sila. Throughout the reign of the Daju the inhabitants of Dar Fongoro suffered greatly from raids by various neighboring groups. The area was divided into French and Anglo-Egyptian parts during the 1923 settlement of the international frontier between the two powers. The leader of the French delegation, Lieutenant Colonel Grossard, later commented in his book that the Fongoro had withstood the onslaughts of their neighbors less well than the Sinyar.
Gelege see Fongoro.
Kole see Fongoro.
Franjiyah
Franjiyah (Sulayman Franjiyah) (Suleiman Franjieh) (Suleiman Kabalan Frangieh, last name also spelled Frangié, Franjieh, or Franjiyeh) (June 15, 1910 - July 23, 1992). President of Lebanon from 1970 to 1976. His presidency caused the Lebanese Civil War, which raged from 1975 to 1990, as well as the invitation to the Syrian military presence in Lebanon, which continued until 2005.
Franjiyah was born on June 15, 1910 in Zgharta, into a wealthy and influential Maronite Christian family. The Franjiyah family comprised the leadership of one of Lebanon’s strongest clans.
During the 1930s, Franjiyah received his education in Tripoli and Beirut. In 1957, Franjieh was implicated in the assassination of members of a rival clan. He fled to Syria where he became friends with the future president Hafiz al-Assad. Upon his return to Lebanon, he became leader of the Franjiyah clan, and started on his political career.
During May and June of 1958, Franjiyah supported the forces that opposed president Camille Chamoun in the civil war.
In 1960, Franjiyah was elected to parliament and became minister in the government. In 1961, he stepped down as minister.
In 1968, Franjiyah was appointed minister in a new government. In 1970, he once again stepped down as minister. In August of 1970, as he campaigned for the presidency, Franjiyah received the support of Chamoun and Pierre Gemayel. He defeated Elias Sarkis, but only with the narrowest margin in the parliament: one vote.
In April of 1975, the Lebanese Civil War erupted. In 1976, Franjiyah issued a Constitutional Reform Document, where he changed the 6:5 ratio between Christians and Muslims in the parliament into a 5:5 parity. This reform was not carried through. In September 1976, when his presidency came to an end, Franjiyah joined the Lebanese Front of Chamoun and Bashir Gemayel.
In June 1978, Gemayel had Franjiyah’s son, Tony, killed. Franjiyah turned against Gemayel and joined the camp of Walid Jumblatt and Rashid Karami. With this murder, progress towards ending the civil war was derailed.
In 1988, when Lebanon sprouted two governments, Franjiyah supported the parliamentarian party, in opposition to Michel Aoun.
In 1992, in the first general elections after the Civil War, Franjiyah’s party received half of the Maronite seats in the parliament.
On July 23, 1992, Sulayman Franjiyah died in Beirut.
In his politics as president of Lebanon, Franjiyah was anti-Palestinian. He was also autocratic and nepotistic allowing clansmen to be given important positions independent of their qualifications. He became very unpopular with Muslims and nationalists, but the first general elections after the Civil War in 1992 proved that he was still popular among Christians. However, Franjiyah was also the man behind a suggestion of parliamentarian reform in 1976, giving the Muslims more influence. This was not carried through until 1989, but then as part of the agreement that led to the end of the civil war.
Sulayman Franjiyah see Franjiyah
Franjiyah, Sulayman see Franjiyah
Suleiman Franjieh see Franjiyah
Franjieh, Suleiman see Franjiyah
Suleiman Kabalan Frangieh see Franjiyah
Frangieh, Suleiman Kabalan see Franjiyah
Franjiyah (Sulayman Franjiyah) (Suleiman Franjieh) (Suleiman Kabalan Frangieh, last name also spelled Frangié, Franjieh, or Franjiyeh) (June 15, 1910 - July 23, 1992). President of Lebanon from 1970 to 1976. His presidency caused the Lebanese Civil War, which raged from 1975 to 1990, as well as the invitation to the Syrian military presence in Lebanon, which continued until 2005.
Franjiyah was born on June 15, 1910 in Zgharta, into a wealthy and influential Maronite Christian family. The Franjiyah family comprised the leadership of one of Lebanon’s strongest clans.
During the 1930s, Franjiyah received his education in Tripoli and Beirut. In 1957, Franjieh was implicated in the assassination of members of a rival clan. He fled to Syria where he became friends with the future president Hafiz al-Assad. Upon his return to Lebanon, he became leader of the Franjiyah clan, and started on his political career.
During May and June of 1958, Franjiyah supported the forces that opposed president Camille Chamoun in the civil war.
In 1960, Franjiyah was elected to parliament and became minister in the government. In 1961, he stepped down as minister.
In 1968, Franjiyah was appointed minister in a new government. In 1970, he once again stepped down as minister. In August of 1970, as he campaigned for the presidency, Franjiyah received the support of Chamoun and Pierre Gemayel. He defeated Elias Sarkis, but only with the narrowest margin in the parliament: one vote.
In April of 1975, the Lebanese Civil War erupted. In 1976, Franjiyah issued a Constitutional Reform Document, where he changed the 6:5 ratio between Christians and Muslims in the parliament into a 5:5 parity. This reform was not carried through. In September 1976, when his presidency came to an end, Franjiyah joined the Lebanese Front of Chamoun and Bashir Gemayel.
In June 1978, Gemayel had Franjiyah’s son, Tony, killed. Franjiyah turned against Gemayel and joined the camp of Walid Jumblatt and Rashid Karami. With this murder, progress towards ending the civil war was derailed.
In 1988, when Lebanon sprouted two governments, Franjiyah supported the parliamentarian party, in opposition to Michel Aoun.
In 1992, in the first general elections after the Civil War, Franjiyah’s party received half of the Maronite seats in the parliament.
On July 23, 1992, Sulayman Franjiyah died in Beirut.
In his politics as president of Lebanon, Franjiyah was anti-Palestinian. He was also autocratic and nepotistic allowing clansmen to be given important positions independent of their qualifications. He became very unpopular with Muslims and nationalists, but the first general elections after the Civil War in 1992 proved that he was still popular among Christians. However, Franjiyah was also the man behind a suggestion of parliamentarian reform in 1976, giving the Muslims more influence. This was not carried through until 1989, but then as part of the agreement that led to the end of the civil war.
Sulayman Franjiyah see Franjiyah
Franjiyah, Sulayman see Franjiyah
Suleiman Franjieh see Franjiyah
Franjieh, Suleiman see Franjiyah
Suleiman Kabalan Frangieh see Franjiyah
Frangieh, Suleiman Kabalan see Franjiyah
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