Zoroastrians
Zoroastrians. Practitioners of Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism is the religion of pre-Islamic Iran founded by the prophet Zoroaster. Zoroastrianism became the official creed of the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanid empires.
The fundamental tenets of the Zoroastrian faith are set forth in the Avesta (meaning something like “authoritative utterance”), a collection of theological and ritual texts in the Old Iranian language of Zoroaster’s own hymns, the Gathas (which form the core of the Avesta, only a small part of which survives), and in a later dialect called Younger Avestan. Part of the Middle Persian Zand, a translation and commentary on the Avestan text, also survives. A number of theological works that reflect ancient traditions survive in Pahlavi. Other sources include the works of Greek and Latin authors, the inscriptions of the Achaemenids and Sasanids, and the writings of later Arab historians.
Zoroaster’s tribe practiced a polytheistic religion akin to Vedic Hinduism, in which offerings were made through fire to powerful gods, the daevas (Sanskrit, deva); a drink made of the intoxicant haoma (Sanskrit, soma) was prepared ritually (Avestan, yasna; Sanskrit, yajna); and sacred verses (Avestan, manthra; Sanskrit, mantra) were composed by priests. In pagan Iran, as in Vedic India, the gods were seen to personify both human characteristics and natural phenomena and to uphold cosmic order (Sanskrit, rta; Avestan, asha; Old Persian, arta; Greek, arete). Zoroaster, himself a priest learned in ritual and trained in the composition of religious poetry, was troubled by the often amoral behavior ascribed to the daevas and by the violence practiced in their cult and seen in the human and natural world. The answer to his questions came in the revelation of a cosmic dualism proclaimed in all its essentials in the Gathas and amplified, though never altered in its ethical character, in all later Zoroastrian literature, notably the Pahlavi Bundahishn (Creation).
According to the Gathas and other texts, Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, and Angra Mainyu, the Destructive Spirit (Pahlavi, Ohrmazd, Ahriman) existed from eternity as wholly separate entities, the first entirely good and all-knowing but not all-powerful, the second evil and implacably hostile. Ahura Mazda, whose desire is increase and beneficence, created the world and invited Angra Mainyu to forsake evil and to partake of the goodness of material being. Angra Mainyu refused, promising instead to corrupt the world, but Ahura Mazda in his omniscience knew that his adversary should be trapped, defeated, and cast from existence in time, lest he invade the material creation. The creator had formed the world through seven lesser divinities, evocations of himself, called the Amesha Spentas (“bounteous immortals”), who guard and personify various of the good creations, while embodying divine attributes. For example, Asha Vahishta (“best righteousness”) protects the creation of fire, which with its warmth, light and energy is said to pervade all the other creations. It remains the living icon of Zoroastrians, who are often mistakenly called fire worshipers. The cosmic order or rightness Asha Vahishta represents should likewise pervade the moral, spiritual, and temporal worlds. The Amesha Spentas in their turn emanated lesser divinities, the yazatas (“beings worthy to be worshipped”), among whom are gods of the pagan pantheon whose moral qualities are consonant with Zoroastrianism, such as Mithra (Sanskrit, Mitra), the lord of covenants.
The fravashis, or incorruptible spirits of men, are said to have made a primordial covenant with their creator to assume physical form and to aid Ahura Mazda in the cosmic struggle against evil, but in the present, “mixed” state of the world (Pahlavi, gumezishn), in which the good creations have been polluted through the invasion of Ahriman, the souls of men (Pahlavi, ruwan) possess free will. They are positively enjoined to procreate, to enjoy in moderation the good things of life, and to further the Good Religion, as Zoroastrianism is called by its adherents, through good thoughts, words, and deeds. Ultimately a savior (Avestan, Saoshyant) will be born of the preserved seed of Zoroaster, the dead will be resurrected and judged, the damned will be annihilated, and the righteous will enjoy eternal earthly bliss.
At about the age of seven (fifteen in ancient times), the Zoroastrian becomes a full member of the community and assumes moral responsibility for his or her actions with the ceremony of binding the sacred girdle (New Persian, kusti; the ceremony is called Navjote, “newborn,” among the Parsis). Particular stress is laid upon observance of the laws of purity, as death and disease are regarded as demonic assaults upon the good creation. Accordingly, corpses are exposed in so-called towers of silence to be picked clean by birds rather than being allowed to pollute earth or fire by interment or cremation. After death, the soul rises to heaven to be judged and is sent to await the resurrection, or the renovation of the world (Pahlavi, frashegird), and final judgment, in paradise, hell, or limbo (Pahlavi, hammistagan). Zoroastrian concepts of heaven, hell, salvation by a good shepherd, resurrection, and the last judgment antedate the appearance of these ideas in Judaism and Christianity, and Islam owes to Zoroastrianism, in addition, to the foregoing, the five daily times of prayer, the bridge (Arabic, sirat) of judgment, and the idea of the pre-eternal covenant between God and man (Sura 7:172).
All obligatory Zoroastrian rites may be solemnized by priests (the magi, later called mobads) before the ritually pure hearth fire, but around the mid-Achaemenid period a temple cult of fire was instituted, probably in response to the establishment of shrines with images of the yazatas on the Babylonian model. The holiest grade of temple fire, the atakhsh i warahran (Pahlavi, apparently meaning “victorious fire”) is elaborately consecrated and must be kept permanently ablaze. Three such fires, Adur Burzen Mihr in Parthia, Adur Gushnasp in Media, and Adur Farnbag in Persia, were particularly famed under the Sasanids. Adur Farnbag still burns in a temple outside Yazd, Iran.
The main feast of the Zoroastrian year is Now Ruz, the vernal new year, which honors fire and anticipates the eternal spring of the renovation. Six other seasonal feasts (Pahlavi, gahambar) commemorate the creation of the sky, water, earth, plants, animals, and man. In ancient times, the feasts of Mithra and Tiri (Mihragan and Tiragan) were also celebrated in royal splendor. The endowments established by individuals for the regular public celebration of feasts are believed to have provided the model for the Islamic waqf.
During the Achaemenid period, Zoroastrians came into contact with Mesopotamian civilization; several alien divinties were adapted to Iranian yazatas; the myth of the deluge was worked into the Indo-Iranian legend of the primal king, Yima (Sanskrit, Yama; New Persian, Jamshid); and the twelve thousand year Babylonian world cycle was fitted to the cosmic drama, with the onslaught of Angra Mainyu dated to the six-thousandth year after creation, and frashegird to the twelve-thousandth year. Most significantly, a god of time, Zurvan, was established in priestly doctrine as the single progenitor of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. This heretical doctrine, expunged from Zoroastrianism after the Sasanid period and never pervasive in the faith, may have evolved as a response to Western monist doctrines.
Although Zurvanism, established in Persia, was the official doctrine of the Sasanids, the ethical dualism of the religion was never altered, and the Zoroastrians retained their unique and separate character among the great religions as adherents of cosmic dualism. There was little proselytism, although the faith had been embraced by various Iranian peoples and by a few other nations with close cultural and dynastic ties to Iran, notably the Armenians, and although Zoroastrian influence on the religions of Iran’s neighbors was strong. The stringent requirements of the faith, and the national traditions intertwined with its teachings, may have combined to repel outsiders and to persuade Iranians that their religion was meant for them alone, for the three great dynasties suffered large foreign communities to flourish in Iran and ruled other lands tolerantly, persecuting infidels only when they proselytized among influential Iranians or were seen to favor an external enemy, such as Christian Byzantium. However, the authoritative Pahlavi Denkard (Acts of the Religion) states uncompromisingly that the Zoroastrianism is meant for all men, of all races. Zoroaster’s own Gathas likewise envisage a world faith.
Within Iran, two major religions and social movements were born out of Zoroastrianism -- Manichaeism and Mazdakism. They were violently suppressed in Iran and left no lasting influence on the faith, although the first became a great and influential religion, from China to Europe, while the second survived the Sasanids to play a role in altered form in early Islam.
Zoroastrianism waned gradually in the three centuries following the Arab conquest of Iran in 651 of the Christian calendar. In the tenth century, a small group of the faithful from the forcibly islamicized province of Khurasan fled to Gujarat in India. At the end of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand Zoroastrians, called Parsis (i.e., Persians), lived in India, mainly in the Bombay area. Another twenty thousand remained in Iran, in Tehran, Yazd, and Kerman, survivors of a millennium of systematic persecution and massacre by Islam. Five thousand or more live in other parts of the world, particularly Great Britain and America. The community, which accepts no converts, is dwindling rapidly through intermarriage and a low birthrate. It adheres conservatively to ancient rituals, but theological learning has suffered greatly from the introduction of theosophical, monist, and other doctrines adopted as a defensive response to British Christian proselytism among the Parsis in the nineteenth century.
The fundamental tenets of the Zoroastrian faith are set forth in the Avesta (meaning something like “authoritative utterance”), a collection of theological and ritual texts in the Old Iranian language of Zoroaster’s own hymns, the Gathas (which form the core of the Avesta, only a small part of which survives), and in a later dialect called Younger Avestan. Part of the Middle Persian Zand, a translation and commentary on the Avestan text, also survives. A number of theological works that reflect ancient traditions survive in Pahlavi. Other sources include the works of Greek and Latin authors, the inscriptions of the Achaemenids and Sasanids, and the writings of later Arab historians.
Zoroaster’s tribe practiced a polytheistic religion akin to Vedic Hinduism, in which offerings were made through fire to powerful gods, the daevas (Sanskrit, deva); a drink made of the intoxicant haoma (Sanskrit, soma) was prepared ritually (Avestan, yasna; Sanskrit, yajna); and sacred verses (Avestan, manthra; Sanskrit, mantra) were composed by priests. In pagan Iran, as in Vedic India, the gods were seen to personify both human characteristics and natural phenomena and to uphold cosmic order (Sanskrit, rta; Avestan, asha; Old Persian, arta; Greek, arete). Zoroaster, himself a priest learned in ritual and trained in the composition of religious poetry, was troubled by the often amoral behavior ascribed to the daevas and by the violence practiced in their cult and seen in the human and natural world. The answer to his questions came in the revelation of a cosmic dualism proclaimed in all its essentials in the Gathas and amplified, though never altered in its ethical character, in all later Zoroastrian literature, notably the Pahlavi Bundahishn (Creation).
According to the Gathas and other texts, Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, and Angra Mainyu, the Destructive Spirit (Pahlavi, Ohrmazd, Ahriman) existed from eternity as wholly separate entities, the first entirely good and all-knowing but not all-powerful, the second evil and implacably hostile. Ahura Mazda, whose desire is increase and beneficence, created the world and invited Angra Mainyu to forsake evil and to partake of the goodness of material being. Angra Mainyu refused, promising instead to corrupt the world, but Ahura Mazda in his omniscience knew that his adversary should be trapped, defeated, and cast from existence in time, lest he invade the material creation. The creator had formed the world through seven lesser divinities, evocations of himself, called the Amesha Spentas (“bounteous immortals”), who guard and personify various of the good creations, while embodying divine attributes. For example, Asha Vahishta (“best righteousness”) protects the creation of fire, which with its warmth, light and energy is said to pervade all the other creations. It remains the living icon of Zoroastrians, who are often mistakenly called fire worshipers. The cosmic order or rightness Asha Vahishta represents should likewise pervade the moral, spiritual, and temporal worlds. The Amesha Spentas in their turn emanated lesser divinities, the yazatas (“beings worthy to be worshipped”), among whom are gods of the pagan pantheon whose moral qualities are consonant with Zoroastrianism, such as Mithra (Sanskrit, Mitra), the lord of covenants.
The fravashis, or incorruptible spirits of men, are said to have made a primordial covenant with their creator to assume physical form and to aid Ahura Mazda in the cosmic struggle against evil, but in the present, “mixed” state of the world (Pahlavi, gumezishn), in which the good creations have been polluted through the invasion of Ahriman, the souls of men (Pahlavi, ruwan) possess free will. They are positively enjoined to procreate, to enjoy in moderation the good things of life, and to further the Good Religion, as Zoroastrianism is called by its adherents, through good thoughts, words, and deeds. Ultimately a savior (Avestan, Saoshyant) will be born of the preserved seed of Zoroaster, the dead will be resurrected and judged, the damned will be annihilated, and the righteous will enjoy eternal earthly bliss.
At about the age of seven (fifteen in ancient times), the Zoroastrian becomes a full member of the community and assumes moral responsibility for his or her actions with the ceremony of binding the sacred girdle (New Persian, kusti; the ceremony is called Navjote, “newborn,” among the Parsis). Particular stress is laid upon observance of the laws of purity, as death and disease are regarded as demonic assaults upon the good creation. Accordingly, corpses are exposed in so-called towers of silence to be picked clean by birds rather than being allowed to pollute earth or fire by interment or cremation. After death, the soul rises to heaven to be judged and is sent to await the resurrection, or the renovation of the world (Pahlavi, frashegird), and final judgment, in paradise, hell, or limbo (Pahlavi, hammistagan). Zoroastrian concepts of heaven, hell, salvation by a good shepherd, resurrection, and the last judgment antedate the appearance of these ideas in Judaism and Christianity, and Islam owes to Zoroastrianism, in addition, to the foregoing, the five daily times of prayer, the bridge (Arabic, sirat) of judgment, and the idea of the pre-eternal covenant between God and man (Sura 7:172).
All obligatory Zoroastrian rites may be solemnized by priests (the magi, later called mobads) before the ritually pure hearth fire, but around the mid-Achaemenid period a temple cult of fire was instituted, probably in response to the establishment of shrines with images of the yazatas on the Babylonian model. The holiest grade of temple fire, the atakhsh i warahran (Pahlavi, apparently meaning “victorious fire”) is elaborately consecrated and must be kept permanently ablaze. Three such fires, Adur Burzen Mihr in Parthia, Adur Gushnasp in Media, and Adur Farnbag in Persia, were particularly famed under the Sasanids. Adur Farnbag still burns in a temple outside Yazd, Iran.
The main feast of the Zoroastrian year is Now Ruz, the vernal new year, which honors fire and anticipates the eternal spring of the renovation. Six other seasonal feasts (Pahlavi, gahambar) commemorate the creation of the sky, water, earth, plants, animals, and man. In ancient times, the feasts of Mithra and Tiri (Mihragan and Tiragan) were also celebrated in royal splendor. The endowments established by individuals for the regular public celebration of feasts are believed to have provided the model for the Islamic waqf.
During the Achaemenid period, Zoroastrians came into contact with Mesopotamian civilization; several alien divinties were adapted to Iranian yazatas; the myth of the deluge was worked into the Indo-Iranian legend of the primal king, Yima (Sanskrit, Yama; New Persian, Jamshid); and the twelve thousand year Babylonian world cycle was fitted to the cosmic drama, with the onslaught of Angra Mainyu dated to the six-thousandth year after creation, and frashegird to the twelve-thousandth year. Most significantly, a god of time, Zurvan, was established in priestly doctrine as the single progenitor of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. This heretical doctrine, expunged from Zoroastrianism after the Sasanid period and never pervasive in the faith, may have evolved as a response to Western monist doctrines.
Although Zurvanism, established in Persia, was the official doctrine of the Sasanids, the ethical dualism of the religion was never altered, and the Zoroastrians retained their unique and separate character among the great religions as adherents of cosmic dualism. There was little proselytism, although the faith had been embraced by various Iranian peoples and by a few other nations with close cultural and dynastic ties to Iran, notably the Armenians, and although Zoroastrian influence on the religions of Iran’s neighbors was strong. The stringent requirements of the faith, and the national traditions intertwined with its teachings, may have combined to repel outsiders and to persuade Iranians that their religion was meant for them alone, for the three great dynasties suffered large foreign communities to flourish in Iran and ruled other lands tolerantly, persecuting infidels only when they proselytized among influential Iranians or were seen to favor an external enemy, such as Christian Byzantium. However, the authoritative Pahlavi Denkard (Acts of the Religion) states uncompromisingly that the Zoroastrianism is meant for all men, of all races. Zoroaster’s own Gathas likewise envisage a world faith.
Within Iran, two major religions and social movements were born out of Zoroastrianism -- Manichaeism and Mazdakism. They were violently suppressed in Iran and left no lasting influence on the faith, although the first became a great and influential religion, from China to Europe, while the second survived the Sasanids to play a role in altered form in early Islam.
Zoroastrianism waned gradually in the three centuries following the Arab conquest of Iran in 651 of the Christian calendar. In the tenth century, a small group of the faithful from the forcibly islamicized province of Khurasan fled to Gujarat in India. At the end of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand Zoroastrians, called Parsis (i.e., Persians), lived in India, mainly in the Bombay area. Another twenty thousand remained in Iran, in Tehran, Yazd, and Kerman, survivors of a millennium of systematic persecution and massacre by Islam. Five thousand or more live in other parts of the world, particularly Great Britain and America. The community, which accepts no converts, is dwindling rapidly through intermarriage and a low birthrate. It adheres conservatively to ancient rituals, but theological learning has suffered greatly from the introduction of theosophical, monist, and other doctrines adopted as a defensive response to British Christian proselytism among the Parsis in the nineteenth century.
Zubayda bint Ja‘far
Zubayda bint Ja‘far (Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur</I.) (762-832). Wife of the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. She is famous for her love of splendor, her liberality to poets and scholars, and for the public works she carried out.
Zubayda bint Ja`far ibn Mansur was granddaughter of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur, through his son Ja'far, and cousin (through mothers) of Harun al-Rashid (r.766-809), whom she later married (781).
Zubayda went on to become the best known of the Abbasid princesses. She and her husband's exploits are the subjects of The Thousand and One Nights. It is said that her palace 'sounded like a beehive' because she employed one hundred women maids who had memorized the Qur'an.
Zubayda is particularly remembered for the contributions she made to the ulema and the poor, and for the series of wells, reservoirs and artificial pools that provided water for Muslim pilgrims along the route from Baghdad to Mecca and Medina. The route was re-named Darb Zubayda (“Zubayda’s Way”) in her honor.
Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur see Zubayda bint Ja‘far
Zubayda bint Ja‘far (Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur</I.) (762-832). Wife of the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. She is famous for her love of splendor, her liberality to poets and scholars, and for the public works she carried out.
Zubayda bint Ja`far ibn Mansur was granddaughter of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur, through his son Ja'far, and cousin (through mothers) of Harun al-Rashid (r.766-809), whom she later married (781).
Zubayda went on to become the best known of the Abbasid princesses. She and her husband's exploits are the subjects of The Thousand and One Nights. It is said that her palace 'sounded like a beehive' because she employed one hundred women maids who had memorized the Qur'an.
Zubayda is particularly remembered for the contributions she made to the ulema and the poor, and for the series of wells, reservoirs and artificial pools that provided water for Muslim pilgrims along the route from Baghdad to Mecca and Medina. The route was re-named Darb Zubayda (“Zubayda’s Way”) in her honor.
Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur see Zubayda bint Ja‘far
Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam (Zubair ibn al-'Awwam) (al-Hawari - “the Apostle”) (594-656). Cousin of the Prophet and nephew of Khadija. He was one of the earliest converts to Islam. With his wife, Asthma bint Abi Bakr, he had three sons who also became known in early Islam: ‘Abd Allah, ‘Urwa, and Mus‘ab. He took part in all the battles and campaigns of the Prophet, and was renowned for his gallantry. His epithet “the Apostle” was given him by the Prophet on account of his services as a spy in the conflict with the Banu Qurayza. In the conflict between ‘A’isha and ‘Ali, he was on the side of the Prophet’s widow, but withdrew from the Battle of the Camel and was treacherously killed in 656 in Basra (Iraq).
Zubayr (Zubair) ibn al-Awwam was a companion of Muhammad and later one of the most successful commanders of the Rashidun army. He was born in Mecca (Arabia) in 594. He first served under Prophet Muhammad in various military expeditions and was a commander of one of the four armies that entered Mecca during the Conquest of Mecca. He later served under the Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. He commanded a regiment in the decisive Battle of Yarmouk, fought in 636. Later in 640, he commanded the reinforcements sent to capture Amr ibn al-As in Egypt. Zubayr was the most successful field commander during the Muslim conquest of Egypt. On his death bed, Caliph Umar selected Zubayr along with five other individuals, from whom one Caliph would be chosen to succeed him.
Zubayr kept himself away from state politics and military affairs after the death of Caliph Umar. Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656, and when 'A'isha (Ayesha), wife of Prophet Muhammad, raised the cry for the vengeance of blood of 'Uthman, Zubayr along with another influential personality, Talha ibn Ubaidullah, joined 'A'isha and marched to Basra, where 4000 people, who had joined the rebels to besiege Caliph Uthman's house, were killed. 'Ali, marched to Basra, where the army of 'Ali and that of 'A'isha agreed upon a pact to aid the Caliphate in dealing with the rebels who killed 'Uthman. At night, however, a battle started between the two armies erupted. The battle that ensued is known as Battle of Camel. Zubayr, unwilling to fight against 'Ali, left the battlefield.
Zubayr left the battlefield and was killed during prayers by one of the soldiers of Ali's army who had been chasing him.
Hawari, al- see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
The Apostle see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
Zubair ibn al-'Awwam see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam (Zubair ibn al-'Awwam) (al-Hawari - “the Apostle”) (594-656). Cousin of the Prophet and nephew of Khadija. He was one of the earliest converts to Islam. With his wife, Asthma bint Abi Bakr, he had three sons who also became known in early Islam: ‘Abd Allah, ‘Urwa, and Mus‘ab. He took part in all the battles and campaigns of the Prophet, and was renowned for his gallantry. His epithet “the Apostle” was given him by the Prophet on account of his services as a spy in the conflict with the Banu Qurayza. In the conflict between ‘A’isha and ‘Ali, he was on the side of the Prophet’s widow, but withdrew from the Battle of the Camel and was treacherously killed in 656 in Basra (Iraq).
Zubayr (Zubair) ibn al-Awwam was a companion of Muhammad and later one of the most successful commanders of the Rashidun army. He was born in Mecca (Arabia) in 594. He first served under Prophet Muhammad in various military expeditions and was a commander of one of the four armies that entered Mecca during the Conquest of Mecca. He later served under the Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. He commanded a regiment in the decisive Battle of Yarmouk, fought in 636. Later in 640, he commanded the reinforcements sent to capture Amr ibn al-As in Egypt. Zubayr was the most successful field commander during the Muslim conquest of Egypt. On his death bed, Caliph Umar selected Zubayr along with five other individuals, from whom one Caliph would be chosen to succeed him.
Zubayr kept himself away from state politics and military affairs after the death of Caliph Umar. Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656, and when 'A'isha (Ayesha), wife of Prophet Muhammad, raised the cry for the vengeance of blood of 'Uthman, Zubayr along with another influential personality, Talha ibn Ubaidullah, joined 'A'isha and marched to Basra, where 4000 people, who had joined the rebels to besiege Caliph Uthman's house, were killed. 'Ali, marched to Basra, where the army of 'Ali and that of 'A'isha agreed upon a pact to aid the Caliphate in dealing with the rebels who killed 'Uthman. At night, however, a battle started between the two armies erupted. The battle that ensued is known as Battle of Camel. Zubayr, unwilling to fight against 'Ali, left the battlefield.
Zubayr left the battlefield and was killed during prayers by one of the soldiers of Ali's army who had been chasing him.
Hawari, al- see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
The Apostle see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
Zubair ibn al-'Awwam see Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam
Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al- (1830-1913). Arab slave trader who built his own principality in southeastern Sudan.
A Sudanese Arab slave trader in the late 19th-century, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur (also Sebehr Rahma or Rahama Zobeir) later became a pasha and Sudanese governor. His reputation as a nemesis of General Charles Gordon meant he was bestowed a near-mythic status in England, where he was referred to as "the richest and worst", a "Slaver King" "who [had] chained lions as part of his escort".
Born in 1830, al-Zubayr came from the Gemaab section of the Ja'Alin tribe in Northern Sudan. Al-Zubayr was raised and educated in northern Sudan. He first entered southern Sudan to trade and to raid for slaves in 1856. He then began his large-scale business when he left Khartoum with a small army to set up a network of trading forts known as zaribas, focusing his efforts on slave trading and ivory sales.
By the mid-1860s, al-Zubayr was the virtual master of the Bahr al-Ghazal province. Al-Zubayr controlled Bahr al-Ghazal through military conquests and an elaborate system of alliances with local chiefs.
In the early 1870s, al-Zubayr’s efforts to expand his activities to the south were frustrated by the fierce resistance of the Zande chief Yambio and the increased efforts of the Egyptian-Sudanese administration to curb slaving. Afterwards, al-Zubayr maintained an uneasy alliance with the Egyptians in a drive to conquer Darfur to the north.
In 1871, at the height of his power, al-Zubayr was visited by Georg Schweinfurth. Two years later, he was granted the title of Governor over Bahr el Ghazal in return for an annual tribute of ivory.
Eventually al-Zubayr controlled 30 zaribas, and earned the titles of bey and Pasha, after allying himself, and his lieutenant Rabih az-Zubayr, with the khedive Ismail Pasha briefly during the invasion of Darfur, where he led the southern forces. He was referred to as "the Black Pasha", and ultimately wished to become Governor General.
In 1877, General Gordon arrived as the newly-appointed Governor of the Sudan, and sought to suppress the slavetrade. Al-Zubayr brought his grievances to Cairo, asking for the Governorship of the newly-conquered Darfur, but was rejected. Egyptian authorities also prohibited his return to Sudan, but allowed him to travel to Istanbul at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.
On February 18, 1884, Gordon offered the imprisoned al-Zubayr leadership of the entire Sudan, in addition to his freedom - if he would help the British keep the forces of Muhammad Ahmad at bay. The following month Gordon astonished Europe by recommending that al-Zubayr be named his successor as Governor of Sudan.
Eventually, Queen Victoria, Sir Evelyn Baring, William Ewart Gladstone and Nubar Pasha in Cairo, all agreed to allow al-Zubayr the title, but the order was rescinded by the British government, upset with al-Zubayr's slave-raiding practises.
Nevertheless, al-Zubayr was put in charge of all the black African forces, as well as sharing command of Arab forces with Hussein Pasha.
In March 1885, al-Zubayr was removed from command and imprisoned at Gibraltar, when British forces suspected that he might have negotiated fealty to Ahmad, based on alleged correspondence between them.
In August 1887, he was allowed to return to Cairo, and after the 1899 reconquest of the Sudan was permitted to settle in his native country. He established himself on his estates at Geili, some 30 miles north of Khartoum.
In retirement Zubayr wrote his memoirs, which were translated into English as Black Ivory: Or, the Story of El Zubeir Pasha, Slaver and Sultan, as Told By Himself.
Sebehr Rahma see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Rahama Zobeir see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Mansur, al-Zubayr Rahma see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al- (1830-1913). Arab slave trader who built his own principality in southeastern Sudan.
A Sudanese Arab slave trader in the late 19th-century, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur (also Sebehr Rahma or Rahama Zobeir) later became a pasha and Sudanese governor. His reputation as a nemesis of General Charles Gordon meant he was bestowed a near-mythic status in England, where he was referred to as "the richest and worst", a "Slaver King" "who [had] chained lions as part of his escort".
Born in 1830, al-Zubayr came from the Gemaab section of the Ja'Alin tribe in Northern Sudan. Al-Zubayr was raised and educated in northern Sudan. He first entered southern Sudan to trade and to raid for slaves in 1856. He then began his large-scale business when he left Khartoum with a small army to set up a network of trading forts known as zaribas, focusing his efforts on slave trading and ivory sales.
By the mid-1860s, al-Zubayr was the virtual master of the Bahr al-Ghazal province. Al-Zubayr controlled Bahr al-Ghazal through military conquests and an elaborate system of alliances with local chiefs.
In the early 1870s, al-Zubayr’s efforts to expand his activities to the south were frustrated by the fierce resistance of the Zande chief Yambio and the increased efforts of the Egyptian-Sudanese administration to curb slaving. Afterwards, al-Zubayr maintained an uneasy alliance with the Egyptians in a drive to conquer Darfur to the north.
In 1871, at the height of his power, al-Zubayr was visited by Georg Schweinfurth. Two years later, he was granted the title of Governor over Bahr el Ghazal in return for an annual tribute of ivory.
Eventually al-Zubayr controlled 30 zaribas, and earned the titles of bey and Pasha, after allying himself, and his lieutenant Rabih az-Zubayr, with the khedive Ismail Pasha briefly during the invasion of Darfur, where he led the southern forces. He was referred to as "the Black Pasha", and ultimately wished to become Governor General.
In 1877, General Gordon arrived as the newly-appointed Governor of the Sudan, and sought to suppress the slavetrade. Al-Zubayr brought his grievances to Cairo, asking for the Governorship of the newly-conquered Darfur, but was rejected. Egyptian authorities also prohibited his return to Sudan, but allowed him to travel to Istanbul at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.
On February 18, 1884, Gordon offered the imprisoned al-Zubayr leadership of the entire Sudan, in addition to his freedom - if he would help the British keep the forces of Muhammad Ahmad at bay. The following month Gordon astonished Europe by recommending that al-Zubayr be named his successor as Governor of Sudan.
Eventually, Queen Victoria, Sir Evelyn Baring, William Ewart Gladstone and Nubar Pasha in Cairo, all agreed to allow al-Zubayr the title, but the order was rescinded by the British government, upset with al-Zubayr's slave-raiding practises.
Nevertheless, al-Zubayr was put in charge of all the black African forces, as well as sharing command of Arab forces with Hussein Pasha.
In March 1885, al-Zubayr was removed from command and imprisoned at Gibraltar, when British forces suspected that he might have negotiated fealty to Ahmad, based on alleged correspondence between them.
In August 1887, he was allowed to return to Cairo, and after the 1899 reconquest of the Sudan was permitted to settle in his native country. He established himself on his estates at Geili, some 30 miles north of Khartoum.
In retirement Zubayr wrote his memoirs, which were translated into English as Black Ivory: Or, the Story of El Zubeir Pasha, Slaver and Sultan, as Told By Himself.
Sebehr Rahma see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Rahama Zobeir see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Mansur, al-Zubayr Rahma see Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-
Zubeiru
Zubeiru (d. 1903). Ruler of the Fula emirate of Adamawa created by his father, Adama. Zubeiru ruled from 1890 to 1893 and during his reign he resisted British encroachment and was forced to spend his last years as a renegade.
When Zubeiru succeeded his brother, Sanda, he was considered unstable, and probably suffered from epilepsy. He began a program of Islamic fundamentalist reform. These reforms along with the perception of him held by his people, made Zubeiru unpopular and weakened his ability to withstand the challenge of Hayatu ibn Sa’id.
Hayatu was a great-grandson of the Fula Islamic revolutionary ‘Uthman dan Fodio who had created the empire of which Adamawa was a part. Hayatu came to Adamawa and attracted a large following. Zubeiru felt compelled to fight him, but was disastrously defeated in 1892. Hayatu was unable to follow up his victory, however, and later was killed in Bornu.
Afterwards, Zubeiru’s chief concern was limiting the encroachment of George Goldie’s Royal Niger Company, which had assumed that its 1886 treaty with Sokoto, the seat of the empire, permitted trade with Adamawa. Zubeiru refused to acknowledge the treaty, however, and signed separate agreements in 1893 and 1897.
In 1900, the British under Frederick Lugard took over the administration of Northern Nigeria from the Royal Niger Company, but Zubeiru refused to submit to British authority. Lugard considered him the worst slave trader in Africa, and determined to bring Adamawa under British control.
In 1901, British forces stormed and captured Yola, Zubeiru’s capital, but Zubeiru escaped. He was replaced there by his brother.
Zubeiru and his followers kept on the move. He briefly attempted to ally with the French and Germans in neighboring Chad and Cameroon, but ended up fighting the Germans who massacred most of his remaining troops.
Early in 1903, Zubeiru had the German resident at Marua assassinated. Zubeiru began raiding again, as the British kept him on the run.
Zubeiru was killed in 1903 by Lala warriors who were hunting down slave raiders.
Zubeiru (d. 1903). Ruler of the Fula emirate of Adamawa created by his father, Adama. Zubeiru ruled from 1890 to 1893 and during his reign he resisted British encroachment and was forced to spend his last years as a renegade.
When Zubeiru succeeded his brother, Sanda, he was considered unstable, and probably suffered from epilepsy. He began a program of Islamic fundamentalist reform. These reforms along with the perception of him held by his people, made Zubeiru unpopular and weakened his ability to withstand the challenge of Hayatu ibn Sa’id.
Hayatu was a great-grandson of the Fula Islamic revolutionary ‘Uthman dan Fodio who had created the empire of which Adamawa was a part. Hayatu came to Adamawa and attracted a large following. Zubeiru felt compelled to fight him, but was disastrously defeated in 1892. Hayatu was unable to follow up his victory, however, and later was killed in Bornu.
Afterwards, Zubeiru’s chief concern was limiting the encroachment of George Goldie’s Royal Niger Company, which had assumed that its 1886 treaty with Sokoto, the seat of the empire, permitted trade with Adamawa. Zubeiru refused to acknowledge the treaty, however, and signed separate agreements in 1893 and 1897.
In 1900, the British under Frederick Lugard took over the administration of Northern Nigeria from the Royal Niger Company, but Zubeiru refused to submit to British authority. Lugard considered him the worst slave trader in Africa, and determined to bring Adamawa under British control.
In 1901, British forces stormed and captured Yola, Zubeiru’s capital, but Zubeiru escaped. He was replaced there by his brother.
Zubeiru and his followers kept on the move. He briefly attempted to ally with the French and Germans in neighboring Chad and Cameroon, but ended up fighting the Germans who massacred most of his remaining troops.
Early in 1903, Zubeiru had the German resident at Marua assassinated. Zubeiru began raiding again, as the British kept him on the run.
Zubeiru was killed in 1903 by Lala warriors who were hunting down slave raiders.
Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma
Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma (b. c. 520-d. c. 609). Pre-Islamic Arab poet. Along with Imru’ al-Qays ibn Hujr and al-Nabigha al-Dhubyani, Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma is considered one of the great poets of the pre-Islamic period.
Zuhayr, also Zuhair, full name Zuhayr ibn Abî Sûlmâ, belonged to the Muzaynah tribe. His father was a poet. His elder son, Ka'b bin Zuhayr, was also a poet and read poems to Muhammad.
His poems can be found in Hammad Ar-Rawiya's anthology, the Mu'allaqat ("the Suspended"), a collection of pre-Islamic poetry. He was one of the Seven Hanged Poets who were reputed to have been honored by hanging copies of their work in the Kaaba at Mecca. He was Umar ibn Khattab's favorite poet.
Zuhayr's poetry was written when two Bedouin tribes ended a longstanding hostility. His poems deal with raids and other subjects of nomadic desert life. He also wrote satirical poems and poems about the glory of his tribe, but in his verses he was less satiric than most of his brother poets. He strove to express deep thoughts in simple words, to be clear and by his clear phrases to teach his people high and noble ideas. He was a man of rank and wealth, the foremost of a family noted for their poetic skill and religious earnestness. In brief, Zuhayr was the gentleman-philosopher among pre-Islamic Arab poets.
Although Zuhayr was from the Muzaynah tribe, he lived among the Ghaṭafān. Zuhayr’s father was a poet, his first wife the sister of a poet, and two of his sons were poets. The elder son, Kaʿb, is famous for the poem he recited for the Prophet Muhammad, thereby signalling his acceptance of Islam. Zuhayr’s poem in Al-Muʿallaqāt praises the men who brought peace between the clans of ʿAbs and Dhubyān. In the poem, war is compared to a millstone that grinds those who set it moving, and the poet speaks as one who from a long life has learned humankind’s need for morality. Zuhayr’s extant poetry, available in several Arabic editions, includes other poems of praise and satires.
Zuhayr see Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma
Zuhair see Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma
Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma (b. c. 520-d. c. 609). Pre-Islamic Arab poet. Along with Imru’ al-Qays ibn Hujr and al-Nabigha al-Dhubyani, Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma is considered one of the great poets of the pre-Islamic period.
Zuhayr, also Zuhair, full name Zuhayr ibn Abî Sûlmâ, belonged to the Muzaynah tribe. His father was a poet. His elder son, Ka'b bin Zuhayr, was also a poet and read poems to Muhammad.
His poems can be found in Hammad Ar-Rawiya's anthology, the Mu'allaqat ("the Suspended"), a collection of pre-Islamic poetry. He was one of the Seven Hanged Poets who were reputed to have been honored by hanging copies of their work in the Kaaba at Mecca. He was Umar ibn Khattab's favorite poet.
Zuhayr's poetry was written when two Bedouin tribes ended a longstanding hostility. His poems deal with raids and other subjects of nomadic desert life. He also wrote satirical poems and poems about the glory of his tribe, but in his verses he was less satiric than most of his brother poets. He strove to express deep thoughts in simple words, to be clear and by his clear phrases to teach his people high and noble ideas. He was a man of rank and wealth, the foremost of a family noted for their poetic skill and religious earnestness. In brief, Zuhayr was the gentleman-philosopher among pre-Islamic Arab poets.
Although Zuhayr was from the Muzaynah tribe, he lived among the Ghaṭafān. Zuhayr’s father was a poet, his first wife the sister of a poet, and two of his sons were poets. The elder son, Kaʿb, is famous for the poem he recited for the Prophet Muhammad, thereby signalling his acceptance of Islam. Zuhayr’s poem in Al-Muʿallaqāt praises the men who brought peace between the clans of ʿAbs and Dhubyān. In the poem, war is compared to a millstone that grinds those who set it moving, and the poet speaks as one who from a long life has learned humankind’s need for morality. Zuhayr’s extant poetry, available in several Arabic editions, includes other poems of praise and satires.
Zuhayr see Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma
Zuhair see Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma
Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al- (Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri) (Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri)(Abu Shihab) (d. 741/2). Celebrated traditionist. He collected a great amount of hadith and is described as the first to fix hadith in writing. He also dealt with chronology, was a critic of poetry and was one of the chief authorities for the biography of the Prophet Muhammad, written by his pupil, Ibn Ishaq.
Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, usually called simply Ibn Shihab or al-Zuhri, was if not the founder of Islamic scholarship, then its earliest luminary.
As a youth, al-Zuhri left his home in Madinah (Medina), went to Damascus to seek his fortune and was recruited into the administration of the Caliph, Abd al-Malik. The Caliph observed that al-Zuhri's father had supported Ibn al-Zubayr against him in the then recent civil war. However, the Caliph'a policy toward the Zubayrites was reconciliation and his father's politics were not held against him.
Abd al-Malik died in 705 but al-Zuhri continued to serve the Umayyid court for the rest of his life. He died in AH 124 (741–2).
Some accuse al-Zuhri of having flattered the Umayyads. He taught the son of Caliph Hisham (died AH 125/743). but this did not mean that he supported the Umayyads uncritically. His relationship with the heir to the caliphate, Walid (who ruled for one year after al-Zuhri's death) was so bad that Walid was only restrained from killing him by the Caliph's intervention.
Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri is regarded as one of the greatest Sunni authorities on Hadith. The leading critics of Hadith such as Ibn al-Madini, Ibn Hibban, Abu Hatim, Al-Dhahabi and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani are all agreed upon his indisputable authority. He received hadith from many Sahaba (Companions) and numerous scholars among the first and second generations after the Companions narrated from him.
Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Abu Shihab see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Ibn Shihab see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhri, al- see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al- (Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri) (Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri)(Abu Shihab) (d. 741/2). Celebrated traditionist. He collected a great amount of hadith and is described as the first to fix hadith in writing. He also dealt with chronology, was a critic of poetry and was one of the chief authorities for the biography of the Prophet Muhammad, written by his pupil, Ibn Ishaq.
Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, usually called simply Ibn Shihab or al-Zuhri, was if not the founder of Islamic scholarship, then its earliest luminary.
As a youth, al-Zuhri left his home in Madinah (Medina), went to Damascus to seek his fortune and was recruited into the administration of the Caliph, Abd al-Malik. The Caliph observed that al-Zuhri's father had supported Ibn al-Zubayr against him in the then recent civil war. However, the Caliph'a policy toward the Zubayrites was reconciliation and his father's politics were not held against him.
Abd al-Malik died in 705 but al-Zuhri continued to serve the Umayyid court for the rest of his life. He died in AH 124 (741–2).
Some accuse al-Zuhri of having flattered the Umayyads. He taught the son of Caliph Hisham (died AH 125/743). but this did not mean that he supported the Umayyads uncritically. His relationship with the heir to the caliphate, Walid (who ruled for one year after al-Zuhri's death) was so bad that Walid was only restrained from killing him by the Caliph's intervention.
Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri is regarded as one of the greatest Sunni authorities on Hadith. The leading critics of Hadith such as Ibn al-Madini, Ibn Hibban, Abu Hatim, Al-Dhahabi and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani are all agreed upon his indisputable authority. He received hadith from many Sahaba (Companions) and numerous scholars among the first and second generations after the Companions narrated from him.
Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Abu Shihab see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Ibn Shihab see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhri, al- see Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad
Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad (Nur al-Din Muhammad Zuhuri) (d. 1615). Persian poet of the school of Herat. His poetry is admired in India where he lived for a long time.
Nur al-Din Muhammad Zuhuri see Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad
Nur al-Din Muhammad Zuhuri see Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad
Zuray‘ids Zuray‘ids (Banu’l-Karam). Dynasty from Aden, which was in power in Yemen from 1138 until the arrival of the Ayyubids in 1174.
Banu'l-Karam see Zuray‘ids
Banu'l-Karam see Zuray‘ids
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