Muhammed Abduh
Muhammed Abduh. See Muhammad Abduh.
Muhammed, Murtala
Muhammed, Murtala (Murtala Muhammed) (Murtala Ramat Mohammed) (b. November 8, 1938 – d. February 13, 1976). Nigerian head of state (1975-1976). A northerner from a family of eleven children, Muhammed was born in Kano and educated in primary schools there. He received his school certificate at the Government College in Zaria in 1957 and joined the Nigerian army, which sent him to Sandhurst in England for officer training. Returning to Nigeria in 1961 as a second lieutenant, he was shortly afterward posted to the United Nations peace-keeping forces in the Congo (Zaire), where he spent a year. In 1964, he was promoted to major.
The 1966 coup that ended civilian rule in Nigeria was led largely by Ibo army officers. The new military government attempted to restore national unity, and head of state Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi advanced Muhammed to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. However, ethnic tensions increased, and in the same year Muhammed was among the group of northern officers who ousted Aguiyi-Ironsi in favor of Colonel Yakubu Gowon.
During the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) Muhammed led an infantry division against rebel Ibo forces. He was promoted to brigadier in 1971 and three years later became federal commissioner for communications, his first non-military assignment.
Although Gowon held the Nigerian union together, his administration was unable to salvage the credibility of his government, as Nigeria’s post-war ethnic cleavages and administrative problems grew out of control. In 1975, Muhammed joined a group of senior officers in deposing Gowon in a bloodless coup. Muhammed was appointed head of state.
Muhammed excited the population with bold measures to combat Nigeria’s most serious problems. Addressing government inefficiency and corruption, he forced the retirement or dismissal of some 10,000 civil servants and soldiers. Some of Gowon’s most unpopular policies were reversed, and the overriding issue of federal organization was tackled head-on when Nigeria’s twelve states were reorganized into nineteen. As a symbolic measure, Muhammed made plans to move the federal capital from Lagos to Abuja, in central Nigeria. Popular elections were scheduled for 1979. The result of these actions was a rapid and dramatic restoration of public confidence in government.
Muhammed was assassinated in an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1976. Remembered for his courage and devotion to the national government, he became a symbol of Nigeria’s new national unity. He was succeeded by his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo.
Murtala, Muhammed see Muhammed, Murtala
Murtala Ramat Mohammed see Muhammed, Murtala
Mohammed, Murtala Ramat see Muhammed, Murtala
Muhammed, Murtala (Murtala Muhammed) (Murtala Ramat Mohammed) (b. November 8, 1938 – d. February 13, 1976). Nigerian head of state (1975-1976). A northerner from a family of eleven children, Muhammed was born in Kano and educated in primary schools there. He received his school certificate at the Government College in Zaria in 1957 and joined the Nigerian army, which sent him to Sandhurst in England for officer training. Returning to Nigeria in 1961 as a second lieutenant, he was shortly afterward posted to the United Nations peace-keeping forces in the Congo (Zaire), where he spent a year. In 1964, he was promoted to major.
The 1966 coup that ended civilian rule in Nigeria was led largely by Ibo army officers. The new military government attempted to restore national unity, and head of state Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi advanced Muhammed to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. However, ethnic tensions increased, and in the same year Muhammed was among the group of northern officers who ousted Aguiyi-Ironsi in favor of Colonel Yakubu Gowon.
During the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) Muhammed led an infantry division against rebel Ibo forces. He was promoted to brigadier in 1971 and three years later became federal commissioner for communications, his first non-military assignment.
Although Gowon held the Nigerian union together, his administration was unable to salvage the credibility of his government, as Nigeria’s post-war ethnic cleavages and administrative problems grew out of control. In 1975, Muhammed joined a group of senior officers in deposing Gowon in a bloodless coup. Muhammed was appointed head of state.
Muhammed excited the population with bold measures to combat Nigeria’s most serious problems. Addressing government inefficiency and corruption, he forced the retirement or dismissal of some 10,000 civil servants and soldiers. Some of Gowon’s most unpopular policies were reversed, and the overriding issue of federal organization was tackled head-on when Nigeria’s twelve states were reorganized into nineteen. As a symbolic measure, Muhammed made plans to move the federal capital from Lagos to Abuja, in central Nigeria. Popular elections were scheduled for 1979. The result of these actions was a rapid and dramatic restoration of public confidence in government.
Muhammed was assassinated in an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1976. Remembered for his courage and devotion to the national government, he became a symbol of Nigeria’s new national unity. He was succeeded by his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo.
Murtala, Muhammed see Muhammed, Murtala
Murtala Ramat Mohammed see Muhammed, Murtala
Mohammed, Murtala Ramat see Muhammed, Murtala
Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah
al- Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Muhasibi) (Abu Abdullah Harith bin Asad al-Basri) (781-857). Muslim mystic. His Book of observance of the rights of God is meant to enable believers to find the way of life in which they could render to God the service which is God’s due. Of another work, presented as a vision of the last things, it has been said that it is a “Dies Irae” which ends up in an “In Paradisum.”
Al-Muhasibi was the founder of the Baghdad School of Islamic philosophy, and a teacher of the Sufi masters Junayd al-Baghdadi and Sari al-Saqti.
His full name is Abu Abdullah Harith bin Asad al-Basri. He was born in Basra in 781. Muhasibi means self-inspection/audit. It was his characteristic attribute. He was a founder of Sufi doctrine, and influenced many subsequent theologians, such as al-Ghazali.
He wrote many books about theology and Tasawwuf (Sufism), among them Kitab al-Khalwa and Kitab al-Ri`aya li-huquq Allah ("Guarding God's Rights").
Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Muhasibi see Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- Abu Abdullah Harith bin Asad al-Basri see Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Al-Muhasibi was the founder of the Baghdad School of Islamic philosophy, and a teacher of the Sufi masters Junayd al-Baghdadi and Sari al-Saqti.
His full name is Abu Abdullah Harith bin Asad al-Basri. He was born in Basra in 781. Muhasibi means self-inspection/audit. It was his characteristic attribute. He was a founder of Sufi doctrine, and influenced many subsequent theologians, such as al-Ghazali.
He wrote many books about theology and Tasawwuf (Sufism), among them Kitab al-Khalwa and Kitab al-Ri`aya li-huquq Allah ("Guarding God's Rights").
Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Muhasibi see Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- Abu Abdullah Harith bin Asad al-Basri see Muhasibi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Muhibbi, al- Muhibbi, al-. Name of a family of scholars and jurists in Damascus in the sixteenth through seventeenth centuries of which three members distinguished themselves in literature: Muhibb al-Din Abu’l-Fadl (1542-1608); his grandson Fadl Allah (1621-1671); the latter’s son Muhammad al-Amin (1651-1699). Muhammad’s principal work is a collection of biographies of scholars, poets etc. of his time and the period immediately preceding it.
Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad. See Aurangzib.
Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani (Mulla Muhsin Fayd) (1598-1679). One of the greatest scholars of Safavid Persia. He wrote on hadith, philosophy and theoretical Sufism, ethics, jurisprudence, and composed commentaries on the Qur’an, poetry and prayers.
Kashani, Muhsin-i Fayd-i see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani Mulla Muhsin Fayd see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani Fayd, Mulla Muhsin see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani
Kashani, Muhsin-i Fayd-i see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani Mulla Muhsin Fayd see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani Fayd, Mulla Muhsin see Muhsin-i Fayd-i Kashani
Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’ (Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Muhtasham-i Kashani) (c. 1500-c. 1587) was a Persian poet. He wrote panegyrics, convential qasidas, enigmatic verses, poetical chronograms, love poetry and elegies.
Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Muhtasham-i Kashani see Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Kashani, Shams al-Shu'ara' Muhtasham see Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’
Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Muhtasham-i Kashani see Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’ Kashani, Shams al-Shu'ara' Muhtasham see Muhtasham-i Kashani, Shams al-Shu‘ara’
Muhtasib Muhtasib. Muslim market inspector. The muhtasib was the official entrusted with ensuring that individuals complied with the requirements of the codes of behavior and the law in their public dealings.
A holder of the office of al-hisbah, an executive function falling roughly between the offices of qadi (judge) and wali al-mazalim (mazalim -- court magistrate), the muhtasib was charged with enforcing public morality, overseeing the public welfare, and supervising the markets, fulfilling thereby the community’s collective obligation to command the good and forbid evil (al-amr bi-al-ma‘ruf wa-al-nahy ‘an al-munkar). The muhtasib had no jurisdiction to hear legal cases per se but only to settle common disputes and well-known breaches of the law in which the facts were obvious of where there was an admission of guilt. He was also vested with certain discretionary powers through which he could intervene in such matters as commercial fraud and public nuisances. In addition, he could levy discretionary punishments (ta‘zir) up to but not equaling the prescribed shari‘a penalties (hudud) for such indiscretions as private intermingling of the sexes or abuse of pack animals.
Early manuals on al-hisbah lay out precise (and extremely broad) jurisdictional boundaries. According to Ibn Taymiyah (d. 1328), however, the muhtasib’s actual function was determined in large part by the time and place in which he operated as well as local custom and the political agenda of the particular under whom he served. What belonged to the police (shurtah) or to the courts in one place could fall under the jurisdiction of the muhtasib in another. Prominent scholars and jurists are known to have held the office, but it was also known to have been occupied by merchants and other persons of suprisingly little legal training.
Later sources reflect a gradual evolution in the muhtasib’s function from matters connected with public morality to a more restricted emphasis on policing the markets and overseeing the activities of merchants and artisans. In this capacity, in addition to his traditional duties of standardizing and inspecting weights and measures, the muhtasib was often called on to collect certain taxes, for example, import and export duties, or to impose penalties on artisans and other guild-members found in violation.
By the nineteenth century, the office of the muhtasib had all but disappeared in most parts of the Muslim world, its many functions being redistributed among various modern, secular jurisdictions. The Ottomans formally abolished the office in Istanbul in 1854 and it appears also to have disappeared in Persia around the same time. In the Indian subcontinent, the office had been in steady decline since the sixteenth century and enjoyed only a brief but futile revival under the Mughal ruler, Awrangzib. Little is known about the impact of colonial rule on the office of the muhtasib.
There remains today a few possible vestiges of the medieval office of the muhtasib in certain parts of the Islamic world. In Morocco, for example, the ra’is al-masalih al-iqtisadiyah (chief of economic welfare), appears to be a possible descendent of his intrusive tendencies, had acquired the nickname, al-fuduli (busybody). The nizam-al-tilbah (system of appropriations) or halaqat al-‘azabiyah (discipline corps) found among certain Ibadi communities in Algeria might also be considered a modern descendant of al-hisbah.
A muḥtasib was a supervisor of bazaars and trade in the medieval Islamic countries. His duty was to ensure that public business was conducted in accordance with the law of sharia. In the reign of the Sultan Barqūq, for example, the duties of the muḥtasib of Cairo included "the regulation of weights, money, prices, public morals, and the cleanliness of public places, as well as the supervision of schools, instruction, teachers, and students, and attention to public baths, general public safety, and the circulation of traffic." In addition, craftsmen and builders were usually responsible to the muhtasib for the standards of their craft.
A muḥtasib often relied on manuals called ḥisba, which were written specifically for instruction and guidance in his duties; they contained practical advice on management of the marketplace, as well as other things a muhtasib needed to know -- for example, manufacturing and construction standards.
Among the Tatars of the Russian Empire the möxtäsip was a Muslim functionary expected to keep vigilant watch on the execution of the sharia. In 1920s, after the October Revolution and ban on religion, their service was abolished. Since the 1990s they have been re-established, but play only a religious role, as the sharia has no official role among Muslims of the Russian Federation.
A holder of the office of al-hisbah, an executive function falling roughly between the offices of qadi (judge) and wali al-mazalim (mazalim -- court magistrate), the muhtasib was charged with enforcing public morality, overseeing the public welfare, and supervising the markets, fulfilling thereby the community’s collective obligation to command the good and forbid evil (al-amr bi-al-ma‘ruf wa-al-nahy ‘an al-munkar). The muhtasib had no jurisdiction to hear legal cases per se but only to settle common disputes and well-known breaches of the law in which the facts were obvious of where there was an admission of guilt. He was also vested with certain discretionary powers through which he could intervene in such matters as commercial fraud and public nuisances. In addition, he could levy discretionary punishments (ta‘zir) up to but not equaling the prescribed shari‘a penalties (hudud) for such indiscretions as private intermingling of the sexes or abuse of pack animals.
Early manuals on al-hisbah lay out precise (and extremely broad) jurisdictional boundaries. According to Ibn Taymiyah (d. 1328), however, the muhtasib’s actual function was determined in large part by the time and place in which he operated as well as local custom and the political agenda of the particular under whom he served. What belonged to the police (shurtah) or to the courts in one place could fall under the jurisdiction of the muhtasib in another. Prominent scholars and jurists are known to have held the office, but it was also known to have been occupied by merchants and other persons of suprisingly little legal training.
Later sources reflect a gradual evolution in the muhtasib’s function from matters connected with public morality to a more restricted emphasis on policing the markets and overseeing the activities of merchants and artisans. In this capacity, in addition to his traditional duties of standardizing and inspecting weights and measures, the muhtasib was often called on to collect certain taxes, for example, import and export duties, or to impose penalties on artisans and other guild-members found in violation.
By the nineteenth century, the office of the muhtasib had all but disappeared in most parts of the Muslim world, its many functions being redistributed among various modern, secular jurisdictions. The Ottomans formally abolished the office in Istanbul in 1854 and it appears also to have disappeared in Persia around the same time. In the Indian subcontinent, the office had been in steady decline since the sixteenth century and enjoyed only a brief but futile revival under the Mughal ruler, Awrangzib. Little is known about the impact of colonial rule on the office of the muhtasib.
There remains today a few possible vestiges of the medieval office of the muhtasib in certain parts of the Islamic world. In Morocco, for example, the ra’is al-masalih al-iqtisadiyah (chief of economic welfare), appears to be a possible descendent of his intrusive tendencies, had acquired the nickname, al-fuduli (busybody). The nizam-al-tilbah (system of appropriations) or halaqat al-‘azabiyah (discipline corps) found among certain Ibadi communities in Algeria might also be considered a modern descendant of al-hisbah.
A muḥtasib was a supervisor of bazaars and trade in the medieval Islamic countries. His duty was to ensure that public business was conducted in accordance with the law of sharia. In the reign of the Sultan Barqūq, for example, the duties of the muḥtasib of Cairo included "the regulation of weights, money, prices, public morals, and the cleanliness of public places, as well as the supervision of schools, instruction, teachers, and students, and attention to public baths, general public safety, and the circulation of traffic." In addition, craftsmen and builders were usually responsible to the muhtasib for the standards of their craft.
A muḥtasib often relied on manuals called ḥisba, which were written specifically for instruction and guidance in his duties; they contained practical advice on management of the marketplace, as well as other things a muhtasib needed to know -- for example, manufacturing and construction standards.
Among the Tatars of the Russian Empire the möxtäsip was a Muslim functionary expected to keep vigilant watch on the execution of the sharia. In 1920s, after the October Revolution and ban on religion, their service was abolished. Since the 1990s they have been re-established, but play only a religious role, as the sharia has no official role among Muslims of the Russian Federation.
Muhyi‘l-Din Lari Muhyi‘l-Din Lari (d. 1526). Persian writer. He is the author of a famous poetical description of the Holy Cities Mecca and Medina.
Lari, Muhyi'l-Din see Muhyi‘l-Din Lari
Lari, Muhyi'l-Din see Muhyi‘l-Din Lari
Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed (Molla Celebi) (d. 1550). Turkish theologian and historian. He edited the anonymous Ottoman chronicles, which run from the beginnings of the Ottoman Empire and were continued by him down to 1549.
Mehmed, Muhyi'l-Din see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed Molla Celebi see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed Celebi, Molla see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed
Mehmed, Muhyi'l-Din see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed Molla Celebi see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed Celebi, Molla see Muhyi‘l-Din Mehmed
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