Masalit
Masalit. The Masalit live in the most remote and unknown areas of Sudan and Chad. While great trading empires were conquered on their east and west, Dar (“home of”) Masalit won its independence and maintained it into the twentieth century. The people developed a reputation for fiercely protecting their autonomy. They produced everything they needed, had their own language and customs and were capable of defending their borders.
The Masalit are Muslims, and the idiom of Islam dominates political and social life and values. By the seventeenth century, Islam had been introduced to Dar Fur by itinerant holy men, and they probably also came to Dar Masalit. One observer in 1874 noted “an unusual number of faqis” (clerics). However, Islam had made considerable accommodation to pre-Islamic practices such as divination and ceremonies to avoid locusts or to cause rains.
Sultan Ismail brought more orthodox teachings, including Mahdist reforms, to Dar Masalit such as observation of the Ramadan fast, prohibition of alcoholic beverages and certain pre-Islamic ceremonies and the reduction of bridewealth. While Islamic practice in Dar Masalit was not reformed in his lifetime, Sultan Ismail began a process of increasing orthodoxy.
The Masalit are a nation of people of Darfur in western Sudan and Wadai in eastern Chad. They speak Masalit, a Nilo-Saharan language of the Maba group.
Between 1884 and 1921 they established a state called Dar Masalit.
The Masalit are well-known for their Muslim piety.
Masalit. The Masalit live in the most remote and unknown areas of Sudan and Chad. While great trading empires were conquered on their east and west, Dar (“home of”) Masalit won its independence and maintained it into the twentieth century. The people developed a reputation for fiercely protecting their autonomy. They produced everything they needed, had their own language and customs and were capable of defending their borders.
The Masalit are Muslims, and the idiom of Islam dominates political and social life and values. By the seventeenth century, Islam had been introduced to Dar Fur by itinerant holy men, and they probably also came to Dar Masalit. One observer in 1874 noted “an unusual number of faqis” (clerics). However, Islam had made considerable accommodation to pre-Islamic practices such as divination and ceremonies to avoid locusts or to cause rains.
Sultan Ismail brought more orthodox teachings, including Mahdist reforms, to Dar Masalit such as observation of the Ramadan fast, prohibition of alcoholic beverages and certain pre-Islamic ceremonies and the reduction of bridewealth. While Islamic practice in Dar Masalit was not reformed in his lifetime, Sultan Ismail began a process of increasing orthodoxy.
The Masalit are a nation of people of Darfur in western Sudan and Wadai in eastern Chad. They speak Masalit, a Nilo-Saharan language of the Maba group.
Between 1884 and 1921 they established a state called Dar Masalit.
The Masalit are well-known for their Muslim piety.
Masarjawayh
Masarjawayh (Masarjis) (Masargoye). Persian physician of the eighth century. He is one of the few physicians from the Umayyad period who are known by name, and probably the first to translate a medical book into Arabic.
Masarjis see Masarjawayh
Masargove see Masarjawayh
Masarjawayh (Masarjis) (Masargoye). Persian physician of the eighth century. He is one of the few physicians from the Umayyad period who are known by name, and probably the first to translate a medical book into Arabic.
Masarjis see Masarjawayh
Masargove see Masarjawayh
Masihi al-Jurjani, al-
Masihi al-Jurjani, al- (Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani). Christian physician from Gurgan, Iran, who was one of the teachers of Ibn Sina during the eleventh century.
Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani was a Christian physician, from Gorgan, east of the Caspian Sea, in Iran.
He was the teacher of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). He wrote an encyclopedic treatise on medicine of one hundred chapters (al-mā'a fi-l-sanā'a al-tabi'iyyah, which is one of the earliest Arabic works of its kind and may have been in some respects the model of Ibn Sina's Qanun.
He wrote other treatises on measles, on the plague, on the pulse, etc.
He died in a dust storm in the deserts of Khwarezmia in 999-1000.
Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani see Masihi al-Jurjani, al-
Masihi al-Jurjani, al- (Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani). Christian physician from Gurgan, Iran, who was one of the teachers of Ibn Sina during the eleventh century.
Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani was a Christian physician, from Gorgan, east of the Caspian Sea, in Iran.
He was the teacher of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). He wrote an encyclopedic treatise on medicine of one hundred chapters (al-mā'a fi-l-sanā'a al-tabi'iyyah, which is one of the earliest Arabic works of its kind and may have been in some respects the model of Ibn Sina's Qanun.
He wrote other treatises on measles, on the plague, on the pulse, etc.
He died in a dust storm in the deserts of Khwarezmia in 999-1000.
Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani see Masihi al-Jurjani, al-
Masjumi
Masjumi (Madjelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia) (Masyumi Party) (Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia) (Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations). Founded in 1943 as a federation of Indonesian non-political Islamic organizations. In November 1945, it was transformed into a political party. At first, the Masjumi was a party uniting the Indonesian Islamic organizations, but in 1947 the Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia (PSII) left it, as did the Nahdatul Ulama in 1952. The departure of these two traditionalist groups turned the Masjumi into a party for modernist Indonesian Muslims and earned it considerable support outside Java. Among its principal leaders were Natsir, Surkiman, Roem, and Sjafruddin Prawiranegara. In the 1955 general election, Masjumi received 20.9 percent of the vote. The party was banned in 1960 after it refused to condemn those of its leaders who had joined the Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Indonesia (PRRI)/Permesta rebellion.
The Masyumi Party was a major Islamic political party in Indonesia during the Liberal Democracy Era in Indonesia. It was banned in 1960 by President Sukarno for supporting the PRRI rebellion.
Masyumi was the name given to an organization established by the occupying Japanese in 1943 in an attempt to control Islam in Indonesia. Following the Indonesian Declaration of Independence, on November 7, 1945, a new organization called Masyumi was formed. In less than a year, it became the largest political party in Indonesia. It included the Islamic organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah. During the period of liberal democracy era, Masyumi members had seats in the People's Representative Council and the party supplied prime ministers such as Muhammad Natsir and Burhanuddin Harahap.
Masyumi came in second in the 1955 election. It won 7,903,886 votes, representing 20.9% of the popular vote, resulting in 57 seats in parliament. Masyumi was popular in modernist Islamic regions such as West Sumatra, Jakarta, and Aceh. 51.3% of Masyumi's vote came from Java, but Masyumi was the dominant party for regions outside Java, and it established itself as the leading party for the one third of people living outside Java. In Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi, Masyumi gained a significant share of the vote. In Sumatra, 42.8% voted for Masyumi. while the figure for Kalimantan was 32%, and for Sulawesi 33.9%.
In 1958, some Masyumi members joined the PRRI rebellion against Sukarno. As a result, in 1960 Masyumi (and the Socialist Party) were banned.
Following the banning, Masyumi members and followers established the Crescent Star Family (Indonesian: Keluarga Bulan Bintang) to campaign for Islamic shariah law and teachings. An attempt was made to re-establish the party following the transition to the New Order, but this was not permitted. After the fall of Suharto in 1998, another attempt was made to revive the party name, but eventually Masyumi followers and others established the Crescent Star Party, which contested the legislative elections in 1999, 2004 and 2009.
Madjelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia see Masjumi
Masyumi Party see Masjumi
Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia see Masjumi
Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations see Masjumi
Masjumi (Madjelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia) (Masyumi Party) (Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia) (Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations). Founded in 1943 as a federation of Indonesian non-political Islamic organizations. In November 1945, it was transformed into a political party. At first, the Masjumi was a party uniting the Indonesian Islamic organizations, but in 1947 the Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia (PSII) left it, as did the Nahdatul Ulama in 1952. The departure of these two traditionalist groups turned the Masjumi into a party for modernist Indonesian Muslims and earned it considerable support outside Java. Among its principal leaders were Natsir, Surkiman, Roem, and Sjafruddin Prawiranegara. In the 1955 general election, Masjumi received 20.9 percent of the vote. The party was banned in 1960 after it refused to condemn those of its leaders who had joined the Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Indonesia (PRRI)/Permesta rebellion.
The Masyumi Party was a major Islamic political party in Indonesia during the Liberal Democracy Era in Indonesia. It was banned in 1960 by President Sukarno for supporting the PRRI rebellion.
Masyumi was the name given to an organization established by the occupying Japanese in 1943 in an attempt to control Islam in Indonesia. Following the Indonesian Declaration of Independence, on November 7, 1945, a new organization called Masyumi was formed. In less than a year, it became the largest political party in Indonesia. It included the Islamic organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah. During the period of liberal democracy era, Masyumi members had seats in the People's Representative Council and the party supplied prime ministers such as Muhammad Natsir and Burhanuddin Harahap.
Masyumi came in second in the 1955 election. It won 7,903,886 votes, representing 20.9% of the popular vote, resulting in 57 seats in parliament. Masyumi was popular in modernist Islamic regions such as West Sumatra, Jakarta, and Aceh. 51.3% of Masyumi's vote came from Java, but Masyumi was the dominant party for regions outside Java, and it established itself as the leading party for the one third of people living outside Java. In Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi, Masyumi gained a significant share of the vote. In Sumatra, 42.8% voted for Masyumi. while the figure for Kalimantan was 32%, and for Sulawesi 33.9%.
In 1958, some Masyumi members joined the PRRI rebellion against Sukarno. As a result, in 1960 Masyumi (and the Socialist Party) were banned.
Following the banning, Masyumi members and followers established the Crescent Star Family (Indonesian: Keluarga Bulan Bintang) to campaign for Islamic shariah law and teachings. An attempt was made to re-establish the party following the transition to the New Order, but this was not permitted. After the fall of Suharto in 1998, another attempt was made to revive the party name, but eventually Masyumi followers and others established the Crescent Star Party, which contested the legislative elections in 1999, 2004 and 2009.
Madjelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia see Masjumi
Masyumi Party see Masjumi
Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia see Masjumi
Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations see Masjumi
Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik) (d. 738). Son of the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik and one of the most imposing Umayyad generals. His siege of Constantinople in 716 to 718 earned him lasting fame. The failure of the siege was caused mainly by supply difficulties, the plague and the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines against the Arab fleet.
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik was a son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. In 709 he was appointed military governor of Armenia, a post he held until 715. As a general of the Caliphate's armies, he led the siege of Constantinople in 717. He was governor of Khurasan in 720. In the same year he defeated and killed the rebel Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. He was again appointed governor of Armenia in 731, following the disastrous defeat of al-Djarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami. He may have been the Arab commander at the Battle of Mosul in that year.
Maslamah was instrumental in the fortification and expansion of the town of Derbent during his tenure in the Caucasus. He led campaigns against the Khazar Khaganate in the early 730's, during which he penetrated the Gate of the Alans and sacked Balanjar. He fell out of favor again and was replaced by Marwan ibn Muhammad. He died in 738.
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik see Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik) (d. 738). Son of the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik and one of the most imposing Umayyad generals. His siege of Constantinople in 716 to 718 earned him lasting fame. The failure of the siege was caused mainly by supply difficulties, the plague and the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines against the Arab fleet.
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik was a son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. In 709 he was appointed military governor of Armenia, a post he held until 715. As a general of the Caliphate's armies, he led the siege of Constantinople in 717. He was governor of Khurasan in 720. In the same year he defeated and killed the rebel Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. He was again appointed governor of Armenia in 731, following the disastrous defeat of al-Djarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami. He may have been the Arab commander at the Battle of Mosul in that year.
Maslamah was instrumental in the fortification and expansion of the town of Derbent during his tenure in the Caucasus. He led campaigns against the Khazar Khaganate in the early 730's, during which he penetrated the Gate of the Alans and sacked Balanjar. He fell out of favor again and was replaced by Marwan ibn Muhammad. He died in 738.
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik see Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
Maslama ibn Mukhallad
Maslama ibn Mukhallad (d. 682). Companion of the Prophet who took part in the conquest of Egypt.
Maslama ibn Mukhallad (d. 682). Companion of the Prophet who took part in the conquest of Egypt.
Masmuda
Masmuda (in plural form, Masamida). One of the principal Berber ethnic groups forming a branch of the Baranis. They were converted to Islam in the seventh century by ‘Uqba ibn Nafi’.
The Masmuda were one of the largest Berber tribal confederacies in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja.
The Masmuda settled large parts of Morocco, and were largely sedentary and practiced agriculture. The residence of the Masmuda aristocracy was Agmat in the High Atlas. From the 10th century, the Berber tribes of the Sanhaja and Zanata groups invaded the lands of the Masmuda, followed from the 12th century onwards by Arab Bedouins.
Ibn Tumart united the Masmuda tribes at the beginning of the 12th century and founded the Almohad movement, which subsequently unified the whole of the Maghreb and Andalusia. After the downfall of the Almohads, however, the particularism of the Masmuda peoples prevailed once more, as a result of which they lost their political significance. Remnants of the Masmuda survive in the form of the Hhaha of Morocco, and the Shleuh in the High Atlas.
Masamida see Masmuda
Masmuda (in plural form, Masamida). One of the principal Berber ethnic groups forming a branch of the Baranis. They were converted to Islam in the seventh century by ‘Uqba ibn Nafi’.
The Masmuda were one of the largest Berber tribal confederacies in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja.
The Masmuda settled large parts of Morocco, and were largely sedentary and practiced agriculture. The residence of the Masmuda aristocracy was Agmat in the High Atlas. From the 10th century, the Berber tribes of the Sanhaja and Zanata groups invaded the lands of the Masmuda, followed from the 12th century onwards by Arab Bedouins.
Ibn Tumart united the Masmuda tribes at the beginning of the 12th century and founded the Almohad movement, which subsequently unified the whole of the Maghreb and Andalusia. After the downfall of the Almohads, however, the particularism of the Masmuda peoples prevailed once more, as a result of which they lost their political significance. Remnants of the Masmuda survive in the form of the Hhaha of Morocco, and the Shleuh in the High Atlas.
Masamida see Masmuda
Masmughan
Masmughan. Zoroastrian dynasty in the region of Damawand (Dunbawand) to the north of Rayy. The name means “The Great One of the Magians.” Their principality was not conquered by the Arabs until 758.
The Great One of the Magians see Masmughan.
Masmughan. Zoroastrian dynasty in the region of Damawand (Dunbawand) to the north of Rayy. The name means “The Great One of the Magians.” Their principality was not conquered by the Arabs until 758.
The Great One of the Magians see Masmughan.
Massa
Massa (in Berber, Masst). Name of a small Berber tribe of the Sus of Morocco, and of the place where it is settled, some 30 miles south of Agadir. According to legend, it was on the shore there that ‘Uqba ibn Nafi’ drove his steed into the waves of the Atlantic Ocean, calling God to witness that there were no more lands to conquer in the west.
Masst see Massa
Massa (in Berber, Masst). Name of a small Berber tribe of the Sus of Morocco, and of the place where it is settled, some 30 miles south of Agadir. According to legend, it was on the shore there that ‘Uqba ibn Nafi’ drove his steed into the waves of the Atlantic Ocean, calling God to witness that there were no more lands to conquer in the west.
Masst see Massa
Farīd al-Dīn Masʿūd Ganj-i-Shakar (b. c. April 4, 1179, Kothewal, Multan, Punjab, Ghurid Sultanate (present-day Pakistan) - d. May 7, 1266 [5 Muharram, 665 AH] Pakpattan, Punjab, Delhi Sultanate (present-day Pakistan)) was a 12th-century Punjabi Sunni Muslim preacher and mystic, who went on to become one of the most revered and distinguished Muslim mystics of the medieval period. He is known reverentially as Baba Farid or Shaikh Farid by Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus of the Punjab Region, or simply as Fariduddin Ganjshakar.
Fariduddin Masud was a Sufi master who was born in 1179 in a village called Kothewal, 10 kilometers (6 miles) from Multan in the Punjab region of what is now Pakistan, to Jamāl-ud-dīn Suleimān and Maryam Bībī (Qarsum Bībī), daughter of Sheikh Wajīh-ud-dīn Khojendī. Masud was a Sunni Muslim and was one of the founding fathers of the Chishti Sufi order. Baba Farid received his early education at Multan, which had become a center for Muslim education. It was there that he met his teacher Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, a noted Sufi saint, who was passing through Multan on his way from Baghdad to Delhi. Upon completing his education, Farīd left for Sistan and Kandahar and went to Makkah (Mecca) for the Hajj pilgrimage with his parents at the age of 16.
Once his education was over, Masud moved to Delhi, where he learned Islamic doctrine from Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. He later moved to Hansi, Haryana. When Quṭbuddīn Bakhtiyār Kākī died in 1235, Farīd left Hansi and became his spiritual successor. He settled in Ajodhan (the present-day Pakpattan, Pakistan) instead of Delhi. On his way to Ajodhan, while passing through Faridkot, he met the 20-year-old Nizamuddin Auliya, who went on to become his disciple, and later his successor Sufi khalifah. His nephew and disciple and successor Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari was amongst the greatest Sufi saints and from him the Sabiriya branch under Chisty order started.
Baba Farid had three wives and eight children (five sons and three daughters). One of his wives, Hazabara, was the daughter of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.
The great Arab traveller Ibn Battuta once visited this Sufi saint. Ibn Battuta reported that Fariduddin Ganjshakar was the spiritual guide of the Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, and that the Sultan had given him the village of Ajodhan. He also met Baba Farid's two sons.
Baba Farid's descendants, also known as Fareedi, Fareedies or Faridy, mostly carry the name Faruqi, and can be found in Pakistan, India, and the Muslim diaspora. Fariduddin Ganjshakar's descendants include the Sufi saint Salim Chishti, whose daughter was the Emperor Jehangir's foster mother. Their descendants settled in Sheikhupur, Badaun, and the remains of a fort they built can still be found.
Fariduddin Ganjshakar's shrine darbar is located in Pakpattan, Punjab, Pakistan.
One of Farīd's most important contributions to Punjabi literature was his development of the language for literary purposes. Whereas Sanskrit, Arabic, Turkish and Persian had historically been considered the languages of the learned and the elite, and used in monastic centers, Punjabi was generally considered a less refined folk language. Although earlier poets had written in a primitive Punjabi, before Farīd there was little in Punjabi literature apart from traditional and anonymous ballads. By using Punjabi as the language of poetry, Farīd laid the basis for a vernacular Punjabi literature that would be developed later.
The city of Faridkot bears Masud's name. According to legend, Farīd stopped by the city, then named Mokhalpūr, and sat in seclusion for forty days near the fort of King Mokhal. The king was said to be so impressed by his presence that he named the city after Baba Farid, which today is known as Tilla Baba Farid. The festival Bābā Sheikh Farād Āgman Purb Melā' is celebrated in September each year for 3 days, commemorating Baba Farid's arrival in the city. Ajodhan was also renamed as Farīd's 'Pāk Pattan', meaning 'Holy Ferry'; today it is generally called Pāk Pattan Sharīf.
Faridia Islamic University, a religious madrassa in Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan, is named after Baba Farid, and in July 1998, the Punjab Government in India established the Baba Farid University of Health Sciences at Faridkot, the city which itself was named after him.
There are various explanations of why Baba Farid was given the title Shakar Ganj ('Treasure of Sugar'). One legend says his mother used to encourage the young Farīd to pray by placing sugar under his prayer mat. Once, when she forgot, the young Farīd found the sugar anyway, an experience that gave him more spiritual fervor and led to his being given the name.
Mas‘udi, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-
Mas‘udi, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al- (Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-Mas‘udi) (Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Mas'udi) (b. 893/896, Baghdad - d. September 956, Cairo, Egypt). One of the most eminent Arab writers. His works comprise geography, history, heresiography, comparativism, general philosophy, science, Muslim law and its principles. He also wrote the history of ‘Ali, of the Family of the Prophet, of the Twelver Shi‘a, and of the Imamate.
Born in Baghdad in the late ninth century, he spent twenty years travelling in Asia, Europe, North Africa, and parts of eastern Africa. In 915/916, he journeyed to Madagascar, apparently visiting Zanzibar and various east African towns along the way. However, the places he named cannot be identified today. His description of Islamic culture in east Africa helped to give rise to the false notion that there was a centralized Zanj Empire.
Al-Mas‘udi never visited West Africa. However, he recorded other travellers’ accounts of the western Sudan. His writings contain an important description of the “silent barter” through which traders of the ancient Ghana Empire obtained gold from their southern neighbors.
The best known among the 36 titles listed are a great history of the world, which is said to have filled 30 volumes; a work containing generalities regarding the universe and information of a historical nature on non-Muslim peoples (including the pre-Islamic Arabs) and the history of Islam, from the Prophet up to the caliphate of the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mut‘i li-‘llah, and finally, a work called Warning and Revision, which is basically an overall review.
Al-Mas‘udi traveled extensively, gathering enormous quantities of information on poorly known lands. His work helped set the tone for future Arabic scholarship. He has been called the Herodotus of the Arabs.
Abu al-Hasan ‘Ali ibn Husain al-Mas‘udi came from an Arab family in Baghdad which claimed descent from one of the early Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, though some sources erroneously describe him as of North African origin. His educational background is unknown, but his career reflects a catholic and almost insatiable thirst for knowledge.
By the standards of the tenth century, al-Mas‘udi was a peerless traveler and explorer, whose feats surpass those of Marco Polo more than three centuries later. He began his travels as a young man, visiting Iran, including the cities of Kerman and Istakhr, around 915. Subsequently, he fell in with a group of merchants bound for India and Ceylon. Later, al-Mas‘udi seems to have found his way as far as southern China. On his return from China, he made a reconnaisance of the East African coast as far as Madagascar, then visited Oman and other parts of southern Arabia. There followed a visit to Iran, particularly the region of the Elburz Mountains, south of the Caspian Sea.
On yet another journey, al-Mas‘udi visited the Levant. He examined various ruins in Antioch and reported on relics in the possession of a Christian church in Tiberias in 943. Two years later, he returned to Syria, settling there for most of the remainder of his life. From Syria, he paid several extended visits to Egypt. Although it is uncertain whether he traveled there, al-Mas‘udi’s writing also demonstrates detailed knowledge of the lands of North Africa.
Al-Mas‘udi’s written work is characterized by his adherence to the rationalist Mutazilite school of Islamic thought. The Mutazilites, who applied logical analysis to fundamental questions of human existence and religious law, combined an intellectual disposition with a preference for vocal activism.
Regrettably, much of al-Mas‘udi’s literary work has been lost, so that in modern times it is known only by the references of others and from his own summaries in extant material. Only a single volume remains extant, for example, out of perhaps thirty that constituted al-Mas‘udi’s monumental attempt to write a history of the world. The surviving volume covers the myth of creation and geographical background as well as the legendary history of early Egypt.
The major work of al-Mas‘udi which has survived is Muruj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘adin al-Jawhar (947 -- partial translation as Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems [1841]). Apparently, there was a considerably larger, revised 956 edition of this work, but it is not extant. Al-Mas‘udi laid out his philosophy of history and the natural world in Kitab al-Tanbih w’al-Ishraf (book of indications and revisions), a summary of his life’s work.
In his books, al-Mas‘udi presents a remarkable variety of information. His material on peoples and conditions on the periphery of the Islamic world is of vital importance, as modern knowledge of this aspect of Islamic history is extremely scanty. For modern scholars, however, al-Mas‘udi’s style and critical commentary leave something to be desired. His presentation jumps from subject to subject, without following a consistent system. Al-Mas‘udi made little attempt to distinguish among his sources or to obtain original versions of information, as, for example, the eleventh century geographer/historian al-Biruni was careful to do. He treated a sailor’s anecdote or a folktale in the same way as he did a map or a manuscript.
On the other hand, al-Mas‘udi’s uncritical approach doubtless led to the preservation of material, much of it useful, which would not have found its way into the work of a more conventional scholar. Al-Mas ‘udi expressed none of the condescension one sometimes finds in other writings of the time for non-Muslim authorities. He displays as much enthusiasm for learning what lay outside Islam as he does for Islamic teaching. The broad scope of his investigations was without precedent.
The juxtaposition of sources of varying authority in al-Masudi’s work is enough to raise skeptical questions in the minds of modern readers. In discussing the geography of the Indian Ocean, for example, he first presents the “official” version, heavily dependent on erroneous ideas borrowed from Ptolemy and other Hellenistic writers, who regarded the sea as largely landlocked and accessible only through a few narrow entrances. Al-Mas‘udi then lays out contrary -- and more accurate -- information about the Indian Ocean drawn from sailors’ tales and from his own experience, indicative of the vastness of the ocean and the cultural diversity of the countries surrounding it. He also presents the orthodox notion of his time that the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea were connected, followed by an account of his own explorations which revealedthat they are separate bodies of water.
Al-Mas‘udi departed from established form in presenting his information in a loosely topical manner, organized around ethnic groups, dynasties, and the reigns of important rulers instead of the year-by-year chronicle method typical of the time. In this respect, he anticipated the famed fourteenth century Islamic historian Ibn Khaldun, whose work, in turn, represents a major step toward modern historical scholarship.
A noteworthy feature of al-Mas‘udi’s observations of nature is his attention to geologic forces which shape the environment. Although his comments sprang mostly from intuition, they were often prescient of modern scientific theory. He wrote, for example, of physical forces changing what once was seabed into dry land and of the nature of volcanic activity.
Al-Mas‘udi deserves to be included among the major Arabic historians, despite the loss of most of his work. His career marks the introduction of a new intellectual curiosity in Islam, one that sought knowledge for its own sake and paid scant attention to the boundaries between Islam and the rest of the world. His fascination with geographical elements in history and human affairs would be taken up by many later Arabic scholars.
Western historians have suggested that al-Mas‘udi’s intellectual disposition reflects the development of Hellenistic influence in Islamic scholarship, foreshadowing the pervasive Greek character in non-theological Islamic writing in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, particularly in Mediterranean lands. He has been conpared both to Herodotus of the fifth century B.C. T. And to the first century of the Christian calendar. Roman geographer/historian Pliny the Elder. Lack of knowledge about al-Mas‘udi’s training and education makes such judgments problematic, but there can be no doubt that his work is in many respects prototypical of what was to come in Islam.
Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-Mas‘udi see Mas‘udi, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-
Mas‘udi, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al- (Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-Mas‘udi) (Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Mas'udi) (b. 893/896, Baghdad - d. September 956, Cairo, Egypt). One of the most eminent Arab writers. His works comprise geography, history, heresiography, comparativism, general philosophy, science, Muslim law and its principles. He also wrote the history of ‘Ali, of the Family of the Prophet, of the Twelver Shi‘a, and of the Imamate.
Born in Baghdad in the late ninth century, he spent twenty years travelling in Asia, Europe, North Africa, and parts of eastern Africa. In 915/916, he journeyed to Madagascar, apparently visiting Zanzibar and various east African towns along the way. However, the places he named cannot be identified today. His description of Islamic culture in east Africa helped to give rise to the false notion that there was a centralized Zanj Empire.
Al-Mas‘udi never visited West Africa. However, he recorded other travellers’ accounts of the western Sudan. His writings contain an important description of the “silent barter” through which traders of the ancient Ghana Empire obtained gold from their southern neighbors.
The best known among the 36 titles listed are a great history of the world, which is said to have filled 30 volumes; a work containing generalities regarding the universe and information of a historical nature on non-Muslim peoples (including the pre-Islamic Arabs) and the history of Islam, from the Prophet up to the caliphate of the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mut‘i li-‘llah, and finally, a work called Warning and Revision, which is basically an overall review.
Al-Mas‘udi traveled extensively, gathering enormous quantities of information on poorly known lands. His work helped set the tone for future Arabic scholarship. He has been called the Herodotus of the Arabs.
Abu al-Hasan ‘Ali ibn Husain al-Mas‘udi came from an Arab family in Baghdad which claimed descent from one of the early Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, though some sources erroneously describe him as of North African origin. His educational background is unknown, but his career reflects a catholic and almost insatiable thirst for knowledge.
By the standards of the tenth century, al-Mas‘udi was a peerless traveler and explorer, whose feats surpass those of Marco Polo more than three centuries later. He began his travels as a young man, visiting Iran, including the cities of Kerman and Istakhr, around 915. Subsequently, he fell in with a group of merchants bound for India and Ceylon. Later, al-Mas‘udi seems to have found his way as far as southern China. On his return from China, he made a reconnaisance of the East African coast as far as Madagascar, then visited Oman and other parts of southern Arabia. There followed a visit to Iran, particularly the region of the Elburz Mountains, south of the Caspian Sea.
On yet another journey, al-Mas‘udi visited the Levant. He examined various ruins in Antioch and reported on relics in the possession of a Christian church in Tiberias in 943. Two years later, he returned to Syria, settling there for most of the remainder of his life. From Syria, he paid several extended visits to Egypt. Although it is uncertain whether he traveled there, al-Mas‘udi’s writing also demonstrates detailed knowledge of the lands of North Africa.
Al-Mas‘udi’s written work is characterized by his adherence to the rationalist Mutazilite school of Islamic thought. The Mutazilites, who applied logical analysis to fundamental questions of human existence and religious law, combined an intellectual disposition with a preference for vocal activism.
Regrettably, much of al-Mas‘udi’s literary work has been lost, so that in modern times it is known only by the references of others and from his own summaries in extant material. Only a single volume remains extant, for example, out of perhaps thirty that constituted al-Mas‘udi’s monumental attempt to write a history of the world. The surviving volume covers the myth of creation and geographical background as well as the legendary history of early Egypt.
The major work of al-Mas‘udi which has survived is Muruj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘adin al-Jawhar (947 -- partial translation as Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems [1841]). Apparently, there was a considerably larger, revised 956 edition of this work, but it is not extant. Al-Mas‘udi laid out his philosophy of history and the natural world in Kitab al-Tanbih w’al-Ishraf (book of indications and revisions), a summary of his life’s work.
In his books, al-Mas‘udi presents a remarkable variety of information. His material on peoples and conditions on the periphery of the Islamic world is of vital importance, as modern knowledge of this aspect of Islamic history is extremely scanty. For modern scholars, however, al-Mas‘udi’s style and critical commentary leave something to be desired. His presentation jumps from subject to subject, without following a consistent system. Al-Mas‘udi made little attempt to distinguish among his sources or to obtain original versions of information, as, for example, the eleventh century geographer/historian al-Biruni was careful to do. He treated a sailor’s anecdote or a folktale in the same way as he did a map or a manuscript.
On the other hand, al-Mas‘udi’s uncritical approach doubtless led to the preservation of material, much of it useful, which would not have found its way into the work of a more conventional scholar. Al-Mas ‘udi expressed none of the condescension one sometimes finds in other writings of the time for non-Muslim authorities. He displays as much enthusiasm for learning what lay outside Islam as he does for Islamic teaching. The broad scope of his investigations was without precedent.
The juxtaposition of sources of varying authority in al-Masudi’s work is enough to raise skeptical questions in the minds of modern readers. In discussing the geography of the Indian Ocean, for example, he first presents the “official” version, heavily dependent on erroneous ideas borrowed from Ptolemy and other Hellenistic writers, who regarded the sea as largely landlocked and accessible only through a few narrow entrances. Al-Mas‘udi then lays out contrary -- and more accurate -- information about the Indian Ocean drawn from sailors’ tales and from his own experience, indicative of the vastness of the ocean and the cultural diversity of the countries surrounding it. He also presents the orthodox notion of his time that the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea were connected, followed by an account of his own explorations which revealedthat they are separate bodies of water.
Al-Mas‘udi departed from established form in presenting his information in a loosely topical manner, organized around ethnic groups, dynasties, and the reigns of important rulers instead of the year-by-year chronicle method typical of the time. In this respect, he anticipated the famed fourteenth century Islamic historian Ibn Khaldun, whose work, in turn, represents a major step toward modern historical scholarship.
A noteworthy feature of al-Mas‘udi’s observations of nature is his attention to geologic forces which shape the environment. Although his comments sprang mostly from intuition, they were often prescient of modern scientific theory. He wrote, for example, of physical forces changing what once was seabed into dry land and of the nature of volcanic activity.
Al-Mas‘udi deserves to be included among the major Arabic historians, despite the loss of most of his work. His career marks the introduction of a new intellectual curiosity in Islam, one that sought knowledge for its own sake and paid scant attention to the boundaries between Islam and the rest of the world. His fascination with geographical elements in history and human affairs would be taken up by many later Arabic scholars.
Western historians have suggested that al-Mas‘udi’s intellectual disposition reflects the development of Hellenistic influence in Islamic scholarship, foreshadowing the pervasive Greek character in non-theological Islamic writing in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, particularly in Mediterranean lands. He has been conpared both to Herodotus of the fifth century B.C. T. And to the first century of the Christian calendar. Roman geographer/historian Pliny the Elder. Lack of knowledge about al-Mas‘udi’s training and education makes such judgments problematic, but there can be no doubt that his work is in many respects prototypical of what was to come in Islam.
Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-Mas‘udi see Mas‘udi, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-
Mas‘ud ibn Mahmud
Mas‘ud ibn Mahmud (b. 998). Sultan of the Ghaznavid dynasty (r. 1030-1040). He was the eldest son of Mahmud ibn Sebuktigin. While he was concentrating on India, the Oghuz, led by the Saljuq family, made systematic raids into Khurasan and defeated the Ghaznavid sultan in 1040.
Mas‘ud ibn Mahmud (b. 998). Sultan of the Ghaznavid dynasty (r. 1030-1040). He was the eldest son of Mahmud ibn Sebuktigin. While he was concentrating on India, the Oghuz, led by the Saljuq family, made systematic raids into Khurasan and defeated the Ghaznavid sultan in 1040.
Mas‘ud ibn Mawdud ibn Zangi, ‘Izz al-Din
Mas‘ud ibn Mawdud ibn Zangi, ‘Izz al-Din (‘Izz al-Din Mas‘ud ibn Mawdud ibn Zangi). Zangid atabeg of Mosul (1180-1193). His public career was entangled from beginning to end with that of his great adversary Saladin.
Mas‘ud ibn Mawdud ibn Zangi, ‘Izz al-Din (‘Izz al-Din Mas‘ud ibn Mawdud ibn Zangi). Zangid atabeg of Mosul (1180-1193). His public career was entangled from beginning to end with that of his great adversary Saladin.
Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik-Shah
Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik-Shah. Great Saljuq in Iraq and western Persia (r.1134-1152). The fortunes of the Saljuq dynasty were regarded as going into steep decline on Mas‘ud’s death.
Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik-Shah. Great Saljuq in Iraq and western Persia (r.1134-1152). The fortunes of the Saljuq dynasty were regarded as going into steep decline on Mas‘ud’s death.
Mas‘ud-i Sa‘d-i Salman
Mas‘ud-i Sa‘d-i Salman (c. 1046-c.1121). Persian poet of Lahore. He is famous for the powerful and eloquent laments he wrote from his various places of incarceration, which lasted some eighteen years.
Mas'ud-i Sa'd-i Salmān was an 11th century Persian poet of the Ghaznavid empire who is known as the prisoner poet. He was born in Lahore to wealthy parents from Hamadan, present-day Iran. His father Sa'd bin Salman was a great Persian ambassador who was sent to India by Ghaznavids. Masud was born there and he was highly learned in astrology, hippology, calligraphy, literature and also in Arabic and Indian languages.
In 1085, due to politics in the royal court, he was thrown into prison. He was released in 1096, when he returned to Lahore and was appointed governor of Chalander. Two years later, continued political changes resulted in a prison stay of 8 years, with his release in 1106. The last years of his life was spent in high favor with most of his best poems having been written in the Nay prison.
Mas'ud was also known as a great Persian poet. Most of his works are written in the qasideh form. He has some poems in other styles such as quatrian and qet'eh. In the qasideh he followed the famous Unsuri. During one of his prison stays, he wrote the Tristia, a celebrated work of Persian poetry. He had relationships with some of the Persian poets like: Othman Mokhtari , Abul-faraj Runi, Sanai.
Mas‘ud-i Sa‘d-i Salman (c. 1046-c.1121). Persian poet of Lahore. He is famous for the powerful and eloquent laments he wrote from his various places of incarceration, which lasted some eighteen years.
Mas'ud-i Sa'd-i Salmān was an 11th century Persian poet of the Ghaznavid empire who is known as the prisoner poet. He was born in Lahore to wealthy parents from Hamadan, present-day Iran. His father Sa'd bin Salman was a great Persian ambassador who was sent to India by Ghaznavids. Masud was born there and he was highly learned in astrology, hippology, calligraphy, literature and also in Arabic and Indian languages.
In 1085, due to politics in the royal court, he was thrown into prison. He was released in 1096, when he returned to Lahore and was appointed governor of Chalander. Two years later, continued political changes resulted in a prison stay of 8 years, with his release in 1106. The last years of his life was spent in high favor with most of his best poems having been written in the Nay prison.
Mas'ud was also known as a great Persian poet. Most of his works are written in the qasideh form. He has some poems in other styles such as quatrian and qet'eh. In the qasideh he followed the famous Unsuri. During one of his prison stays, he wrote the Tristia, a celebrated work of Persian poetry. He had relationships with some of the Persian poets like: Othman Mokhtari , Abul-faraj Runi, Sanai.
Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar (Sayyid Salar Mas‘ud) (Ghazi Mian) (Ghazi Miyan) (Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud). Legendary hero and martyr of the original Muslim expansion into the Gangetic plain of India. He is alleged to have been born at Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, in 1014 and to have been killed in battle in 1033. His tomb in Bahraic, in northern Uttar Pradesh, is the center of a wide spread cult.
Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud was a famous Muslim general who conquered Awadh in 1030. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud died during the campaign in Awadh and at his Mausoleum in Bahraich a yearly Urs is celebrated. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud is also popularly known as Ghazi Mian or Ghazi Miyan. The Urs takes place at the end of May each year at Bahraich Dargah.
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was grandson of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was appointed as governor of Multan by his uncle Sultan Masud. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud wanted to conquer and establish his kingdom in northern India. In the year 1031, with an army of over one hundred thousand troops, Salar Masud crossed the Hindu Kush ranges and entered the Punjab plains. The king of Lahore Anand Pal Shahi made an unsuccessful attempt to check Masud's advance. Anand Pal was helped by Rai Arjun the king of Sialkot. After defeating Anand Pal, Masud moved towards Rajputana and Malwa, where he defeated king Mahipal Tomar.
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's invading army was much larger and was fully equipped with and provided by the imperial strength of Afghanistan. The aim of Salar Masud's invasion was to establish the rule of the Ghaznavid Empire over northern India. After their victories across the Indo-gangetic plains, the Sultan Saiyyad Salar Masud, established his court at Bahraich near Ayodhya. They made their camp into a makeshift headquarters with the aim of eventually making it their permanent capital.
At this juncture a rare event took place. For the first time a major pan-Indian alliance of seventeen kings of North India was formed. This coalition force which far outnumbered the large army of Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud laid siege to the camp. We have an account of this war from an Islamic scholar Sheikh Abdur Rehman Chishti who in his book Meer-ul-Masuri has given a vivid description of this exceptional war. He writes that Salar Masud reached Baharaich in 1033. By then the united Indian kings had gathered a massive force to face Salar Masud. As was their practice, before the beginning of hostilities, the Indian kings sent a messenger to Salar Masud that this land belongs to their people and he should return back to their kingdom. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud sent a reply that all land belonged to God and he could settle wherever he pleased.
Consequently, Masud's huge army was besieged by the even greater Indian army and no side gave the other any quarter. Gradually through the hostilities, Salar Masud saw the unsuccessful end of his expedition. This bitter and bloody war was fought in the month of June 1033. In this furious war, no side took any prisoners and it ended only with the martyrs from both sides. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's body was taken and then beheaded. Later his body was allowed to be buried at Bahraich.
The battle of Bahraich ended on June 14, 1033. At the gory end, nearly the entire army of Salar Masud along with their commander lay dead. The survivors of Salar Masud's army were allowed to settle in Bahraich. During his military career and his many campaigns his strong religious and warrior code of ethics, exemplary character and deep seated and uncompromising spiritual values directed him to offer protection to non-combatants, women and children. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's Mausoleum is located at Bahraich and a yearly Urs is celebrated.
Sayyid Salar Mas‘ud see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Miyan see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Mian see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar (Sayyid Salar Mas‘ud) (Ghazi Mian) (Ghazi Miyan) (Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud). Legendary hero and martyr of the original Muslim expansion into the Gangetic plain of India. He is alleged to have been born at Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, in 1014 and to have been killed in battle in 1033. His tomb in Bahraic, in northern Uttar Pradesh, is the center of a wide spread cult.
Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud was a famous Muslim general who conquered Awadh in 1030. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud died during the campaign in Awadh and at his Mausoleum in Bahraich a yearly Urs is celebrated. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud is also popularly known as Ghazi Mian or Ghazi Miyan. The Urs takes place at the end of May each year at Bahraich Dargah.
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was grandson of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was appointed as governor of Multan by his uncle Sultan Masud. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud wanted to conquer and establish his kingdom in northern India. In the year 1031, with an army of over one hundred thousand troops, Salar Masud crossed the Hindu Kush ranges and entered the Punjab plains. The king of Lahore Anand Pal Shahi made an unsuccessful attempt to check Masud's advance. Anand Pal was helped by Rai Arjun the king of Sialkot. After defeating Anand Pal, Masud moved towards Rajputana and Malwa, where he defeated king Mahipal Tomar.
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's invading army was much larger and was fully equipped with and provided by the imperial strength of Afghanistan. The aim of Salar Masud's invasion was to establish the rule of the Ghaznavid Empire over northern India. After their victories across the Indo-gangetic plains, the Sultan Saiyyad Salar Masud, established his court at Bahraich near Ayodhya. They made their camp into a makeshift headquarters with the aim of eventually making it their permanent capital.
At this juncture a rare event took place. For the first time a major pan-Indian alliance of seventeen kings of North India was formed. This coalition force which far outnumbered the large army of Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud laid siege to the camp. We have an account of this war from an Islamic scholar Sheikh Abdur Rehman Chishti who in his book Meer-ul-Masuri has given a vivid description of this exceptional war. He writes that Salar Masud reached Baharaich in 1033. By then the united Indian kings had gathered a massive force to face Salar Masud. As was their practice, before the beginning of hostilities, the Indian kings sent a messenger to Salar Masud that this land belongs to their people and he should return back to their kingdom. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud sent a reply that all land belonged to God and he could settle wherever he pleased.
Consequently, Masud's huge army was besieged by the even greater Indian army and no side gave the other any quarter. Gradually through the hostilities, Salar Masud saw the unsuccessful end of his expedition. This bitter and bloody war was fought in the month of June 1033. In this furious war, no side took any prisoners and it ended only with the martyrs from both sides. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's body was taken and then beheaded. Later his body was allowed to be buried at Bahraich.
The battle of Bahraich ended on June 14, 1033. At the gory end, nearly the entire army of Salar Masud along with their commander lay dead. The survivors of Salar Masud's army were allowed to settle in Bahraich. During his military career and his many campaigns his strong religious and warrior code of ethics, exemplary character and deep seated and uncompromising spiritual values directed him to offer protection to non-combatants, women and children. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud's Mausoleum is located at Bahraich and a yearly Urs is celebrated.
Sayyid Salar Mas‘ud see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Miyan see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Ghazi Mian see Mas‘ud, Sayyid Salar
Mathamina, al-
Mathamina, al-. Name given by the Yemenite historians to eight noble families of southern Arabia who, before Islam, enjoyed important political privileges, either in the kingdom of Himyar (from the end of the third century to 520), or under Abyssinian and Persian regimes.
Mathamina, al-. Name given by the Yemenite historians to eight noble families of southern Arabia who, before Islam, enjoyed important political privileges, either in the kingdom of Himyar (from the end of the third century to 520), or under Abyssinian and Persian regimes.
Matmata
Matmata (Metmata). Name of a large Berber people in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. There were also some Matmata groups among the Berber tribes who went across to Spain at different periods.
Metmata see Matmata
Matmata (Metmata). Name of a large Berber people in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. There were also some Matmata groups among the Berber tribes who went across to Spain at different periods.
Metmata see Matmata
Matraqci, Nasuh al-Silahi
Matraqci, Nasuh al-Silahi (Nasuh al-Silahi Matraqci). Sixteenth century horseman, mathematician, historian, calligrapher, painter, and inventor of some new forms of the game of matraq, a contest with a stick, cudgel or rapier for training and knight-errantry. Matraqci translated al-Tabari’s History of Prophets and Kings into Turkish and illustrated a Turkish supplement to this translation, which includes the history of the Ottomans from the beginning to the year 1551.
Nasuh al-Silahi Matraqci see Matraqci, Nasuh al-Silahi
Matraqci, Nasuh al-Silahi (Nasuh al-Silahi Matraqci). Sixteenth century horseman, mathematician, historian, calligrapher, painter, and inventor of some new forms of the game of matraq, a contest with a stick, cudgel or rapier for training and knight-errantry. Matraqci translated al-Tabari’s History of Prophets and Kings into Turkish and illustrated a Turkish supplement to this translation, which includes the history of the Ottomans from the beginning to the year 1551.
Nasuh al-Silahi Matraqci see Matraqci, Nasuh al-Silahi
Mat Salleh
Mat Salleh (Datu Muhammad Salleh) (Mohammed Salleh) (d. January 31, 1900). Most important leader to resist the spreading power of the British North Borneo Chartered Company in nineteenth-century Sabah. British sources mostly characterize him as a treacherous rebel waging a reactionary battle against company sponsored law and order; a revisionist interpretation portrays him as a traditional Malayo-Muslim leader of popular resistance, perhaps even a nationalist hero, against a company rule imposed by force. A part-Sulu, part-Bajau chief from northwestern Sabah, Mat Salleh clashed repeatedly, beginning in 1894, with company representatives over their attempts to collect taxes. In 1897, his forces raided the British settlement at Gaya Island. Conflict erupted again, and Mat Salleh was killed at Tambunan in 1900. Ironically, his activities resulted ultimately in an increased company presence on the west coast.
The Mat Salleh Rebellion was a series of major disturbances in North Borneo, now the Malaysian state of Sabah, from 1894 to 1900. It was instigated by Datu Muhammad Salleh, better known as Mat Salleh.
During the late 19th century, North Borneo was under the administration of the British North Borneo Company. The Company was trying to transform North Borneo into a producer of various agricultural products, especially tobacco. As the Company introduced new cash crops, North Borneo underwent inevitable economic and social changes.
The Company tried hard to preserve local cultures, but certain local practices had to be regulated to ensure the Company's control. For instance, slavery was abolished. More disruptive changes brought about by the Company were the introduction of taxes and the requirement for firearms and boat licenses. Many locals disagreed with the new rulings.
One of the more influential dissenting local chiefs was Mat Salleh. He was born in Inanam, North Borneo, the son of the leader of the Inanam, and became a governor at Sugud River. A member of the Bajau and Suluk tribes, he married a Sulu princess.
In 1895, Mat Salleh entered into a long running dispute with the Company. Salleh had taken issue with the Company imposing new rules on the Sugud River region, but the Company ignored his complaints. For its part, the Company was unhappy with Mat Salleh collecting taxes from the local populace without Company approval. Soon after the dispute began, the Company burned down Salleh's village, and in 1897 he retaliated by razing the Company's harbor at Pulau Gaya. As the rebellion grew, Salleh ordered a fort to be constructed in Ranau. The Company tried to capture the fort but met with heavy resistance and resorted to setting fire to it instead. After skirmishes near Pulau Gaya, Inanam and Menggatal, this phase of the conflict ended with Mat Salleh's forces retreating into North Borneo hitherland.
In due course, the Company offered Mat Salleh peace, and Mat Salleh agreed. Unfortunately for him, this truce with the British so outraged his own people that he was forced to flee to Tambunan. The British granted Mat Salleh control of Tambunan, and he built a new fort there. Despite the peace treaty, the Company decided to take Tambunan back from Mat Salleh in 1899. Mat Salleh refused to co-operate and fighting
recommenced. On January 31, 1900, he was shot dead in Kampung Toboh, Tambunan. His death left the rebellion movement leaderless and effectively ended it.
Datu Muhammad Salleh see Mat Salleh
Mohammed Salleh see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Datu Muhammad see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Mat see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Mohammed see Mat Salleh
Datu Muhammad Salleh see Mat Salleh
Mohammed Salleh see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Datu Muhammad see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Mat see Mat Salleh
Salleh, Mohammed see Mat Salleh
Matta ibn Yunus al-Qunna’i
Matta ibn Yunus al-Qunna’i (d. 940). Nestorian Christian who translated Aristotle and commented on him. His Arabic translations were all made from Syriac versions. Al-Farabi was among his pupils.
Matta ibn Yunus al-Qunna’i (d. 940). Nestorian Christian who translated Aristotle and commented on him. His Arabic translations were all made from Syriac versions. Al-Farabi was among his pupils.
Mattos, Joaquin de
Mattos, Joaquin de. Black slave leader and hero in the unsuccessful rebellion of Hausa slaves in Bahia in 1835. His loyalty to his comrades was so great that during his trial he refused even to admit an acquaintance with his closest associates. Like all the rebels, Mattos was a devout Muslim.
Mattos, Joaquin de. Black slave leader and hero in the unsuccessful rebellion of Hausa slaves in Bahia in 1835. His loyalty to his comrades was so great that during his trial he refused even to admit an acquaintance with his closest associates. Like all the rebels, Mattos was a devout Muslim.
Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-
Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al- (Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Maturidi) (Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi) (853/873 - 944). Hanafi theologian of Maturid in Samarkand, jurist and Qur’an commentator. He was a native of Samarkand and founder of a school of theology comparable to, but less well known than, that of al-Ashari. Both lived before kalam became the dominant theological method of Islam. Al-Maturidi’s views were so closely identified with those of the pivotal shari‘a expert, Abu Hanifa, that the latter’s name often eclipsed even the memory of the former.
Al-Maturidi’s doctrinal school which later came to be considered one of the two orthodox Sunni schools which later came to be considered one of the two orthodox Sunni schools of theology (in Arabic, maturidiyya), the other being the school of al-Ash‘ari. He argued against the positions of the Mu‘tazila, of the Karramiyya, of the Imami Shi‘a, and of the Isma‘ilis. He also refuted the views of Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Manichaeans, Bardesanites and Marcionites.
Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi was a Persian Muslim theologian, and a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence and Qur'anic exegesis. Al-Maturidi is one of the pioneers of Islamic Jurisprudence and his two works are considered to be authoritative on the subject. He had a "high standing" among the scholars of his time and region.
Al-Maturidi was born in Maturid near Samarqand. He was educated in Islamic theology, Qur'anic exegesis, and Islamic jurisprudence. He was a Muslim theologian and his background is claimed as Persian. The area of Samarkand was at his time under the Samanid Persian dynasty and its urban population were predominately Persian while the surrounding steppes was largely populated by Turkic-speaking nomads.
When al-Maturidi was growing up there was an emerging reaction against some schools within Islam, notably Mu'tazilis, Qarmati, and Shi'a. The Sunni scholars were following Abu Hanifa. Al-Maturidi with other two preeminent scholars wrote especially on the creed of Islam and elaborated Abu Hanifa's doctrine, the other two being Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari in Iraq, and Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tahawi in Egypt.
While Al-Ash'ari and Al-Tahawi were Sunni together with Al-Maturidi, they constructed their own theologies diverging slightly from Abu Hanifa's school. Al-Ash'ari, enunciated that God creates the individual’s power (qudra), will, and the actual act giving way to a fatalist school of theology, which was later put in a consolidated form by Al Ghazali. Al Maturidi, followed in Abu Hanifa's footsteps, and presented the "notion that God was the creator of man’s acts, although man possessed his own capacity and will to act". Al Maturidi and Al-Ash'ari also separated from each other on the issue of the attributes of God, as well as some other minor issues.
Later, with the impact of Persianate states such as Great Seljuq Empire and Turkish states such as the Ottoman Empire, the Maturidi school spread to greater areas where the Hanafi school of law is prevalent, such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, India, Pakistan and Turkey.
Maturidi had an immense knowledge of dualist beliefs (Sanawiyya) and of other old Persian religions. His "Kitäb al-tawhld" in this way became a primary source for modern researchers with its rich materials about Iranian Manicheanism (Mâniyya), a group of Brahmans (Barähima), and some controversial personalities such as Ibn al-Rawandi, Muhammad al Warraq, and Muhammad b. Shabib.
The writings of al-Maturidi include:
* Kitab Al Tawhid ('Book of Monotheism')
* Kitab Radd Awa'il al-Adilla, a refutation of a Mu'tazili book
* Radd al-Tahdhib fi al-Jadal, another refutation of a Mu'tazili book
* Kitab Bayan Awham al-Mu'tazila ('Book of Exposition of the Errors of Mu'tazila)
* Kitab Ta'wilat al-Qur'an ('Book of the Interpretations of the Quran')
* Kitab al-Maqalat
* Ma'akhidh al-Shara'i` in Usul al-Fiqh
* Al-Jadal fi Usul al-Fiqh
* Radd al-Usul al-Khamsa, a refutation of Abu Muhammad al-Bahili's exposition of the Five Principles of the Mu'tazila
* Radd al-Imama, a refutation of the Shi`i conception of the office of Imam;
* Al-Radd `ala Usul al-Qaramita
* Radd Wa`id al-Fussaq, a refutation of the Mu`tazili doctrine that all grave sinners will be eternally in hell fire.
Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Maturidi see Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-
Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi see Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-
Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al- (Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Maturidi) (Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi) (853/873 - 944). Hanafi theologian of Maturid in Samarkand, jurist and Qur’an commentator. He was a native of Samarkand and founder of a school of theology comparable to, but less well known than, that of al-Ashari. Both lived before kalam became the dominant theological method of Islam. Al-Maturidi’s views were so closely identified with those of the pivotal shari‘a expert, Abu Hanifa, that the latter’s name often eclipsed even the memory of the former.
Al-Maturidi’s doctrinal school which later came to be considered one of the two orthodox Sunni schools which later came to be considered one of the two orthodox Sunni schools of theology (in Arabic, maturidiyya), the other being the school of al-Ash‘ari. He argued against the positions of the Mu‘tazila, of the Karramiyya, of the Imami Shi‘a, and of the Isma‘ilis. He also refuted the views of Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Manichaeans, Bardesanites and Marcionites.
Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi was a Persian Muslim theologian, and a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence and Qur'anic exegesis. Al-Maturidi is one of the pioneers of Islamic Jurisprudence and his two works are considered to be authoritative on the subject. He had a "high standing" among the scholars of his time and region.
Al-Maturidi was born in Maturid near Samarqand. He was educated in Islamic theology, Qur'anic exegesis, and Islamic jurisprudence. He was a Muslim theologian and his background is claimed as Persian. The area of Samarkand was at his time under the Samanid Persian dynasty and its urban population were predominately Persian while the surrounding steppes was largely populated by Turkic-speaking nomads.
When al-Maturidi was growing up there was an emerging reaction against some schools within Islam, notably Mu'tazilis, Qarmati, and Shi'a. The Sunni scholars were following Abu Hanifa. Al-Maturidi with other two preeminent scholars wrote especially on the creed of Islam and elaborated Abu Hanifa's doctrine, the other two being Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari in Iraq, and Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tahawi in Egypt.
While Al-Ash'ari and Al-Tahawi were Sunni together with Al-Maturidi, they constructed their own theologies diverging slightly from Abu Hanifa's school. Al-Ash'ari, enunciated that God creates the individual’s power (qudra), will, and the actual act giving way to a fatalist school of theology, which was later put in a consolidated form by Al Ghazali. Al Maturidi, followed in Abu Hanifa's footsteps, and presented the "notion that God was the creator of man’s acts, although man possessed his own capacity and will to act". Al Maturidi and Al-Ash'ari also separated from each other on the issue of the attributes of God, as well as some other minor issues.
Later, with the impact of Persianate states such as Great Seljuq Empire and Turkish states such as the Ottoman Empire, the Maturidi school spread to greater areas where the Hanafi school of law is prevalent, such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, India, Pakistan and Turkey.
Maturidi had an immense knowledge of dualist beliefs (Sanawiyya) and of other old Persian religions. His "Kitäb al-tawhld" in this way became a primary source for modern researchers with its rich materials about Iranian Manicheanism (Mâniyya), a group of Brahmans (Barähima), and some controversial personalities such as Ibn al-Rawandi, Muhammad al Warraq, and Muhammad b. Shabib.
The writings of al-Maturidi include:
* Kitab Al Tawhid ('Book of Monotheism')
* Kitab Radd Awa'il al-Adilla, a refutation of a Mu'tazili book
* Radd al-Tahdhib fi al-Jadal, another refutation of a Mu'tazili book
* Kitab Bayan Awham al-Mu'tazila ('Book of Exposition of the Errors of Mu'tazila)
* Kitab Ta'wilat al-Qur'an ('Book of the Interpretations of the Quran')
* Kitab al-Maqalat
* Ma'akhidh al-Shara'i` in Usul al-Fiqh
* Al-Jadal fi Usul al-Fiqh
* Radd al-Usul al-Khamsa, a refutation of Abu Muhammad al-Bahili's exposition of the Five Principles of the Mu'tazila
* Radd al-Imama, a refutation of the Shi`i conception of the office of Imam;
* Al-Radd `ala Usul al-Qaramita
* Radd Wa`id al-Fussaq, a refutation of the Mu`tazili doctrine that all grave sinners will be eternally in hell fire.
Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Maturidi see Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-
Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi see Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-
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