'Ali Haji, Raja (Raja Ali Haji) (c.1808-1868). Malay historian. Raja 'Ali Haji was the son of a Muslim Bugis ruler in the Riau Archipelago south of Singapore. He was brought up in court circles and appears later to have played the role of diplomat, civil servant and court historian. 'Ali Haji’s best known work is Tuhfat al-Nafis. Tuhfat al-Nafis was begun in 1865 and it is widely considered to be the first proper Malay history. The early portions of Tuhfat al-Nafis contain the standard legendary material. However, 'Ali Haji blazed new ground by criticizing the status and value of the traditional sources. 'Ali Haji’s other main historical work, is Silsilah Melayu dan Bugis. Silsilah Melayu dan Bugis deals primarily with Bugis infiltration from the Celebes into the Malay world in the 18th century. Raja 'Ali also wrote some verse; an early (1857) Malay grammar entitled Bustan al-Katibin; and a discursive, encyclopedic dictionary Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa (1858).
Haji, Raja 'Ali see 'Ali Haji, Raja
Raja 'Ali Haji see 'Ali Haji, Raja
‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (597-661). Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. ‘Ali was also the fourth Caliph of the Sunni and the first Imam of the Shi‘a. ‘Ali was born in Mecca, the son of Abu Talib, Muhammad’s uncle. ‘Ali was one of the first converts to Islam and one of the bravest and most faithful followers of the Prophet. He married Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, who bore him two sons, Hasan and Husayn. In 632, when Muhammad died, ‘Ali claimed that he, ‘Ali, should succeed Muhammad as the leader of Islam. However, ‘Ali’s claim was denied and he was preceded in the caliphate by Abu Bakr, 'Umar I (581?-644), and 'Uthman ibn Affan (575?-656). ‘Ali only became caliph after 'Uthman was murdered in 656.
In the first year of ‘Ali’s reign, ‘Ali was forced to deal with a rebellion led by ‘A’isha, the widow of Muhammad. ‘A’isha bitterly opposed ‘Ali’s claim of succession, perhaps because ‘Ali had opposed the caliphate of her father Abu Bakr. Although ‘A’isha’s rebellion was suppressed in 657, disputes over ‘Ali’s right to the caliphate were not resolved. Mu‘awiyah I, a member of ‘Uthman’s family, refused to recognize ‘Ali as caliph and claimed the caliphate himself. This dispute continued until 661 when ‘Ali was murdered at Kufa by a member of the Kharijite sect. Mu‘awiyah I was then acknowledged as caliph.
Dissension between ‘Ali’s adherents and his opponents continued to trouble the Muslim world. This conflict led to the first and most important schism in Islam, between the Shi‘a (adherents of ‘Ali) and the Sunni (orthodox Muslims).
‘Ali is the ancestor of the Fatimid line of caliphs, who traced their descent from ‘Ali and Fatima.
‘Ali was about ten years old when he embraced Islam. He is considered to have been the second of Muhammad’s converts, the first being Muhammad’s wife, Khadija. ‘Ali grew up in Muhammad’s household, and on the night of the Hijra he occupied the Prophet’s bed in order to facilitate Muhammad’s flight to Medina.
Some months later, ‘Ali married Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, and from their marriage were born Hasan and Hussein (Husayn).
During Muhammad’s lifetime, ‘Ali took part in almost all the military expeditions. One exception was Tabuk, during which ‘Ali had the command at Medina. ‘Ali’s bravery as standard-bearer and sometimes commander of these expeditions became legendary.
After Muhammad’s death, a dispute arose between ‘Ali and other companions of Muhammad concerning the succession, resulting in ‘Ali, at first, refusing to recognize Abu Bakr’s election as caliph. This dispute ultimately divided the Muslims into two major factions: those sympathetic to ‘Ali’s claim, known as the Shi‘a -- the “partisans” -- of ‘Ali; and the Sunni -- those who accepted the caliphates of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman with ‘Ali as the fourth caliph.
Although regarded as a valued counsellor, it is doubtful whether ‘Ali’s advice was accepted by the second caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab. During the caliphate of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, ‘Ali accused the caliph of innovation -- bid‘a -- in religious matters, and on political questions he joined ‘Uthman’s opponents.
After the killing of ‘Uthman, ‘Ali allowed himself to be nominated caliph by the rebels who had the former caliph’s blood on their hands. This provoked strong reactions in Mecca, Syria and Egypt. Mu‘awiya, governor of Syria and cousin of the slain ‘Uthman, accused ‘Ali of complicity with the murderers and refused to pay homage to him.
As the fourth caliph, ‘Ali inherited events which he could not avert. Turmoil brewed. The Prophet’s widow ‘A’isha, perhaps harboring a long standing resentment against ‘Ali for ‘Ali’s participation in making slanderous allegations against her many years before, engaged in Mecca in an active propaganda campaign against the new caliph, and was soon joined by Talha ibn ‘Ubayd Allah and al-Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam. In the famous Battle of the Camel of 656, Talha and al-Zubayr lost their lives, and ‘A’isha was peremptorily ordered by ‘Ali to return to Medina under escort.
Meanwhile, Mu‘awiya, the Syrian governor, continued to demand the surrender of the murderers of ‘Uthman and continued to refuse to pay homage to ‘Ali. The deeper cause of the struggle was whether pre-eminence lay with Syria or with Iraq. ‘Ali took the offensive, and the two armies met on the plain of Siffin. Mu‘awiya, about to lose the battle, had his soldiers hoist copies of the Qur’an on their lances. ‘Ali was forced to submit the difference to consultation of the Qur’an i.e., to arbitration.
Already at Siffin, a group of individuals rejected arbitration with the cry “there is no decision save that of God”. After ‘Ali’s return to Kufa in Iraq, they learned that he had sent his arbitrator Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari to meet ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, Mu‘awiya’s arbitrator. The group then secretly left Kufa and were joined by dissidents from Basra at al-Nahrawan on the eastern bank of the Tigris river. These dissidents, those who had “departed”, were thereafter called Kharijites. ‘Ali’s troops attacked and massacred them at al-Nahrawan, but as a consequence many more defections from ‘Ali’s cause followed and he had to give up the campaign against Mu‘awiya.
The arbitrators met at Adhruh. Abu Musa and ‘Amr agreed to declare both ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya deposed, but in the public discourses that followed, ‘Amr declared ‘Ali deposed and confirmed Mu‘awiya’s nomination. In the end, no decision on the caliphate was taken.
‘Ali continued to be regarded as caliph by his partisans (although their numbers were daily diminishing) while Mu‘awiya continued to be supported by his followers. ‘Ali remained passive at Kufa when Mu‘awiya made small incursions into Iraq, Arabia and Yemen. In 661, the Kharijite Ibn Muljam, in revenge for the men slain at al-Nahrawan, struck ‘Ali in the mosque of Kufa with a poisoned sword. ‘Ali died two days later at the age of sixty-three. His burial site was at al-Najaf, some miles from Kufa, where his Masshad -- his burial shrine as a martyr -- subsequently arose in the time of the ‘Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This site became an important destination for the Shi‘a pilgrimage and center for the Twelver Shi‘a learning.
The murder of ‘Ali represents a watershed in the understanding of history among not only the Shi‘a, but also among the Sunni. ‘Ali was the last caliph coming from the group of Muslims that had converted before the hijra (in 622), and he was also the last elected caliph. After ‘Ali, the Caliphate became hereditary and without the nominal legitimacy.
The personality of ‘Ali is difficult to assess. While his stature as a distinguished judge, pious believer, and ardent warrior for Islam is unquestioned, the Shi‘a concept of ‘Ali alongside God and the Prophet as a pivot of religious belief is rejected by the Sunni. Indeed, there are actually two competing perspectives of ‘Ali, one held by the Sunni and one held by the Shi‘a. Though both perspectives recognize ‘Ali’s legitimacy as caliph, the Sunni perspective views ‘Ali as being a weak ruler with many faults. On the other hand, the Shi‘a regard ‘Ali as being infallible and the possessor of a divine light passed on from Muhammad to him, and later from him on to the other imams.
ʿAli (b. c. 600, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] — d. January 661, Kufa, Iraq) was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and fourth of the “rightly guided” (rashidun) caliphs, as the first four successors of Muhammad are called. Reigning from 656 to 661, he was the first imam (leader) of Shi'ism in all its forms. The question of his right to the caliphate (the political-religious structure comprising the community of Muslims and its territories that emerged after the death of Muhammad) resulted in the only major split in Islam, into the Sunni and Shiʿi branches.
Names and sources
ʿAli is known within the Islamic tradition by a number of titles, some reflecting his personal qualities and others derived from particular episodes of his life. They include Abu al-Hasan (“Father of Ḥasan” [the name of his eldest son]), Abu Turab (“Father of Dust”), Murtaḍa (“One Who Is Chosen and Contented”), Asad Allah (“Lion of God”), Ḥaydar (“Lion”), and — specifically among the Shiʿah —Amir al-Muʾminin (“Prince of the Faithful”) and Mawlay-i Muttaqiyan (“Master of the God-Fearing”). The title Abu Turab, for example, recalls the time when, according to tradition, Muhammad entered a mosque and, seeing ʿAli sleeping there full of dust, said to him, “O father of dust, get up.”
Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as ʿAli. The primary sources for scholarship on the life of ʿAli are the Hadith and the sirah literature (accounts of the Prophet Muhammad’s life), as well as other biographical sources and texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shiʿi Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a bias, whether positive or negative, toward ʿAli.
Life
Early years
ʿAli’s life, as recorded especially in the Sunni and Shiʿi texts, can be divided into several distinct periods separated by major events. The son of Abu Ṭalib and his wife Faṭimah bint Asad, ʿAli was born, according to most historical sources, on the 13th day of the lunar month of Rajab, about the year 600, in Mecca. Many sources, especially Shiʿi ones, record that he was the only person born in the sacred sanctuary of the Kaaba, a shrine said to have been built by Abraham and later dedicated to the traditional gods of the Arabs, which became the central shrine of Islam after the advent of the religion and the removal of all idols from it. ʿAli was related to the Prophet through his father and mother: Abu Ṭalib was Muhammad’s uncle and became his guardian when the boy’s father died, and Fatimah bint Asad acted as the Prophet’s mother after his biological mother died. When ʿAli was five years old, his father became impoverished, and ʿAli was taken in and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadijah. At age 10, ʿAli became, according to tradition, the second person after Khadijah to accept Islam. Although ʿAli’s father refused to give up his devotion to traditional Arabic polytheism, he accepted ʿAli’s decision, telling him, “Since he [the Prophet] leads you only to righteousness, follow him and keep close to him.”
From Mecca to Medina
The second period of ʿAli’s life, lasting slightly more than a decade, begins in 610, when Muhammad received the first of his revelations, and ends with the migration of the Prophet to Medina in 622. During this period ʿAli was Muhammad’s constant companion. Along with Zayd ibn Ḥaritha, who was like a son to the Prophet, Abu Bakr, a respected member of the ruling Quraysh tribe of Mecca, and Khadijah, he helped to form the nucleus of the earliest Meccan Islamic community. From 610 to 622 ʿAli spent much of his time providing for the needs of believers in Mecca, especially the poor, by distributing what he had among them and helping them with their daily chores.
Both Sunni and Shiʿi sources confirm the occurrence in 622 of the most important episode of this period. Muhammad, knowing that his enemies were plotting to assassinate him, asked ʿAli to take his place and sleep in his bed. Muhammad then left Mecca secretly with Abu Bakr and reached Medina safely several days later (his arrival marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar). When the plotters entered Muhammad’s house with drawn daggers, they were deeply surprised to find ʿAli, whom they did not harm. ʿAli waited for instructions and left sometime later with Muhammad’s family. He arrived safely in Quba on the outskirts of Yathrib, which soon became known as Madinat al-Nabi (“City of the Prophet”) or simply Medina, on the instructions of the Prophet. According to some sources, he was one of the first of the Meccan followers of Muhammad to arrive in Medina.
ʿAli and Islam to the death of Muhammad
ʿAli was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. Shortly after his arrival, the Prophet told ʿAlī that he (the Prophet) had been ordered by God to give his daughter Fatimah to ʿAli in marriage. This union affected the entire history of Islam, for from it was born a daughter, Zaynab — who played a major role during the Umayyad period in claiming the rights of the family of the Prophet after her brother Ḥusayn was killed in Iraq — and two sons, Hasan and Husayn. The latter two are the ancestors of those known as sharif or sayyid (meaning “noble” and “master” respectively) — that is, descendants of the Prophet and thus, in the eyes of some Muslims, legitimate heirs to leadership of the Islamic community. Ḥasan and Ḥusayn also became the second and third imams of the Shi'ah (respectively) after ʿAli. Although polygyny was permitted, ʿAli did not marry another woman while Faṭimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between the greatest saintly figures surrounding the Prophet. The Prophet, who visited his daughter nearly every day, became even closer to ʿAli, once telling him, “You are my brother in this world and the Hereafter.” After Faṭimah’s death, ʿAli married other wives and fathered many other children.
During this period ʿAli was given several important assignments, such as reciting to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca in 630 a portion of the Qur'an that declared that Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with polytheists. One year later ʿAli was sent to Yemen to spread the teachings of Islam. The Prophet also designated him as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qurʾān, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. ʿAli’s role in the establishment of the written version of the Qurʾan is among the most important of his contributions to Islam.
ʿAli was also deeply involved in the military defense of the Islamic community, according to both Sunni and Shi'i and Shiʿi sources. The Quraysh sought to destroy the community in Medina in a series of attacks that are known in Islamic history as ghazwah (“raid” or “conquest”). ʿAli participated in all but one of these battles, and he was commander at the battles of Fadak in 628 and Al-Yaman in 632. He also had the special role of protecting Muhammad at the battles of Uḥud in 625 and Ḥunayn in 630. He fought the leading warrior of the Quraysh, Talḥah ibn Abi Talḥah, who boasted that he would defeat any Muslim sent against him. When Talḥah himself was defeated, he pleaded for mercy from ʿAli, saying “Karrama Allahu wajhahu” (“May God illuminate his face with nobility”). This benediction became one of ʿAli’s titles; used especially by Sunnis, it is usually accompanied by other customary formulae of peace and benediction.
The traditional accounts of ʿAli’s strength and courage in these battles and his yearning for justice made him an epitome of chivalry throughout the Islamic world. In the Battle of Khaybar in 629, against a group of Medinese Jews who, having reached agreement with the Muslims and then broken their word, had barricaded themselves in a fort, ʿAli is said, according to a very popular legend, to have torn off the door of the fort with one hand and used it as a shield. According to another legend, the archangel Gabriel, speaking to the Prophet and referring to Dhu al-fiqar, a sword that ʿAli received from Muhammad, stated: “There is no chivalrous person but ʿAli. There is no sword but Dhu al-fiqar.”
As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, ʿAli helped to establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Hudaybiyyah agreement, the peace treaty between the Prophet and the Quraysh in 628. When Muhammad finally conquered Mecca in 630, he asked ʿAli to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. This was accomplished as a result of the surrender of the Meccans and Muhammad’s forbidding the victorious Muslims from taking revenge on the Meccans, a command that ʿAli ensured was obeyed completely. Muhammad ordered ʿAli to break all the idols in the Kaaba and to purify the shrine after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era, which Muslims call al-jahiliyyah (“the age of ignorance”). ʿAli also was charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.
At Ghadir Khumm in 632, while returning to Medina from his last pilgrimage, the Prophet made certain statements about ʿAli that have been interpreted in very different ways by Sunnis and Shiʿis. According to both traditions, Muhammad said that ʿAli was his inheritor and brother and that whoever accepted the Prophet as his mawla (“master” or “trusted friend” but also, contradictorily, “client” or “protegé”) also should accept ʿAli as his mawla. The Shiʿa regard these statements as constituting the investiture of ʿAli as the successor of the Prophet and as the first imam. The Sunnis, by contrast, take them only as an expression of the Prophet’s closeness to ʿAli and of his wish that ʿAli, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death. Many later Islamic Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of the Prophet’s spiritual power and authority to ʿAli (mawla is related to wilayah or walayah, meaning “rule,” “initiation,” “spiritual authority,” or “power”), whom they regard as the wali (literally “friend,” usually translated as “saint”) par excellence.
ʿAli and the first caliphs
Upon the death of the Prophet in 632, ʿAli and Muhammad’s family took charge of the arrangements for his funeral. At the same time, discussions began concerning who should succeed Muhammad. Both the ansar, the people of Medina who had embraced Islam, and the muhajirun, those from Mecca who had migrated to Medina, wanted the successor to come from their group. In order to avoid division, the leaders of the community assembled at saqifat Bani Saʿidah (“the room with the thatched roof of the tribe of Bani Saʿidah”) to choose a successor. After much debate, Abu Bakr was named caliph (khalifah, “successor”), the ruler of the Islamic community. By the time ʿAli finished with matters pertaining to the funeral of the Prophet, he was presented with a fait accompli. He did not protest but retired from public life and dedicated himself to studying and teaching the Qur'an. He was often consulted, however, by Abu Bakr and his successor, 'Umar, on matters of state.
After the death of ʿUmar in 644, ʿAli was considered for the caliphate along with five other eminent members of the community. One of them, ʿAbd al-Raḥman ibn ʿAwf, withdrew but asked that he be trusted with choosing the next caliph, a request that was granted. He questioned both 'Uthman and ʿAli and decided in favor of the former. ʿAli recognized the caliph’s authority, according to Shi'i sources, but remained neutral between ʿUthman’s supporters and his opponents. ʿAli even sent his own sons to protect ʿUthman’s house when he was in danger of being attacked. When ʿUthman was murdered in 656 by those who considered him weak and who accused him of nepotism, ʿAli admonished his children for not having defended ʿUthman’s house properly. ʿAli himself was then chosen as the fourth and last of the rightly guided caliphs.
ʿAli’s caliphate and last years
The period of the caliphate of ʿAli, from 656 until his death in 661, was the most tumultuous in his life. Many members of the Quraysh turned against him because he defended the rights of the Hashemites, a clan of the Quraysh to which Muhammad had belonged. He was also accused of failing to pursue the murderers of his predecessor and of purging ʿUthman’s supporters from office. Foremost among his opponents was Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a relative of ʿUthman, who claimed the right to avenge ʿUthman’s death. In his confrontation with Muʿawiyah, ʿAli was supported by the ansar and the people of Iraq. Before he could act, however, he had to deal with the rebellion of two senior companions, Talḥah and Zubayr. Joined by 'A'ishah, daughter of Abu Bakr and third wife of Muhammad, the two had marched upon Basra and captured it. ʿAli assembled an army in Kufa, which became his capital, and met the rebels in 656 at the Battle of the Camel. Although a peaceful settlement had nearly been reached before the fighting started, extremists on both sides forced the battle, in which ʿAli’s forces were victorious. Talḥah and Zubayr were killed, and ʿAʾishah was conducted safely back to Medina.
ʿAli then turned his attention north to Muʿawiyah, engaging him in 657 at the Battle of Siffin, the most important contest of early Islamic history after the death of the Prophet. With his army on the verge of defeat, Muʿawiyah, on the advice of one of his supporters, 'Amr ibn al-'As, ordered his soldiers to put pages of the Qurʾan on their lances and asked ʿAli to allow the dispute to be resolved by reference to Qurʾanic rules. ʿAli’s army, seeing the sacred text, put down its arms, and ʿAli was forced to arbitrate. He chose an upright observer, Abu Musa al-Ashʿari, and Muʿawiyah chose ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAṣ. After ʿAli lost the arbitration, Muʿawiyah refused to submit to his authority. Muʿawiyah then defeated ʿAli’s forces in Egypt, where ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAṣ became governor.
Matters were made even worse by the fact that a group that considered arbitration to be a violation of the teachings of the Qurʾan rebelled against ʿAli while also opposing Muʿawiyah. ʿAli’s attempts to reason with the rebels failed, and they left Kufa and Basra and assembled at Al-Narhawan. In 658, ʿAli’s army dealt a crushing blow to the group that came to be known as the Kharijites (“Seceders”).
Although he continued to have staunch supporters, ʿAli’s authority was weakened in many areas during the last two years of his caliphate. A number of prominent Muslims even met in Adruh in 659 with the thought of deposing both ʿAli and Muʿawiyah and appointing as caliph ʿAbd Allah, son of ʿUmar, but they did not reach a final decision. Meanwhile, some of the Kharijites decided to assassinate ʿAli, Muʿawiyah, and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAṣ. Although the latter two escaped, ʿAli did not. On the 19th of Ramadan in the year 661, he was struck in the back of the head with a poisoned sword while praying in the mosque of Kufa. He died two days later and was buried in Najaf. Along with Qom in Iran, Najaf became — and remains to this day — one of the most important seats of Shiʿi learning and also a major pilgrimage site.
Shiʿism, Sufism, and the chivalric orders of ʿAli
Shi'ism
The significance of ʿAli in all aspects of the religious and intellectual life of Shiʿah Islam can hardly be overemphasized. In the daily call to prayer in Shiʿi countries, and in some Shiʿi mosques in Sunni countries where such an act does not cause major opposition, his name is mentioned after that of the Prophet in the formula ʿAliyun wali Allah (“ʿAli is the friend of God”). In the annual religious calendar of the Shiʿah, the 19th through the 21st of Ramadan is a time of intense prayer and supplication, marking the last three days of ʿAli’s life. Many Shiʿis spend the nights of this period, called aḥyaʾ, in mosques reciting both special prayers, many of them attributed to ʿAli, and canonical prayers, the latter usually at least 100 times. The devotion to ʿAli, not only as the heir of the Prophet but also as the first imam and the ancestor of all subsequent imams, has a central place in the religious consciousness of Shiʿism. There is also a vast body of Shiʿi devotional literature in both poetry and prose in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Gujarati, and many other languages related to ʿAli.
Sufism
Nearly every Sufi order traces its lineage to Muhammad through ʿAli. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shiʿi, believe that ʿAli inherited from the Prophet the spiritual power (wilayah or walayah) that makes the inner journey to God possible. Numerous references are also to be found to him in later Sufi works. For example, such hidden or occult sciences as jafr, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by ʿAli.
The futuwwat
In Islamic civilization, the futuwwat (“spiritual chivalry”) were military and economic orders similar to the knightly fraternities and guilds of medieval Europe. Combining craftwork or service in the military or government with spiritual discipline, these orders have played a major role in Islamic history by drawing their members more fully into the spiritual life and ethos of Islam (the craft orders still survive in some areas of the Islamic world). Whether known as futuwwat or by other names, such as the akhi (“brotherhood”) movement in Anatolia, all of them have been associated with ʿAli, who received the quality and power of spiritual chivalry from the Prophet. In Western terms, one might say that ʿAli is the “patron saint” of the chivalric orders and guilds of Islam.
Metaphysics and the Nahj al-balaghah
Metaphysics
In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra (c. 1571–1640) and his followers, ʿAli’s sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or “divine philosophy.” Members of Sadra’s school, which still survives, regard ʿAli as the supreme metaphysician of Islam and believe that he was the first person to have used Arabic terms to express philosophical ideas. For centuries, Muslim philosophers considered ʿAli’s sayings — such as “I have never seen a thing except to have seen God before it” and “If the veils were to be removed from the mysteries of the world, it would not add to my certitude” — to be proof of his supreme metaphysical understanding. His widely known saying “Look at what is said and not at who has said it” summarizes a main characteristic of Islamic thought, in which schools predominate over individuals and ideas are judged by their inherent philosophical value rather than by their historical sources.
The Nahj al-balaghah
Numerous short sayings of ʿAli have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They also have become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as ʿAbd al-Ḥamid ibn Yaḥya al-ʿAmiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of ʿAli’s sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz, an Arab man of letters, in the following century. In the 10th century, one of the outstanding scholars of Shiʿism, Sayyid Sharif al-Raḍi, assembled many of ʿAli’s sermons, letters, and short sayings dealing with various subjects in the Nahj al-balaghah (“The Path of Eloquence”), which became one of the most widely read and influential books in the Islamic world, though it was nearly completely neglected in Western scholarship until the late 20th century. Although some Western scholars have cast doubt upon its authenticity, the matter has never been in question among the great majority of Muslims. The book continues to be a source of both religious and literary inspiration for both the Shiʿa and the Sunnis.
‘Ali ibn Bello (Aliyu Babba) (c.1808-1859). Ruler of the Fula Sokoto caliphate (in Nigeria) (r. 1842-1859). He was the grandson of ‘Uthman dan Fodio who had initiated the Fula empire in northern Nigeria. His father, Muhammad Bello (d. 1837), consolidated the empire and set up its administration. Aliyu succeeded his brother, Abubakar Atiku I (1837-1842), who had ruled after their father. During his seventeen year reign, he conducted twenty campaigns to expand the borders of the caliphate and quell revolts, notably in Kebbi and Zamfara. At the time of his death, the Sokoto caliphate was fully established and aggressive military expansion virtually ceased afterwards.
Aliyu Babba see ‘Ali ibn Bello
Babba, Aliyu see ‘Ali ibn Bello
'Ali ibn Hariq (d. 1225). Islamic poet.
‘Ali ibn ‘Isa (Ali Ben Isa). Afro-Arab astronomer, geographer and ophthalmologist of the 9th century.
He wrote the landmark textbook on ophthalmology in medieval Islam, Notebook of the Oculists, for which he was known in medieval Europe as Jesu Occulist, with "Jesu" being a Latin translation of "Isa", the Arabic name for Jesus.
In Islamic astronomy and Islamic geography, together with Chalid Ben Abdulmelik in 827, 'Ali ibn 'Isa measured the Earth's circumference, getting a result of 40,248 km (or, according to other sources, 41,436 km). The actual circumference of the Earth in kilometers being 46,350 km.
Ali Ben Isa see ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa
‘Ali ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin (1084-1142). Ethnic Berber and Amir of the Almoravid dynasty (r. 1106-1142). He ruled over a large part of North Africa and of southern Spain.
'Ali Khan, Nusrat Fateh (Nusrat Fateh 'Ali Khan) (October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician, primarily a singer of Qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis (a mystical tradition within Islam). He featured in Time magazine's 2006 list of 'Asian Heroes'. Among other honorary titles bestowed upon him, Nusrat was called Shahenshah-e-Qawwali, meaning The Emperor of Qawwali.
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was born on October 13, 1948 in the city of Faisalabad, Pakistan. He was the fifth child and first son of Ustad Fateh Ali Khan, a distinguished and legendary musicologist, vocalist, instrumentalist, and Qawwal. Nusrat's family, which included his four older sisters and his younger brother, Farrukh Fateh Ali Khan grew up in central Lyallpur, in a small flat which was rented from a local businessman. In 1979, Nusrat married his first cousin, Naheed (the daughter of Fateh Ali Khan's brother, Salamat Ali Khan); they had one daughter, Nida.
Qawwali is a performance art that has traditionally been passed down within families. Nusrat's family has an unbroken tradition of performing Qawwali for approximately 600 years. Nusrat's father was initially reluctant to allow him to enter the family business, instead hoping that Nusrat would become a doctor or an engineer, having felt Qawwals had a low social status. However, Nusrat's enthusiasm for Qawwali eventually persuaded his father to train him in the art. Nusrat began by learning to play tabla alongside his father before progressing to learn Raag Vidya and Bolbandish. He then went on to learn to sing within the classical framework of khayal in the Qawwal Bachchon Ka Gharana and was taught dhrupad from the Dagar family. Khan's training with his father was cut short when his father died in 1964, leaving Nusrat's paternal uncles, Ustad Mubarak Ali Khan and Ustad Salamat Ali Khan, to complete his training.
His first performance was at a traditional graveside ceremony for his father, known as chehlum, which took place forty days after his father's death. In 1971, after the death of Ustad Mubarak Ali Khan, Nusrat became the official leader of the family Qawwali party and the party became known as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Mujahid Mubarak Ali Khan & Party. Nusrat assumed leadership of the party, despite the fact that Mujahid Mubarak Ali Khan, who was Ustad Mubarak Ali Khan's son, was considerably older than him.
Nusrat's first public performance as the leader of the Qawwali party was at a studio recording broadcast as part of an annual music festival organized by Radio Pakistan, known as Jashn-e-Baharan. Nusrat went on to distinguish himself from other Qawwals and became renowned on the Indian subcontinent and in the Muslim world. He sang mainly in Urdu and Punjabi and occasionally in Persian, Brajbhasha and Hindi. His first major hit in Pakistan was the song Haq Ali Ali, which was performed in a traditional style and with traditional instrumentation. The song featured restrained use of Nusrat's sargam improvisations and attracted a large number of listeners.
Early in his career, Nusrat was signed up by Oriental Star Agencies [OSA] of Birmingham (United Kingdom) to their Star Cassette Label. OSA sponsored regular concert tours by Nusrat to the United Kingdom from the early '80s onwards, and released much of this live material (albeit not always very well recorded) on cassette, CD, videotape and DVD. The vast majority of Nusrat's qawwali performances that are available today in video format on various labels comes from these OSA-sponsored concert tours.
Nusrat reached out to Western audiences through his work with Peter Gabriel on the soundtrack to The Last Temptation of Christ in 1985, his collaborations with Canadian musician Michael Brook (on the albums Mustt Mustt (1990) and Night Song (1996)), and his work with Pearl Jam lead singer Eddie Vedder in 1995 on two songs for the soundtrack to Dead Man Walking. He also contributed to the soundtrack of Natural Born Killers. However, Nusrat was unhappy with the use of his vocals on the Natural Born Killers soundtrack, stating that the nature of the film was contrary to the beliefs and the ideals conveyed in his work.
Peter Gabriel's Real World label later released five albums of Nusrat's traditional Qawwali, together with some of his experimental work which included the albums Mustt Mustt and Star Rise. Nusrat provided vocals for The Prayer Cycle, which was put together by Jonathan Elias, but died before the vocals could be completed. Alanis Morissette was brought in to sing with his unfinished vocals. He also performed traditional Qawwali before international audiences at several WOMAD world music festivals and the single "Dam Mast Qalandar" was remixed by electronic hip hop group Massive Attack in 1998.
Nusrat's album Intoxicated Spirit was nominated for a Grammy award in 1997 for best traditional folk album.
When Nusrat toured in foreign countries, he would watch television commercials in order to identify the melodies and chord progressions popular in that country. He would then try to choose similar sounding songs from his repertoire for his performances. After his death, the song "Solemn Prayer", on which Nusrat provided vocals, was used by Peter Gabriel on his album Up and in the soundtrack to the film Blood Diamond.
Nusrat possessed a six-octave vocal range and could perform at a high-level of intensity for several hours.
Nusrat contributed songs to, and performed in, several Pakistani films. Shortly before his death, he recorded a song each for two Bollywood films, Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya (in which he also appeared) and Kachche Dhaage. He also sang the immensely-popular title song of the film, Dhadkan. There was also a song sung by him in the movie Kartoos, starting Sanjay Dutt and Manisha Koirola
Nusrat contributed the song "Gurus of Peace" to the album Vande Mataram, composed by Oscar-winning composer A.R. Rahman, and released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of India's independence.
According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan holds the world record for the largest recorded output by a Qawwali artist—a total of 125 albums as of 2001. Since then, many posthumous albums have been released, but an accurate count of the total number of albums is not available.
Nusrat became ill with kidney and liver failure on August 11, 1997 in London, England while on the way to Los Angeles in order to receive a kidney transplant. Nusrat died of a sudden cardiac arrest at Cromwell Hospital, London, on Saturday, August 16, 1997, at age 48, at the height of his career. His body was returned to Faisalabad, Pakistan, and his funeral was attended by thousands of people.
Nusrat is responsible for the modern evolution of Qawwali. Though not the first to do so, he popularized the blending of singing and techniques with Qawwali. This, in short, took the form of improvised solos during the songs using the sargam technique, in which the performer sings the names of the notes he is singing. He also attempted to blend Qawwali music with more western styles such as electronic music.
Nusrat's Qawwali usually follows the standard form. A song begins with a short instrumental prelude played on the harmonium, accompanied by percussion. Then the instruments refrain, and the main singers launch into the alap, which establishes the raag, the tonal structure of the music. At this point, introductory poetic verses are sung. These are usually drawn not from the main song, but from thematically related songs. The melody is improvised within the structure of the raag.
After the introductory verses, the main song starts, and the rhythmic portion of the song begins. The tabla and dholak begin to play, and the chorus aids and abets percussion by clapping their hands. The song proceeds in a "call and response" format. The same song may be sung quite differently by different groups. The lyrics will be essentially the same, but the melody can differ depending on which gharana or lineage the group belongs to. As is traditional in Qawwali, Nusrat and the side-singers will interject alap solos, and fragments of other poems or even improvised lyrics. A song usually has two or three sets of refrains, which can be compared to the verse chorus structure found in western music. Songs last about twenty minutes on average, with a few lasting an hour or more.
Nusrat was noted for introducing other forms of improvisation into the style. From his classical music training, he would interject much more complex alap improvisations, with more vibrato and note bending. He would also interject sargam improvisations.
While it is undoubtedly difficult to put into words what makes Nusrat's music so deeply appealing to so many listeners, many of whom do not understand a single word of the languages he sings in, here is one fan's attempt to explain: "Nusrat's music invites us to eavesdrop on a man communing with his God, ever so eloquently. He makes the act of singing a passionate offering to God. But we do not merely eavesdrop. The deepest part of Nusrat's magic lies in the fact that he is able to bring our hearts to resonate with the music, so deeply, that we ourselves become full partners in that offering. He sings to God, and by listening, we also sing to God".
Born in Faisalabad, Pakistan, the young Nusrat could hardly avoid music. His father, Ustad Fateh Ali Khan, was a famous classical musician and qawwal who sang with his brothers in a legendary “party”, or group. But Ustad had different ambitions for his son. He wanted him to be a professional, a doctor, in fact anything except a performer, because he knew only too well how difficult the profession of music could be.
As a small boy, Nusrat would spend hours secretly eavesdropping on the classes his father was giving. One day they found him listening and practicing, and realized he was already hooked on singing. He was just nine years old.
In 1965, one year after his father’s death, Nusrat started singing properly, initially concentrating on classical music. Then he joined the group led by his uncle, Ustad Mubarik 'Ali Khan, whose son Mujahed later came to sing with Nusrat. His other uncle, Ustad Salamat 'Ali Khan, had taught the keen teenager the art of qawwali.
The performing partnership ended in 1971 after six fruitful years, when Nusrat’s uncle Ustad Mubarik died. But the young man pressed on undeterred, gradually building up a formidable reputation throughout Pakistan. He listened to recordings by his father and his uncles for inspiration, and then created his own style, increasing the tempo very slightly to make the audience more receptive. In short, he updated qawwali to suit the times.
Nusrat’s recurring dream of performing at a shrine in which no qawwal had ever sung finally convinced him to become a qawwal and follow in his six century old family tradition. Latterly, his father had encouraged him by telling him that one day the dream might come true.
Nusrat did not know the shrine in the dream was that of Hazratja Khwaja Mohin-ud-din Chisti in Ajmer, India, but both his uncles had recognized it from his descriptions. In 1979, the dream became reality when the group visited the shrine as pilgrims. Nusrat became the first visiting qawwal invited to sing there.
Above all, Nusrat loved to perform. He stated that if an artist is not enjoying himself then the audience will not enjoy his performance. Conversely, his experience of touring in Europe and North America demonstrated to him that people who do not understand the language can still appreciate the music.
Nusrat noted that his music does not need words. Even though the poems that are sung convey the message of the Sufi and the saints, his music, he remarked, is not exclusively for Muslims but for anyone who believes in God, for music is an international language.
Nusrat Fateh 'Ali Khan see 'Ali Khan, Nusrat Fateh
Alimin Prawirodirdjo (1897-1964). Indonesian Marxist and architect of the 1926-1927 Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or PKI) uprisings. He stressed the need to coordinate revolution in Indonesia with international conditions. He was returning from Moscow, where he had requested authorization for the uprisings, when the uprisings broke out. On his return to Indonesia in 1946 after twenty-two years in exile, including a period in Yan’an with Mao Zedong, he argued in favor of postponing social revolution until Western recognition of Indonesian independence had been secured. He later resisted the policies of Aidit, arguing that the PKI had become opportunist and insufficiently class-conscious. He left the Party in 1956.
Prawirodirdjo, Alimin see Alimin Prawirodirdjo
'Ali, Mohamed (Mohamed 'Ali) (Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar) (1878 - January 4, 1931). One of the leading Indian Muslim political activists of his generation. He attended Aligarh College and gained renown in the Union debating society. Mohamed studied at Oxford but failed to gain entrance to the Indian Civil Service. Instead, he entered government service in the princely state of Baroda. He took an active interest in the affairs of Aligarh College and its alumni association. Mohamed wrote frequent articles championing the university and Muslim involvement in national politics. In 1911, he started his famous English weekly, Comrade, and a year later an Urdu journal, Hamdard. Mohamed and his brother Shaukat became firm opponents of British rule under the combined shock of the Balkan wars, British refusal of university status to Aligarh College in 1912, and the Kanpur Mosque incident in 1913. They were interned for four years during World War I for their pro-Turkish activities. Released in 1919, they led the Khilafat movement and were imprisoned again in 1921. Following their release, Mohamed served as president of the Indian National Congress in 1923 and briefly revived Comrade and Hamdard. Mohamed died in London during the first Round Table Conference and, as he wished not to return to an India that was unfree, was buried in Jerusalem.
Mohamed Ali, who later became well-known as Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, was born in Rampur state in 1878 to a family of the Rohilla sub-tribe of Yousafzai Pashtun ancestry. He was the brother of Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Zulfiqar Ali. Despite the early death of his father, the family strived and Ali attended the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) and Lincoln College, Oxford University in 1898, studying modern history.
Upon his return to India, he served as education director for the Rampur state, and later joined the Baroda civil service. He became a writer and orator, and wrote for major English and Indian newspapers, in both English and Urdu. He himself launched the Urdu weekly Hamdard and English Comrade in 1911. He moved to Delhi in 1913.
Mohamed Ali worked hard to expand the AMU, then known as the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, and was one of the co-founders of the Jamia Millia Islamia in 1920, which was later moved to Delhi.
Mohamed Ali had attended the founding meeting of the All India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906, and served as its president in 1918. He remained active in the League till 1928.
Ali represented the Muslim delegation that travelled to England in 1919 in order to convince the British government to influence the Turkish nationalist Mustafa Kemal not to depose the Sultan of Turkey, who was the Caliph of Islam. British rejection of their demands resulted in the formation of the Khilafat committee which directed Muslims all over India to protest and boycott the government.
Accorded the respectful title of Maulana, Ali formed, in 1921, a broad coalition with Muslim nationalists like Maulana Shaukat Ali, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari and Indian nationalist leader Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi enlisted the support of the Indian National Congress and many thousands of Hindus, who joined the Muslims in a demonstration of unity. Ali also wholeheartedly supported Gandhi's call for a national civil resistance movement, and inspired many hundreds of protests and strikes all over India. He was arrested by British authorities and imprisoned for two years for what was termed a seditious speech at the meeting of the Khilafat Conference. He was elected as President of the Indian National Congress in 1923.
Maulana Mohammad Ali was, however, disillusioned by the failure of the Khilafat movement and Gandhi's suspension of civil disobedience in 1922, owing to the Chauri Chaura incident.
He re-started his weekly Hamdard, and left the Congress Party. He opposed the Nehru Report, which was a document proposing constitutional reforms and a dominion status of an independent nation within the British Empire, written by a committee of Hindu and Muslim members of the Congress Party headed by President Motilal Nehru. It was a major protest against the Simon Commission which had arrived in India to propose reforms but containing no Indian nor making any effort to listen to Indian voices.
Mohamed Ali opposed the Nehru Report's rejection of separate electorates for Muslims, and supported the Fourteen Points of Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the League. He became a critic of Gandhi, breaking with fellow Muslim leaders like Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, who continued to support Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.
Ali attended the Round Table Conference to show that only the Muslim League spoke for India's Muslims. He died soon after the conference in London, on January 4, 1931 and was buried in Jerusalem according to his own wish.
Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar is remembered as a fiery leader of many of India's Muslims. He is celebrated as a hero by the Muslims of Pakistan, who claim he inspired the Pakistan movement. But in India, he is remembered for his leadership during the Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-1922) and his leadership in Muslim education.
The famous Muhammad Ali Road in south Bombay, India's largest city, is named after Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar. The Gulistan-e-Jauhar neighborhood of Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, and Mohammad Ali Co-operative Housing Society (M.A.C.H.S.) are named in honor of Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar. Johar Town, Lahore is also named after him.
Mohamed 'Ali see 'Ali, Mohamed
Muhammad Ali see 'Ali, Mohamed
Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar see 'Ali, Mohamed
Ali, Muhammad (Muhammad Ali) (Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr.) (b. January 17, 1942, Louisville, Kentucky - d. June 3, 2016, Phoenix, Arizona). African American boxer. Born in Louisville, Kentucky, as Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr., Ali was raised in a clapboard house in a middle class Louisville neighborhood. Known as a shy and somewhat old-fashioned youth, he began boxing at the age of 12. A European American patrolman named Joe Martin, who trained local amateur boxers, started Cassius Clay working out in Louisville’s Columbia Gym, but it was an African American trainer named Fred Stoner who taught Cassius the science of boxing. Stoner taught Cassius to move with the grace of a dancer, and impressed upon him the subtle skills necessary to move beyond good and into the realm of greatness.
After winning an Olympic gold medal as a light heavyweight at the Rome Olympics in 1960, an eighteen year old Cassius Clay signed the most lucrative contract -- a 50-50 split -- negotiated by a beginning professional in the history of boxing, with a twelve member group of millionaires called the Louisville Sponsoring Group. Later, he worked his way into contention for the coveted heavyweight title by boasting and creating media interest at a time when, by his own admission, he was only ranked number nine on the list of contenders. Even from the beginning, it was clear that Clay was his own man -- quick, strong-willed, original, and witty. Clay knew that his rhymes and press-grabbing claims would infuse more interest and more money into the sport of boxing, and he was his own best public relations man.
In February of 1964, he told readers of Sports Illustrated, “If I were like a lot of ... heavyweight boxers ... you wouldn’t be reading this story right now. If you wonder what the difference between them and me is, I’ll break the news: you never heard of them. I’m not saying they’re not good boxers. Most of them ... can fight almost as good as I can. I’m just saying you never heard of them. And the reason for that is because they cannot throw the jive. Cassius Clay is a boxer who can throw the jive better than anybody.”
The following month Clay fought Sonny Liston for the world heavyweight title in Miami, Florida. In a stunning upset, Clay utilized his skills and courage to first outbox Liston and then to knock him out. After only 20 professional fights Clay upset Sonny Liston (1934-1970). At the tender age of 22, Cassius Marcellus Clay became the heavyweight champion of the world.
While in Miami, Clay was inspired by the Nation of Islam leader Malcolm X to become a member of the Muslim sect known as the Nation of Islam. It was after his conversion that Cassius Clay was given the name Muhammad Ali by the Nation of Islam patriarch, Elijah Muhammad.
The newly named Muhammad Ali retained his world heavyweight championship in June of 1965 by again knocking out Sonny Liston, this time with a stunning right hand punch to the side of the head. The knock-out blow was thrown with an astounding speed. With these two Liston bouts, the legend of Muhammad Ali began.
As a member of the Nation of Islam, Muhammad Ali was a conscientous objector to the Vietnam War. Because of his stance, and also because of his race, his religion and his personality, a tremendous public outcry erupted against Ali. Although Ali had not been charged or arrested for violating the Selective Service Act, the New York State Athletic Commission and the World Boxing Association suspended Ali’s boxing license and stripped him of his title in May of 1967, minutes after he officially announced that he would not submit to induction.
Eventually Ali was sentenced to five years in prison, but was released on appeal and three years later was allowed to fight again.
In November of 1970, Ali fought Jerry Quarry in Atlanta. It was his first fight in over three years. His victory over Quarry was a symbol of release and freedom to the 5,000 people watching the fight. Ali had personally survived his vilification by much of the American public, but more, he had reclaimed his professional reputation and prominence. Four months later, Ali had the world as his audience when he went up against Joe Frazier. Showing some of the rust that still remained from his three year layoff, Ali fought valiantly but lost.
Ali made another comeback in 1974 by defeating Frazier in January and by regaining the heavyweight title with a stunning knockout of George Foreman (b.1949) on October 30, 1974 in Kinshasa, Zaire. Four years later, Ali lost his title to Leon Spinks (b.1953) in a fight on February 15, 1978, at Las Vegas, Nevada. Within the same year, however, he regained the title, beating Spinks in a 15 round bout at New Orleans, Louisiana, on September 15. Ali thus became the first heavyweight in history to win the championship three different times.
Ali retired in 1979 but came out of retirement the following year to challenge Larry Holmes (b.1949) for the World Boxing Council heavyweight championship. Ali lost the match and retired for good.
After retirement, in 1982, Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease. Some doctors attributed Ali’s Parkinson’s disease -- his Pugilistic Parkinsonism -- to the repetitive head trauma he endured during his long ring career. However, while the disease slowed Ali’s reflexes and his mobility, Ali continued to persevere and inspire. Indeed, one of the great moments in Olympic Games history came in 1996 at the Atlanta Olympic Games when Muhammad Ali was chosen as the last torch bearer -- the bearer who lights the Olympic Games flame.
Because of his athletic accomplishments, his world-wide acclaim, his stances against social injustice, and his inspirational personal story, many consider Muhammad Ali to be the most influential athlete of the twentieth century.
Muhammad Ali see Ali, Muhammad
Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr. see Ali, Muhammad
Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. see Ali, Muhammad
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