'Abd al-Qadir

‘Abd al-Qadir (b. September 6, 1808, Guetna, near Mascara, Algeria — d. May 26, 1883, Damascus, Syria) was an Algerian independence leader, Sufi mystic, and poet. Born at Wadi al-Hammam, some 20 kilometers west of Mascara in Algeria, into a family of northern Moroccan origin which claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad, 'Abd al-Qadir's father, Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani, was a shaykh in the Qadiri Sufi order of Islam. In his childhood, he learned to memorize the Qur'an and was well trained in horsemanship and theological and linguistic studies, having an education far better than that of his peers. In 1825, 'Abd al-Qadir set out for the Muslim pilgrimage -- the hajj -- with his father. While in Mecca, he met Imam Shamil, the future leader of the anti-Russian resistance during the Caucasian War (1834-1859). The two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of noted Muslims, such as Shaykh Ibn Arabi and Sidi Abd-el Kader El Jalili. This experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, he was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French.

‘Abd al-Qadir entered history after the French occupation of Algiers on July 5, 1830. This invasion led ‘Abd al-Qadir’s father, Sidi Muhyi al-Din, to proclaim a jihad against European colonization in the region of Oran. Ill health forced Sidi in November 1832 to hand over control of the anti-colonial resistance to his son, who was proclaimed “Sultan of the Arabs” by the tribes of Hashim, Banu ‘Amir, and Ghrarabah. Despite mixed results on the battlefield, this tactic prevented the “pacification” of Algeria and led the French to enter into negotiations with ‘Abd al-Qadir on February 28, 1834. Now officially recognized as “commander of the faithful” (amir al-mu‘minin), Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir was able to extend his authority to the gates of Algiers itself by the middle of 1835.

The amir’s continued agitation for Algerian autonomy led to a resumption of hostilities. After an Algerian victory at Macta (June 28, 1835), the French generals Clauzel and Bugeaud counterattacked, burning Mascara, occupying Tlemcen, and scoring a victory against ‘Abd al-Qadir’s army at Wadi Sikkak (July 6, 1836). Although abandoned by his troops three times, the Amir successfully regrouped his tribal forces and continued to inflict heavy losses on the French. The desire to protect their western flank while pursuing the conquest of Constantine led the government of King Louis-Philippe to negotiate once again. The resulting Treaty of Tafna (May 30, 1837) divided western Algeria into two spheres of influence; the urban areas remained in French hands, while the interior portions of the province of Oran, the beylik of Titteri, and part of the province of Algiers were given over to ‘Abd al-Qadir. Disputes over secret codicils to the treaty -- as well as the “Iron Gates” expedition in which the Duke of Orleans opened a corridor between Constantine and Algiers -- led to the resumption of hostilities and the Amir’s invasion of the Mitidja in November 1839.

In the face of ‘Abd al-Qadir’s threat, Bugeaud was appointed governor-general of Algeria on December 29, 1840. By sending mobile columns into the Algerian hinterland, he succeeded in occupying the major towns of Orania and Tlemcen (1841-1843). The capture of the Amir’s “traveling capital” (smalah) on May 16, 1843, caused the Arab tribes to surrender to the French and forced ‘Abd al-Qadir to flee to Morocco. Although French attacks on the Moroccan cities of Tangier and Mogador (1844) compelled the Moroccan sultan, Mawlay ‘Abd al-Rahman, to declare the Amir an outlaw, he appeared again in Algeria in 1846 at the head of numerous clandestinely organized uprisings. Despite a major victory at Sidi Brahim (September 23, 1846), the French counterattack crushed this revolt and forced him back across the Moroccan border. ‘Abd al-Qadir surrendered to the French on December 21, 1847. Two days later, his surrender was made official to the French Governor General of Algeria, Henri d'Orleans, duc d'Aumale.

'Abd al-Qadir was exiled to France, in violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or Acre, on the faith of which he had surrendered. 'Abd al-Qadir and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There he remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria.

After pledging not to resist the French in Algeria, 'Abd al-Qadir was released from prison in 1852 and given a pension by Napoleon III. Choosing exile in the Muslim-ruled Ottoman Empire, he settled first in Brusa (1853), and finally in Damascus (1855). In Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent, Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse.

While in Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir befriended Lady Jane Digby (Jane Digby el-Mezrab), the British socialite who married a Syrian shaykh, and Isabel and Richard Burton, the famous explorer and translator of the Kama Sutra and The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (popularly known as The Arabian Nights).

'Abd al-Qadir's final beau geste came in July 1860, when he personally protected the French consul in Damascus and several thousand Christians from massacre by Druze rebels.  In July 1860, conflict between the Druze and Maronites of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus, and local Druze attacked the Christian quarter, killing over 3,000 persons.  'Abd al-Qadir and his personal guard saved large numbers of Christians, bringing them to safety in his house and in the citadel.  For this action, the French government, which granted the Amir a pension of 4000 Louis, bestowed on him the Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur.  He was also honored by Abraham Lincoln for this gesture towards Christians with several guns that are now on display in the Algiers museum.

In 1864, 'Abd al-Qadir became a Freemason being initiated at the Lodge of Pyramids as a courtesy for the Lodge Henri IV, in Paris.

After his death on the night of May 25-26, 1883, the body of 'Abd al-Qadir was interred next to the tomb of the great Andalusian mystic Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 1240).

Although initiated into the Qadiriyah Sufi order by his father, Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir joined the Naqshbandiyah in Damascus.  He also remained associated with the unofficial Akbariyah tradition throughout his life, a link which led to the amir’s burial next to his father’s intellectual eponym, Muhyi al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi.  His penultimate “opening” (fath) into Sufism was at the hands of a master of the Akbariyah, Muhammad al-Fasi al-Shadhili, whom he met in Mecca in 1863. 

‘Abd al-Qadir’s major Sufi works are Kitab al-mawaqif ("Book of Stages"), an extended discourse on the doctrines of Ibn ‘Arabi, and a Diwan or collection of mystical poems.

Today 'Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence.  Not without cause, his green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation movement during the War of Independence and became the national flag of independent Algeria.  He was buried in Damascus in the same mausoleum as Ibn 'Arabi, until the Algerian government brought his remains back to Algeria to be interred with much ceremony on July 5, 1966, the fourth anniversary of independence and the 136th anniversary of the French conquest.   The Emir Abdel Kader University and the mosque bearing his name have been constructed as a national shrine in Constantine, Algeria, and the town of Elkader, Iowa, in the United States is named after him.

'Abd al-Qadir, the  amīr of Mascara (from 1832), was the military and religious leader who founded the Algerian state and led the Algerians in their 19th-century struggle against French domination (1840–46).

His physical handsomeness and the qualities of his mind had made 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) popular even before his military exploits. Of medium height, lithe and elegant, with regular features and a black beard, his demeanor was exceptionally refined, and his life-style was simple. He was known as a religious and educated man who could excite his co-religionists with his poetry and oratorical eloquence.

Algeria was an Ottoman regency when the French army landed there in 1830. The government was controlled by a dey (bey - governor) and by the Turkish Janissaries who had chosen him. These rulers, supported by the Koulouglis  (people of mixed Turkish and Algerian ancestry) and by certain privileged tribes, and aided by the fact that they were of the same religion as the people, long held Algeria firmly in their grip.

Nevertheless, the Algerians detested them, and there were continual rebellions in the early 19th century. As a result, the country was left too divided to oppose the French invaders.

The western tribes laid siege to French-occupied Oran and tried to organize themselves, unified by their common Muslim religious sentiment, which was cultivated by the schoolmasters and particularly by members of the religious brotherhoods. The leader of one of the brotherhoods,  Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani (Mahieddin), director of the zāwiyah (religious school) near Mascara, was asked to lead the harassment of the French troops in Oran and Mostaganem.

In November 1832 the aging Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani (Mahieddin) had his young son 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) elected in his place. The youth, already renowned for his piety and military prowess, took over the war of harassment. The ensuing Desmichels Treaty of 1834 gave him the whole interior of the Oran, with the title commander of the believers. In a move to unify his new territories, Amīr 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader), taking advantage of this treaty, imposed his rule on all the tribes of the Chelif, occupied Miliana and then Médéa, and succeeded in defeating General Camille Trézel at Macta. Although pressed by generals Bertrand Clauzel and T.R. Bugeaud, he managed to rally support from Algerians who had become indignant over the French use of violence. By able negotiation, he convinced General Bugeaud to sign the Treaty of Tafna (1837), which further increased his territory and made him master of the whole interior of Oran and the Titteri, with the French having to be content with a few ports.

In two years, 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) had organized a true state, the capital of which was sometimes Mascara and sometimes the fortress of Tiaret (now Tagdempt). He established juridical equality among population groups by suppressing the privileges of the warlike tribes (makhzen) and by imposing equal taxes on all his subjects. First he extended his influence to the Sahara by fighting al-Tijīnī, who dominated the southern oases, and rallying the desert peoples to him. Then he strengthened his authority in the valley of the Chelif and in the Titteri as far as the borders of the province of the east, where he was resisted by the bey of Constantine, Hajj Ahmed. He also exacted harsh punishment of the Koulouglis of Zouatna, who had joined the French. By the winter of 1838, his authority extended across the borders of Kabylie and, in the south, from the oasis of Biskra to the Moroccan border. To destroy the power of al-Tijīnī, he besieged his capital, Ain Mahdi, for six months and demolished it, while all the Saharan tribes paid him homage.

'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) was an absolute leader who only rarely called in the grandees to advise him. Algerian religious sentiment was his support, the one force that could bring his subjects together and unify them in the face of the invader. But that did not prevent him from employing competent persons of all nationalities, whether Jews or Christians, to help him build a modern state. The best known of these Europeans was the future diplomat Léon Roches, who later recounted his adventures in a fanciful book, Trente-deux ans à travers l’Islam (“Thirty-two Years Through Islam”). 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) organized a regular army of approximately 2,000 men, to be supported by either volunteers or contingents furnished by the tribes. As towns near French territory would have been too vulnerable, he fortified interior sites, such as Sebdou, Saida, Tiaret, Taza, and Boghar, where he opened arsenals, warehouses, and workshops, and where he stored surplus crops whose sales were to finance his arms purchases, mainly in England. He set up a new administration, with officials on fixed salaries. He taught his people austerity and set a personal example, living without ceremony in a tent. By expanding education, he slowly spread the concepts of independence and nationality to his people.

When the columns of the duc d’Orléans crossed the Iron Gates, the Amir took it as a violation of the territories granted him by the Treaty of Tafna. Even though he was still far from having completed his own work of organization, he made a surprise attack and destroyed the French colonization of the Mitidja Plain. From then on the war languished until General Bugeaud was named governor general in 1840. Bugeaud convinced the French government to arm him for the conquest of all Algeria. The resulting war was bitter and lasted seven years. The Amir avoided big battles, preferring to use his rifle-armed cavalry in incessant skirmishes, from which it would retreat almost as soon as it had fired. But he was fighting a French army composed of infantry organized by Bugeaud into extremely mobile columns, and he had to contend with the devastation of the countryside practiced by Bugeaud and his lieutenants so as to force the starving inhabitants to desert their leader.

In 1841 the French destroyed the Amir’s fortified sites, and he was forced to become a nomad in the interior of Oran. The following year he lost Tlemcen, and communication with his Moroccan allies became difficult. However, despite further reverses and French penetration in the south, 'Abd al-Qadir succeeded in reaching Morocco. But after Bugeaud’s defeat of the Moroccans at Isly, the Sultan was forced to hold 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) in the midst of his empire. The Amir, however, proved to have unflagging energy. Taking advantage of a revolt in the Dahra, he re-entered Algeria, took the Sidi Brahim outpost, and penetrated deep into the interior, all the while escaping the pursuing French columns.

In July 1846, with only a handful of men left, 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) again took refuge in Morocco, the Sultan of which by then considered him to be a burden. Deprived of this last area of support, 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) returned to Algeria and in 1847, with great dignity, turned himself over to General Christophe de Lamoricière and to Bugeaud’s successor, King Louis-Philippe’s son, the duc d’Aumale, who promised him transport to the East.

Louis-Philippe, however, failed to respect his son’s promise. 'Abd al-Qadir (Abdelkader) was held prisoner in France, first at the Château de Pau, where he learned the principles of Freemasonry, and later at Amboise. It was the prince-president Louis-Napoleon who, in 1852, authorized his return to Bursa and then to Damascus, where he led an exemplary life and wrote Rappel à l’intelligent, avis à l’indifférent (“Call to the Intelligent, Warning to the Indifferent”). The French government provided him with a large pension and with a Kabyle guard and even attempted to obtain a throne for him somewhere between Turkey and Egypt, which they wished to remove from Ottoman control. At the time of the 1871 Algerian insurrection, he disowned one of his sons who had tried to arouse the tribes of southern Constantine.

When 'Abd al-Qadir died, he was respected by all. French efforts to make him the symbol of Algerian support for colonial rule were erroneous.  'Abd al-Qadir believed he was carrying out God’s will in admitting that his political role had ended. Present-day Algerians consider him to be the greatest hero of their people.

'Abd al-Qadir was an Algerian Islamic scholar, Sufi, political and military leader who led a struggle against the French colonial invasion in the mid-19th century, for which he is seen by some Algerians as the "modern Jugurtha" (a Numidian king who fought against Roman rule) and a national hero.

In France, after having been considered as an enemy during the first half of the 19th century, he was rehabilitated into a "friend of France" after having intervened in favor of persecuted Christians in Syria during the 1860 Druze-Christian conflict in Lebanon and Syria,  saving many Christian lives from the massacres.

'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri  is often referred to only as Amir 'Abd al-Qadir (El Amir Abdelkader), since al-Jaza'iri simply means "the Algerian". His name can be variously transliterated from its Arabic spelling as Abd al-Kadir, Abdel Kader, Abdelkader, and other variant spellings. He is also often given the titles amir, prince, and shaykh or sheik.

 'Abd al-Qādir was born near the town of Mascara near Oran, in 1808. His father, Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani, was a shaykh in the Qadiri Sufi order of Islam. He was a Banu Ifran Berber and claimed descendance from Muhammad.

In his childhood, 'Abd al-Qadir memorized the Qur'an and was trained in horsemanship, theology and linguistics, and received an education far better than that of his peers. In 1825, he set out for the Muslim pilgrimage, the hajj, with his father. While in Mecca, he encountered Imam Shamil; the two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of noted Muslims, such as Shaykh Ibn Arabi and Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jilani, named also El-Jilali in Algeria. This experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, 'Abd al-Qadir was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muhammad Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French.

In 1830, Algeria was invaded by France.  French colonial domination over Algeria supplanted what had been domination in name only by the Ottoman Empire. Within two years, 'Abd al-Qadir was made an amir and with the loyalty of a number of tribes began a rebellion against the French. He was effective at using guerrilla warfare and for a decade, up until 1842, scored many victories. He often signed tactical truces with the French, but these did not last. His power base was in the western part of Algeria, where he was successful in uniting the tribes against the French. He was noted for his chivalry; on one occasion he released his French captives simply because he had insufficient food to feed them. Throughout this period 'Abd al-Qadir demonstrated political and military leadership, and acted as a capable administrator and a persuasive orator. His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned.

Up until the beginning of 1842 the struggle went in favor of 'Abd al-Qadir.  However, the resistance was ultimately put down by Marshal Bugeaud. In 1837, 'Abd al-Qadir signed the Treaty of Tafna with Bugeaud, in which he recognized France's sovereignty in Oran and Algiers, while France recognized his control over the remaining two-thirds of the country, mainly the interior. When French troops marched through a mountain pass in territory 'Abd al-Qadir claimed as his in open defiance of that claim, he renewed the resistance on October 15, 1839.

'Abd al-Qadir was ultimately forced to surrender. The French armies grew large, and brutally suppressed the native population and practiced a scorched-earth policy.  'Abd al-Qadir's failure to get support from eastern tribes, apart from the Berbers of western Kabylie, also contributed to the quelling of the rebellion. On December 21, 1847, after being denied refuge in Morocco because of French diplomatic and military pressure on its leaders, 'Abd al-Qadir surrendered to General Louis de Lamoricière in exchange for the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or Acre. Two days later, his surrender was made official to the French Governor-General of Algeria, Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale. The French government refused to honor Lamoricière's promise and 'Abd al-Qadir was exiled to France.

In 1843 Marshal Soult declared that 'Abd al-Qadir as one of the three great men then living ; the two others, Imam Shamil and Muhammad Ali of Egypt also being Muslims.

'Abd al-Qadir and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, and in November 1848 they were transferred to the château of Amboise. There he remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III and given an annual pension of 100 000 francs on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria. He then took up residence in Bursa, today's Turkey, moving in 1855 to the Amara District in Damascus. He devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel à l'intelligent. Avis à l'indifférent. He also wrote a book on the Arabian horse.

While in Damascus 'Abd al-Qadir befriended Jane Digby and Richard and Isabel Burton. In July 1860, conflict between the Druze and Maronites of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus, and local Druze attacked the Christian quarter, killing over 3,000 persons. Abd al-Qadir and his personal guard saved large numbers of Christians, bringing them to safety in his house and in the citadel. For this action, the French government increased his pension to 150 000 francs and bestowed on him the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. He was also honored by Abraham Lincoln for this gesture towards Christians with several guns that are now on display in the Algiers museum.

In June 1864, 'Abd al-Qadir became a Freemason.  In 1865, he visited Paris at the invitation of Napoleon III and was greeted with both official and popular respect. 'Abd al-Qādir died in Damascus on May 26, 1883, and was buried near the great Sufi Ibn Arabi in Damascus.


Alternative names include:

'Abd al-Qadir
'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri
'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhieddine
'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din
'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din ibn Mustafa al-Hasani al-Jaza'iri
'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyiddin
'Abd el Kader
Abdelkader El Djezairi
'Abdul Qadir
Al-Jaza'iri
Al-Jaza'iri, 'Abd al-Qadir
Djezairi
Djezairi, Abdelkader El
El Djezairi
El Djezairi, Abdelkader
Ibn Muhieddine
Ibn Muhieddine, 'Abd al-Qadir
Ibn Muhyi al-Din
Ibn Muhyi al-Din, 'Abd al-Qadir
Ibn Muhyi al-Din ibn Mustafa al-Hasani al-Jaza'iri
Ibn Muhyi al-Din ibn Mustafa al-Hasani al-Jaza'iri, 'Abd al-Qadir
Ibn Muhyiddin
Ibn Muhyiddin, 'Abd al-Qadir
Jaza'iri, 'Abd al-Qadir al-
Jaza'iri, al-

'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim

‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim (c.497-578) was the paternal grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad and the Caliph 'Ali. He negotiated with Abraha, the leader of an Abyssinian army invading Mecca. He traded with Syria and Yemen and is credited with having dug the Zamzam well at the Ka‘ba. Upon the death of the Prophet’s mother, Amina, ‘Abd al-Muttalib took the then six year old Muhammad into his home.

The father of 'Abd al-Muttalib was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf and his mother was Salma bint Amr from the tribe of an-Najjar in Yathrib. On his father's side he belonged to the distinguished Banu Hashim clan, a subgroup of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca which traced their genealogy to Isma'il and Ibrahim. In 497, the father of 'Abd al-Muttalib died while on business in Gaza, Palestine. 'Abd al-Muttalib was born posthumously.

'Abd al-Muttalib was given the name "Shaiba", meaning "old man" in Arabic, because he was born with a few white hairs. After his father's death, he was raised in Yathrib with his mother and her family until about the age of eight, when his uncle Muttalib ibn Abd al-Manaf came to take him to Mecca. Upon first arriving in Mecca, the people assumed the unknown child was Muttalib's slave, giving him the name "Abd al-Muttalib" -- "slave of Muttalib". When Muttalib died, 'Abd al-Muttalib succeeded him as the chief of the Banu Hashim clan. It is not possible to give the whole history of 'Abd al-Muttalib, but two important events would be included. The recovery of Zamzam and the attempted attack on the Ka'ba by Abraha, the governor of Ethiopia in Yemen.

Hundreds of years before its time, the well of Zamzam in Mecca was filled up and nobody knew its location. One day, 'Abd al-Muttalib had a series of four dreams directing him to Zamzam's location. 'Abd al-Muttalib, with his eldest son, Harith ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, dug the location where Zamzam is today, finding wather after four days of effort. At this success, the Quraysh argued that since the well was the property of Isma'il, it belonged to the whole tribe. 'Abd al-Muttalib rejected their claim, saying that it was given to him by Allah.

They agreed to present their case to a wise woman of the tribe of Sa'd in Syria. During the trip, 'Abd al-Muttalib's water reserves were depleted and his group suffering from thirst. The leaders of the other parties refused to give them water and 'Abd al-Muttalib advised his group to dig graves, so that when someone died others could bury him.

The next day, 'Abd al-Muttalib exhorted his companions that it was cowardice to succumb to death. He mounted his camel and its foot hit the earth producing a stream of water. The other caravans saw this as a sign that Allah had indeed given Zamzam to 'Abd al-Muttalib.

According to Muslim tradition, the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram, envied the Ka'ba's reverence among the Arabs and, being a Christian, he constructed a cathedral in Sanaa and ordered pilgrimage be made there. The order was ignored and someone desecrated the cathedral. Abraha decided to avenge this act by demolishing the Ka'ba. Abraha advanced with an army towards Mecca.

There were many elephants in Abraha's army and the year came to be known as 'Am al-Fil -- "Year of the Elephant." When news of the advance of Abraha's army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Banu Kinanah, Banu Khuza'a and Banu Hudhayl united in defense of the Ka'ba. A man from the Himyar tribe was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'ba and if they resisted, they would be crushed. 'Abd al-Muttalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he with some leading members of the Quraysh, remained within the precincts of the Ka'ba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting 'Abd al-Muttalib to meet with him and to discuss matters. When 'Abd al-Muttalib left the meeting, he was heard saying, "The Ownere of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."

It is recorded that when the Abraha's forces neared the Ka'ba, Allah commanded small birds which destroyed Abraha's army with raining pebbles from their beaks. Abraha was seriously wounded and he retreated towards Yemen but died while on the way.

The Year of the Elephant is also the year in which Muhammad was born.

'Abd al-Muttalib was married to five women: Sumra bint Jandab, Lubna bint Hajira, Fatimah bint Amr, Halah bint Wahab-Zuhriya, and Natila bint Khabab-Khizriji.

• Shaybah ibn Hāshim, better known as 'Abdul Muṭṭalib or 'Abd al-Muṭṭalib, since he was raised by his uncle Muttalib, was the grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.  His father was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf and his mother was Salmah bint 'Amr from the Banu Najjar tribe in Yathrib (later called Medina [Madinah]). On his father's side he belonged to the distinguished Banu Hashim clan, a subgroup of the Quraish tribe of Mecca (Makkah) which traced their genealogy to Isma'il  and Ibrahim. His father died while doing business in Gaza, before he was born.

  
  

  Shaybah ibn Hashim was given the name "Shaybah" meaning 'the ancient one' or 'white-haired' for the streak of white through his jet-black hair, and is sometimes also called Shaybat al-Ḥamd ("The white streak of praise"). After his father's death he was raised in Yathrib with his mother and her family until about the age of eight, when his uncle Muṭṭalib went to see him and asked his mother Salmah bint `Amr to entrust Shaybah to his care. Salmah was unwilling to let her son go and Shaybah refused to leave his mother without her consent. Muṭṭalib then pointed out that the possibilities Yathrib had to offer were incomparable to Makkah. Salmah was impressed with his arguments, so she agreed to let him go. Upon first arriving in Makkah, the people assumed the unknown child was Muṭṭalib's slave, giving him the name `Abdu'l-Muṭṭalib (slave of Muṭṭalib). When Muṭṭalib died, Shaybah succeeded him as the chief of the Banu Hashim clan.

  
  According to Muslim tradition, the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abrahah al-Ashram, envied the Ka'bah's reverence among the Arabs and, being a Christian, he built a cathedral in Sana'a and ordered pilgrimage be made there. The order was ignored and someone desecrated (some saying in the form of defecation) the cathedral. Abrahah decided to avenge this act by demolishing the Ka'bah and he advanced with an army towards Mecca.
  
  

  There were many elephants in Abrahah's army and the year came to be known as 'Am al-Fil (the Year of the Elephant), beginning a trend for reckoning the years in Arabia which was used until 'Umar ibn al-Khattab  replaced it with the Islamic Calendar.
  
  

  When news of the advance of Abrahah's army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Banu Kinanah, Banu Khuza'ah and Banu Hudhayl united in defense of the Ka'bah. A man from the Himyar tribe was sent by Abrahah to advise them that Abrahah only wished to demolish the Ka'bah and if they resisted, they would be crushed. `Abdu 'l-Muṭṭalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the nearest high hills while he with some leading members of Quraysh, remained within the precincts of the Ka'bah. Abrahah sent a dispatch inviting `Abdu'l-Muṭṭalib to meet with him and discuss matters. When `Abdu'l-Muṭṭalib left the meeting he was heard saying, "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."
  
  

  It is recorded that when Abrahah's forces neared the Ka'bah, Allah commanded small birds (abābīl) to destroy Abrahah's army, raining down pebbles on it from their beaks. Abrahah was seriously wounded and retreated towards Yemen but died on the way. This event is referred to in the following Qur'anic chapter:

  "Have you not seen how your Lord dealt with the owners of the Elephant? Did He not make their treacherous plan go astray? And He sent against them birds in flocks, striking them with stones of baked clay, so He rendered them like straw eaten up." 

  —Qur'an sura 105 (Al-Fil)

  This conflict occurred in 570, according to many sources the same year Muhammad was born.
  
  

  Shaybah ibn Hashim married:

  • Sumrah bint Jandab.
  • Lubna bint Hajar.
  • Fatimah bint 'Amr, belonging to the tribe of Quraysh.
  • Halah bint Wuhayb, belonging to the tribe of Quraysh.
  • Natilah bint Khubab al-Khazraji.
  • Mummana'ah bint 'Amr, belonging to the tribe of Khuza'ah.

  
  

  The children of Shaybah ibn Hashim were:

  
  

  From Sumrah bint Jandab:

  1. Harith ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the eldest child, but he passed away before his father.

  From Lubna bint Hajar:

  1. Abu Lahab 'Abd al-'Uzza ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib

  From Fatimah bint 'Amr:

  1. Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib - Who became the leader of the Quraysh after his father. He was the father of 'Ali, the first Shi'ah Imam and the fourth Caliph. 
  2. al-Zubayr ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the poet of Quraysh; he died before Islam was propogated.
  3. 'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib - Father of Muḥammad

  From Halah bint Wahb:

  1. Hamzah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib
  2. Quthum ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib
  3. Hijl ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib
  4. Saffiyah bint 'Abd al-Muttalib

  From Natilah bint Khubab al-Khazraji:

  1. 'Abbas ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib
  2. Darrar ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib

  'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib of the Banu Hashim and Aminah bint Wahab of Banu Zuhrah were the parents of Muhammad. ‘Abdullāh died four months before Muḥammad's birth, and Āminah bint Wahab was taken care of by Shaybah. Āminah also died six years later and Shaybah ibn Hāshim died in 578 when Muhammad was eight. Shaybah ibn Hāshim's grave can be found in the Jannat al-Mu'alla cemetery in Mecca (Makkah), Saudi Arabia.
  
  

  Following the death of his grandfather, Muḥammad was then taken into the care of his uncle Abu Talib (the father of 'Ali), a prominent Quraysh chief and custodian of the Ka'bah. 

  
  

  Alternative names include:

  
  

  'Abd al-Muttalib
  'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
  'Abdul Muttalib
  Ibn Hashim
  Ibn Hashim, 'Abd al-Muttalib
  Ibn Hashim, Shaiba
  Ibn Hashim, Shaybah
  Shaiba ibn Hashim
  Shaybah ibn Hashim
  

  
  

'Abd al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali

‘Abd al-Mu’min ibn ‘Ali (b. c. 1094, Tagra, Kingdom of the Hammadids - d. 1163, Rabat, Almohad Empire) was the successor of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart in the leadership of the Almohad movement. His tenure lasted from 1133 to 1163. In 1147, he conquered the Almoravid capital of Marrakesh. In Spain, Granada and Seville surrendered to him.

'Abd al-Mu'min was a member of a group of Kumia, a Berber tribe living in the area of Tlemcen (Algeria). Some time around 1117 he became a follower of Ibn Tumart, a religious leader of renowned piety who had founded the Almohads as a religious order with the goal of restoring purity in Islam. When Ibn Tumart died in 1130 al-Mu'min became the leader of the movement. He subsequently forged it into a powerful military force and under him the Almohads swept down from the mountains destroying the power of the faltering Almoravids by 1147. When 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in 1151, he gave the Jews and Christians there the option of conversion to Islam or death.

Establishing his capital at Marrakech, al-Mu'min expanded his empire beyond Morocco eastwards to the border of Egypt. He also was a prodigious builder of monuments and palaces. One of the monuments he caused to be erected was a substantial fortress at Chellah to prepare the site as a base for attacks against Iberia. The last years of his life were spent campaigning in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) first conquering the Muslim kingdoms and then campaigning inconclusively against the Christian states.

'Abd al-Mu'min was the Berber caliph of the Almohad dynasty (r. 1130–63), who conquered the North African Maghrib from the Almoravids and brought all the Berbers under one rule.

ʿAbd al-Muʾmin came from a humble family.  His father was a potter.  'Abd al-Mu'min seems to have been well instructed in the Muslim faith and must have had a good knowledge of Arabic, for he wished to continue his studies at one of the centers of Muslim learning in the East. A chance meeting with Ibn Tumart, a Berber religious reformer, made him abandon this idea and begin his brilliant career.

Around 1117, Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Almohad movement, was returning from a long stay in the East. He landed at Mahdīyah in Tunisia and began a journey to southern Morocco, his native country. Wherever he stopped along the way, he proclaimed a twofold message: strict adherence to the doctrine of the oneness of God (hence the name Almohads or al-Muwahhidūn, -- Unitarians) and scrupulous observance of Islamic law. ʿAbd al-Muʾmin heard Ibn Tumart preach at Mellala, near Bejaia, Algeria. He was an attentive listener and from that time attached himself to the man who had revealed to him the true doctrine.

ʿAbd al-Muʾmin does not seem to have played any special role among Ibn Tumart’s disciples during the slow journey that took them to Marrakech. But when his master declared his opposition to the ruling Almoravid regime, proclaimed himself the mahdi (“divinely guided one”), and took refuge in the remote High Atlas region, ʿAbd al-Muʾmin went with him. Ibn Tumart won a following in the mountains and founded a small Almohad state there, centered on the village of Tinmel. When al-Bashir, the reformer’s second in command, was killed in an attack on Marrakech, ʿAbd al-Muʾmin took his place and became Ibn Tumart’s designated successor. The mahdī died in 1130. His death was kept secret at first to allow ʿAbd al-Muʾmin — a stranger to the High Atlas — time to win support from the Almohad leaders. When he was proclaimed leader of the Almohads, he assumed the prestigious title of caliph.

'Abd al-Mu'min's first task was to carry on the struggle against the Almoravids. Learning from the failure at Marrakech, he realized that he must conquer Morocco from the mountains. On the plains, the Christian knights who served the Almoravids could easily repulse the Almohads’ Berber infantry. He spent the next 15 years winning control of the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, and Rif regions, finally moving into his native country, north of Tlemcen.

Near Tlemcen, the Almoravids, having suffered the loss of Reverter, the leader of their Catalan mercenaries, were defeated by ʿAbd al-Muʾmin in open battle in 1145. The Almohad forces then moved west, subjugating Morocco’s Atlantic coastal plain. They then laid siege to Marrakech and took it by storm in 1147, slaughtering the Almoravid inhabitants.

Arab historians have left a description of the man who had now become master of Northwest Africa. He was a sturdy Berber of medium height, with dark hair and regular features. A good soldier, with great courage and endurance, he was at the same time learned in Islam and a gifted orator. Although he had personal charm and could, when necessary, show patience and moderation, he was at times as harsh as his master, Ibn Tumart. When a revolt broke out in the Atlantic plain area following the capture of Marrakech, he conducted a methodical purge there in which more than 30,000 people were executed.

ʿAbd al-Muʾmin left neither memoirs nor a political testament.  His ideas must be deduced from his actions. However, his newfound power and his very success raised problems that demanded immediate solutions.

The capture of Marrakech posed the moral question of whether to abandon this city founded by the Almoravid heretics, whom he had exterminated without pity. He contented himself with the destruction of their palace and mosques and retained Marrakech as the capital of his new empire.

Soon 'Abd al-Mu'min had to choose between two imperial policies: to complete the conquest of North Africa or to concentrate his energies on Spain, where the Christians were threatening the former Almoravid domains. Showing good judgment as well as feeling for his native country, he gave priority to North Africa.

In 1151, 'Abd al-Mu'min subjugated the area around Constantine and on his way home fought a battle near Setif against a powerful coalition of Arab tribes that had been wandering over the Berber country for a century, gradually destroying its simple, pastoral, and sedentary way of life. ʿAbd al-Muʾmin was victorious, but instead of punishing these people who had showed themselves to be the worst enemies of the Berbers and the Almohad government, he came to rely on them to strengthen his dynasty against internal opposition from the family of Ibn Tumart. He also wished to use the Arab cavalry in his holy war against the Christians in Spain.

In 1158–59 ʿAbd al-Muʾmin conquered Tunisia and Tripolitania. This marked the zenith of Berber power in Islam: a Berber caliph reigned over all of North Africa west of Egypt, and his authority was acknowledged by most of Muslim Spain as well.

Even while he was pursuing his conquest, ʿAbd al-Muʾmin had established a central government for his empire. To the traditional clan organization of the Masmudah and other Berber peoples supporting the Almohads he added an organization to promote the spread of Almohad doctrine and a central administration (the makhzan) modeled on those of Muslim Spain, which was staffed largely by Spanish Muslims. A government land registry was improvised to assure the dynasty regular revenue. ʿAbd al-Muʾmin fully accepted the responsibilities of an art patron, but remembering the puritanical austerity of Ibn Tumart, he sometimes imposed on the mosques built for him by Andalusian artisans a plainness that became more precious than the prevailing elaborate ornamentation.

ʿAbd al-Muʾmin died in 1163. His work, faithfully carried on by his successors Abu Yaʿqub Yusuf (r. 1163–84) and Abu Yusuf Yaʿqub al-Mansur (r. 1184–99), was maintained for more than half a century. Disturbances caused by the rebellious Arab tribes impoverished the country without endangering the dynasty. After their defeat by the Spanish Christians at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, however, the Almohads began to decline, and their empire soon disintegrated.

Though in the long run ʿAbd al-Muʾmin’s successors proved unable to perpetuate his achievements, he himself had written one of the most glorious chapters in the history of the Muslim West.

'Abd al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali was a Zenata Berber and prominent member of the Almohad movement. As a leader of the Almohad Movement, he became the first Caliph of the Almohad Empire.

'Abd al-Mu'min was born near Tagra, in the Tlemcen area, present day Algeria.  He belonged to the Goumia tribe, which in turn, belongs to the larger Berber Zenata tribe. The Goumia originated from Tagraret.  Ibn Khaldun wrote that 'Abd al-Mu'min was from a noble family (The Banu Abed) of the Zenata.

'Abd al-Mu'min went, as a youngster, to Tlemcen to learn the Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). However, his tutor died before he could complete his study.  At that time he learned about the existence of a well learned and pious Faqih (expert in Islamic jurisprudence) then known as Feqih Soussi but who would later be known as Ibn Tumart.  At the time, Ibn Tumart was coming from the east on his way to his native land in Tinmel. 'Abd al-Mu'min and his peers wanted to convince Ibn Tumart to settle in Tlemcen, so he was sent to Ibn Tumart with a letter from the students inviting him to come to their land. The two met at Mellala near Bejaïa. Ibn Tumart turned down this invitation, but  'Abd al-Mu'min stayed with him and they continued the journey to Morocco. A strong friendship developed between the two during this period.  Ibn Tumart declared 'Abd al-Mu'min his best companion, to the point that he nominated him as his successor in leading the Almohads. {Later, 'Abd al-Mu'min and the council of ten kept the death of Ibn Tumart secret for 3 years, since the Almohads were going into a difficult time in their fight against the Almoravids.  Additionally,  'Abd al-Mu'min feared that the Masmuda (the Berber tribe of Ibn Tumart) would not accept him as their leader since he was an outsider. 'Abd al-Mu'min would eventually lead the Almohads when an in-law relationship occurred between him and Cheikh Abu Hafs the leader of the Masmuda.}

Some time around 1117, 'Abd al-Mu'min became a follower of Ibn Tumart, the leader of the Masmudas (Berber tribe of western Morocco) and a religious leader of renowned piety who had founded the Almohads as a religious order with the goal of restoring purity in Islam. Ibn Tumart's group had long been at odds with the Almoravids and had been forced into exile in the mountains. Between 1130 and his death in 1163, 'Abd al-Mu'min not only defeated the Almoravids, but extended his power over all northern Africa as far as Egypt, becoming Caliph of the Almohad Empire in 1149.

When Ibn Tumart died in 1128 at his Ribat in Tinmel, after suffering a severe defeat by the Almoravids, Abd al-Mu'min kept his death secret for two years, until his own influence was established. He then came forward as the lieutenant of Ibn Tumart, became the leader of the movement, and forged it into a powerful military force. Under him the Almohads swept down from the mountains, eventually destroying the power of the faltering Almoravid dynasty by 1147.

Establishing his capital at Marrakech, al-Mu'min expanded his empire beyond Morocco eastwards to the border of Egypt.

'Abd al-Mu'min was a prodigious builder of monuments and palaces. One of the monuments he caused to be erected was a substantial fortress at Chellah to prepare the site as a base for attacks against Iberia.

The last years of his life were spent campaigning in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) first conquering the Muslim kingdoms and then campaigning inconclusively against the Christian states.

Alternative names include:

'Abd al-Mu'min
'Abd al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali
'Abd al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali al-Gumi
Abdelmoumen El Goumi
Al-Mu'min
Al-Mu'min, 'Abd
Al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali
Al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali, 'Abd
Al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali al-Gumi
Al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali al-Gumi, 'Abd
El Goumi
El Goumi, Abdelmoumen
Goumi, Abdelmoumen El
Goumi, El
Ibn 'Ali
Ibn 'Ali, 'Abd al-Mu'min
Ibn 'Ali al-Gumi
Ibn 'Ali al-Gumi, 'Abd al-Mumin
Mu'min, 'Abd al-
Mu'min, Al-
Mu'min ibn 'Ali, 'Abd al-
Mu'min ibn 'Ali, Al-
Mu'min ibn 'Ali al-Gumi, Abd al-
Mu'min ibn 'Ali al-Gumi, Al-

[edit]

'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (b. 646/647, Medina, Arabia — d. October 8, 705, Damascus) was the Umayyad caliph from 685 to 705. During his tenure, he succeeded in restoring the unity of the Arabs under Syrian leadership by ending the second fitna. During his tenure, the administration was also centralized; Arabic was substituted for Greek and Persian; and Islamic coinage was issued. Also, during his reign, the ‘Uthmanic text of the Qur’an was re-edited with vowel-punctuation; the postal service was reorganized and expanded; the damaged Ka'ba was repaired; the tradition of weaving a silk cover for the Ka'ba began; and the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem.

'Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and a capable ruler, despite the many political problems that impeded his rule. During his reign, all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time a special currency for the Muslim world was minted, which led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by 'Abd al-Malik after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce.

'Abd al-Malik became caliph after the death of his father Marwan I in 685. Within a few years, he dispatched armies, under al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, on a campaign to reassert Umayyad control over the Islamic empire. Hajjaj first defeated the governor of Basra and then led his forces into Hejaz, where Ibn Zubayr was killed -- ending his short claim to the caliphate. The Siege of Mecca in 692 started with Hajjaj at the head of about 2000 Syrians he set out against 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the caliph of Hejaz at Mecca. Hajjaj advanced unopposed as far as his native Taif, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated. However, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in the Holy City. Since the negotiations failed and al-Hajjaj lost patience, he sent a courier to ask 'Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca by force. He received both, and thereupon bombarded Mecca using catapults from the mountain of Abu Qubays. The bombardment continued during the Pilgrimage or Hajj.

After the siege had lasted for seven months and 10,000 men, among them two sons of 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, had gone over to al-Hajjaj, 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with a few loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka'ba (October 692).

Hajjaj's success led 'Abd al-Malik to assign him the role of governor of Iraq and give him free rein in the territories he controlled. Hajjaj arrived when there were many deserters in Basra and Kufa. He promptly and forcefully impelled them to return to combat. Hajjaj, after years of serious fighting, quelled religious disturbances, including the rebellion launched by Salih ibn Musarrih and continued after Salih's death by Shahib. These rebels repeatedly defeated more numerous forces and at their height entered Kufah. However, 'Abd al-Malik's Syrian reinforcements enabled Hajjaj to turn the tide.

Under Hajjaj, Arab armies put down the revolt of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in Iraq from 699 to 701, and also took most of Turkestan. 'Abd al-Rahman rebelled following Hajjaj's repeated orders to push further into the lands of Zundil. After his defeat in Iraq, again achieved through 'Abd al-Malik's dispatch of Syrian reinforcements to Hajjaj, 'Abd al-Rahman returned east. There one city closed its gates to him and in another he was seized. However, Zundil's army arrived and secured his release. Later, 'Abd al-Rahman died and Zundil sent his head to Hajjaj who sent it to 'Abd al-Malik. These victories paved the way for greater expansions under 'Abd al-Malik's son al-Walid.

'Abd al-Malik was effective in increasing the size of the empire. In the Maghreb (western North Africa), in 686, a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais won the Battle of Mamma over Byzantines and Berbers led by Kusayla, on the Qairawan plain, and re-took Ifriqiya and its capital Kairouan.

In 695, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived and retook Carthage. However, in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta.

Hasan met trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702, 'Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. With a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated the Zenata in a battle at Tabarka, 85 miles west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replace Hasan. 'Abd al-Malik pacified much of North Africa, although he failed to take Ceuta.

'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was the fifth caliph (685–705) of the Umayyad Arab dynasty centered in Damascus. He reorganized and strengthened governmental administration and, throughout the empire, adopted Arabic as the language of administration.

ʿAbd al-Malik spent the first half of his life with his father, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the fourth Umayyad caliph, in Medina, where he received religious instruction and developed friendly relations with the pious circles of that city that were to stand him in good stead in his later life. At the age of 16, he was entrusted by his kinsman, the caliph Muʿawiyah, with administrative responsibilities. He remained at Medina until 683, when he and his father were driven out of the city by Medinese rebels in revolt against the central government in Damascus. He then met the Syrian Umayyad army that was marching on Medina and gave its commander advice about the best means of attacking the city, advice that was followed and proved successful. When the caliph Yazid died in November 683, Marwan was proclaimed caliph in 684 and was able to effect a partial rally of Umayyad rule but at the cost of a bitter feud that arose between northern and southern Arab tribes. When Marwan died in 685 and ʿAbd al-Malik succeeded to the caliphate, the forces opposing the Umayyads were still formidable.

There were, first, the northern Arab tribes who, under their leader Zufar, were holding out in northern Syria and Iraq. They were finally pacified only in 691. The second focus of resistance was in Iraq, where three main groups, opposed to each other but united in their resistance to the Umayyads, held sway: the Kharijites, the Shiʿah, and the forces of the anti-caliph ʿAbd Allah ibn az-Zubayr, who was proclaimed caliph in Mecca in 685 and had received at least nominal allegiance from many provinces. The initial attempts by the former Umayyad governor of Iraq, ʿUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad, to regain the province failed, and he was killed by the Shiʿah in 686. For three years, ʿAbd al-Malik made no further attempt to interfere in Iraq but bided his time as the various groups in Iraq exhausted themselves in internecine warfare. Musʿab, the brother of the anti-caliph Ibn az-Zubayr, defeated the Shiʿah in 687 but then had to deal with the Khārijites, committing a large part of his forces.

ʿAbd al-Malik first took the field against Musʿab in 689 but had to turn back to quell a rebellion in Damascus. In the following year, the campaign again proved fruitless. Only after the defeat of the northern Arab tribes in 691 was ʿAbd al-Malik finally able to face Musʿab. The decisive battle took place at Dayr al-Ja Thaliq. The forces of Musʿab were weakened by their wars against the Kharijites, and ʿAbd al-Malik bribed many of them to desert Musʿab, who was then killed in battle. The whole of Iraq now fell into his hands, and the only remaining center of opposition was the now aging anti-caliph, Ibn az-Zubayr. ʿAbd al-Malik publicly chided him for his temerity and then sent his famous governor al-Hajjaj to Arabia. Al-Ḥajjaj besieged Ibn az-Zubayr in Mecca and killed him in September 692. The Muslim community was finally unified.

At first, the re-establishment of Umayyad rule was more apparent than real. The Kharijites were still either restless or in open revolt. The Kharijites in Persia were especially dangerous. It was only after ʿAbd al-Malik had appointed al-Ḥajjaj to govern Basra that campaigns against them began to prove successful (the Persian Kharijites were finally wiped out in 697). But north of Kufah, another Kharijite trouble center developed. In 695, these Kharijites captured Mosul and occupied large areas of central Iraq. Al-Ḥajjaj, leading his Syrian troops, defeated them too in 697. The Kharijite movement, however, remained strong, especially among the Bakr tribes between Mosul and Kufah.

Al-Ḥajjaj had now become governor of all the eastern provinces. He was a ruthless and efficient administrator, intent upon pacifying all the provinces entrusted to him by ʿAbd al-Malik. A great Muslim army, led by an Arab aristocrat, Ibn al-Ashʿath, and operating in the Afghanistan region, mutinied, swore allegiance to its commander, and turned back to Iraq. Al-Ḥajjaj, with the aid of Syrian reinforcements, was able to defeat the rebels, and their leader was murdered in 704 in Afghanistan. Al-Ḥajjaj, realizing that he could no longer trust the Iraqis, built a new city, Wasiṭ, which he planned as a garrison city for Syrian troops and as his private residence. Thereafter, he ruled Iraq as enemy territory.

Under ʿAbd al-Malik, the conquest of North Africa was resumed in 688 or 689. There, the Arabs were opposed by both the native Berbers and the Byzantines. The governor appointed by ʿAbd al-Malik succeeded in winning the Berbers over to his side and then captured Carthage, seat of the Byzantine province, in 697. Other coastal cities fell, and the work of pacification and Islamization continued apace. ʿAbd al-Malik also resumed campaigns against the Byzantines in Anatolia in 692, but no permanent conquest ensued. These campaigns were partly designed to keep the Syrian troops fit.

In general, Umayyad rule was greatly strengthened by ʿAbd al-Malik, who enjoyed good relations with the Medinese religious circles, an element with considerable moral influence in the Islamic world. ʿAbd al-Malik was more pious than any of his Umayyad predecessors. His long sojourn in Medina had enabled him to know the sentiments of Medinese religious scholars. As caliph, he treated them respectfully, and his private life was close to their ideals. As a result, many were to abandon their earlier opposition to Umayyad rule.

ʿAbd al-Malik adopted Arabic instead of the local languages as the language of administration. Government officials had been mostly non-Muslim, but the measures of ʿAbd al-Malik enabled Arab Muslims more easily to control affairs of government. A new Muslim currency was also struck, modelled on Greek and Persian coinage, but with Muslim inscriptions. A wave of Islamization set in, but the privileged position of the Arabs was maintained. In fact, the problem of non-Arab Muslims grew more acute and was to become one of the main threats to Umayyad rule in later years.
The Umayyad family lived in Damascus and surrounded the Caliph. Many of them were appointed as governors, but many were also recalled for inefficiency. ʿAbd al-Malik enjoyed the support of his clan, but he was more autocratic than Muʿawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph, with whom he is often compared. He abandoned the policy of consulting with a council of advisers and reserved all major decisions for himself. Despite his religious interests and ideals (e.g., he built the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem), he was a master politician. In Syria he succeeded in placating the northern Arab tribes, to the chagrin of the southern Arabs.

ʿAbd al-Malik was a shrewd judge of character. His choice of al-Ḥajjāj as viceroy of the East was a wise one, and he supported his lieutenant loyally. In appearance, he was dark, thickset, and had a long beard. He was nicknamed “Dew of the Stone” for his miserliness. The sources describe him as eloquent in his speech and a lover of poetry. He maintained his calm during periods of crisis and was decisive in his opinions but was capable of great cruelty if necessary. He pursued his enemies relentlessly and closely supervised all affairs of state.

Shortly before his death the question of succession became acute. His brother, ʿAbd al-ʿAziz, governor of Egypt, had been designated by their father to succeed ʿAbd al-Malik. Against the advice of his courtiers, ʿAbd al-Malik had begun to take steps to exclude his brother from succession in favor of his own children. He had tried to pressure ʿAbd al-ʿAziz to renounce his claims but without success. Luckily for ʿAbd al-Malik, ʿAbd al-ʿAziz died in May 705. ʿAbd al-Malik then felt free to name three of his own children to succeed him, al-Walid, Sulayman, and Yazid. ʿAbd al-Malik died in Damascus shortly thereafter and was succeeded without difficulty by his eldest son, al-Walid.

'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan  was the fifth Umayyad Caliph. He was born in Mecca (Makkah) and grew up in Medina (Medinah) (both are cities in modern day Saudi Arabia). `Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and capable ruler, despite the many political problems that impeded his rule.  The fourteenth century (of the Christian calendar) Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun states: "`Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan is one of the greatest Arab and Muslim Caliphs. He followed in the footsteps of `Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Commander of the Believers, in regulating state affairs".

During the reign of 'Abd al-Malik, all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time a special currency for the Muslim world was minted, which led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce. `Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it.  He made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.

`Abd al-Malik became caliph after the death of his father Marwan I in 685, amidst the ongoing Second Fitna. Within a few years, he dispatched armies on a campaign to reassert Umayyad control over the Islamic empire. He first defeated the governor of Basra Mu'sab ibn al-Zubayr. `Abd al-Malik then appointed one of his most able generals and administrators who would later change the face of the Umayyad Empire, al-Hajjaj bin Yousef to march against `Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the governor of Hejaz. He besieged Mecca (Makkah) in 692 with almost 12,000 Syrian troops. He advanced unopposed as far as his native Taif, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with `Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated, but, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in the Mecca.  The negotiations failed and al-Hajjaj lost patience.  Al-Hajjaj sent a courier to ask 'Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca (Makkah) by force. He received both, and thereupon bombarded the Holy City using catapults from the mountain of Abu Qubays. The bombardment continued during the month of the Pilgrimage or Hajj. 'Abd al Malik served first as a messenger to his father 'Abd al Haija

After the siege had lasted for seven months and 10,000 men, among them two of 'Abdullah Ibn al-Zubair's sons, had gone over to al-Hajjaj, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr with a few loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka'ba (Kaaba) (Jumadah I 73/October 692).

Hajjaj's success led 'Abd al-Malik to assign him the role of governor of Iraq and give him free rein in the territories he controlled. Hajjaj arrived when there were many deserters in Basra and Kufa. He promptly and forcefully impelled them to return to combat. Hajjaj, after years of serious fighting, quelled religious disturbances, including the rebellion launched by Salih ibn Musarrih and continued after Salih's death by Shabib. These rebels repeatedly defeated more numerous forces and at their height entered Kufah. However, 'Abd al-Malik's Syrian reinforcements enabled Hajjaj to turn the tide.

Under Hajjaj, Arab armies put down the revolt of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in Iraq from 699 to 701, and also took most of Turkestan. 'Abd al-Rahman rebelled following Hajjaj's repeated orders to push further into the lands of Zundil. After his defeat in Iraq, again achieved through Abd al-Malik's dispatch of Syrian reinforcements to Hajjaj, 'Abd ar Rahman returned east. There one city closed its gates to him and in another he was seized. However, Zundil's army arrived and secured his release. Later, 'Abd ar Rahman died and Zundil sent his head to Hajjaj who sent it to 'Abd al-Malik. These victories paved the way for greater expansions under 'Abd al-Malik's son Al-Marwan.

<sup>Caliph Abd al-Malik was effective in increasing the size of the empire. In the Maghrib (Maghreb) (western North Africa) in 686 a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais won the Battle of Mamma over Byzantines and Berbers led by Kusayla (Kusaila), on the Qairawan plain, and re-took Ifriqiya and its capital Kairouan.

In 695, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived and retook Carthage.  However, in 698 Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines then withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta.


Hasan met with trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina, the Berber queen, religious and military leader. They inflicted a serious defeat on Hasan and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702, 'Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced Hasan.  With a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated the Zenata in a battle at Tabarka, 85 miles west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705 Musa ibn Nusayr replaced Hasan. He pacified much of North Africa, though he failed to take Ceuta.</sup>

Abd al-Malik instituted many reforms such as:

1. Making Arabic the official language of government across the entire empire,
2. Instituting a mint that produced a uniform set of Islamic currency which resulted in war with Byzantine Empire and defeat of the Romans at the Battle of Sebastopolis;
3. Expansion and reorganization of postal service; and
4. Repairing the damaged Ka'ba (Kaaba) and beginning the tradition of weaving a silk cover for the Ka'ba (Kaaba) in Damascus.

<sup>'Abd al-Malik also constructed the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.  However, parts of that city were also destroyed when 'Abd al-Malik's armies put down an uprising there.

The two engineers Yazid ibn Salam, a Jerusalemite, and Raja' ibn Hayweh, from Baysan, were ordered to spend generously on the construction. In his Book of the Geography, Al-Muqaddasi reported that seven times the revenue of Egypt was used to build the Dome.


The last years of the reign of  were generally peaceful. 'Abd al-Malik wanted his son al-Walid I to succeed him, ignoring his father's decree that 'Abd al-Malik should be succeeded by his brother, 'Abd al-Aziz. However, 'Abd al-Malik accepted advice not to create disturbances by carrying out this design. In any event, 'Abd al-Aziz died before 'Abd al-Malik. 'Abd al-Malik then had his sons al-Walid and Sulayman, in that order, accepted as heirs to the throne. To history, Abd al-Malik is known as the "Father of Kings": his four sons succeeded him as the caliph one after another. Abd al-Malik died at Damascus (al-Sinnabra) in 705.

Alternative names include:

'Abd al-Malik
'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
Al-Malik
Al-Malik, 'Abd
"Father of Kings"
Ibn Marwan
Ibn Marwan, 'Abd al-Malik</sup>

 

'Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir

‘Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir (975-1008), also known as 'Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, was the son and successor of Almanzor (al-Mansur bi-'llah). He was the real master of Muslim Spain from 1002 until his death in 1008.

'Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir was hajib (chamberlain) of Cordoba from the death of his father Al-Mansur ibn Abi Aamir (known to later Spanish historians as Almanzor) in 1002 until his own death in 1008. He was succeeded by his half-brother 'Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo.  

Al-Muẓaffar (1002–08) continued his father’s policies, hemming in Hisham II and fighting against the Christians. After Al-Muẓaffar’s premature death, his brother ʿAbd al-Rahman Sanchuelo took the reins of power, but he lacked the fortitude to maintain the structure built by his father. 

Alternative names include:

'Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir
'Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar
Al-Muzaffar
Al-Muzaffar, 'Abd al-Malik
Ibn Abi Amir
Ibn Abi Amir, 'Abd al-Malik
Muzaffar, 'Abd al-Malik al-