Tjokroaminoto
Tjokroaminoto (Raden Mas) (Hadji Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto) (b. August 16, 1882, Desa Bakur, Madiun, Java – December 17, 1934, Jogjakarta). Indonesian political leader. Raden Mas Haji Umar Said Tjokroaminoto was born in the village of Bakur, Madiun. After completing his education he was employed as secretary to the patih of Ngawi. In 1906, he moved to Surabaya, where he became chairman of the local Budi Utomo branch. In May 1912, he entered Sarekat Islam, where he soon rose to prominence. He became its deputy chairman and later its president and represented it in the Volksraad (1918-1921). In 1927, he refused a seat in the Volksraad. His charismatic personality and oratory skills made him the most popular Sarekat Islam leader. He attracted large crowds. In their youth a number of nationalistic leaders, among them Sukarno, were influenced by him. In 1926, he represented the Sarekat Islam at a world Islamic conference in Mecca. He served as an editor of severa periodicals, such as Utusan Hindia, Al-Islam, Fadjar Asia, and Al-Djihad.
The Sarekat Dagang Islām (Association of Islāmic Traders), established in 1911 to promote the interests of Indonesian traders faced with growing Chinese competition, was reorganized as Sarekat Islām the following year by Tjokroaminoto. He broadened the focus of the group, greatly expanding its appeal, and organized it along Western lines. There were, however, substantial non-Western elements.
Tjokroaminoto, who had a powerful personality, became widely popular among Javanese peasants. By 1914 he had become the central figure of a messianic movement, and the Sarekat Islām had taken on strong mystical overtones. He was not a strong leader, however, and he failed to reinforce his popular appeal with a clear, consistent policy. His concern for the need for unity against Dutch rule led him to make compromises, while other groups with more coherent programs were politically more effective. In 1918 he became a member of the Volksraad.
In the early years of Sarekat Islām, Tjokroaminoto came into contact with a number of young nationalists, among whom was Sukarno, who became the first president of Indonesia. Tjokroaminoto tutored Sukarno, who also married his daughter. After 1920 Tjokroaminoto’s fortunes declined. He was jailed by the Dutch in 1921 on a charge of perjury but was released in 1922. By 1923 Sukarno, who had ended his marriage, had broken politically with Tjokroaminoto and adopted a more radical position. They were later reconciled, and in 1926 Sukarno wrote for Bandera Islām (“Flag of Islām”), a journal edited by Tjokroaminoto after his release from prison. But his passive and conciliatory positions prevented Tjokroaminoto from ever regaining the power and influence he had held in the early days of Sarekat Islām.
The Sarekat Dagang Islām (Association of Islāmic Traders), established in 1911 to promote the interests of Indonesian traders faced with growing Chinese competition, was reorganized as Sarekat Islām the following year by Tjokroaminoto. He broadened the focus of the group, greatly expanding its appeal, and organized it along Western lines. There were, however, substantial non-Western elements.
Tjokroaminoto, who had a powerful personality, became widely popular among Javanese peasants. By 1914 he had become the central figure of a messianic movement, and the Sarekat Islām had taken on strong mystical overtones. He was not a strong leader, however, and he failed to reinforce his popular appeal with a clear, consistent policy. His concern for the need for unity against Dutch rule led him to make compromises, while other groups with more coherent programs were politically more effective. In 1918 he became a member of the Volksraad.
In the early years of Sarekat Islām, Tjokroaminoto came into contact with a number of young nationalists, among whom was Sukarno, who became the first president of Indonesia. Tjokroaminoto tutored Sukarno, who also married his daughter. After 1920 Tjokroaminoto’s fortunes declined. He was jailed by the Dutch in 1921 on a charge of perjury but was released in 1922. By 1923 Sukarno, who had ended his marriage, had broken politically with Tjokroaminoto and adopted a more radical position. They were later reconciled, and in 1926 Sukarno wrote for Bandera Islām (“Flag of Islām”), a journal edited by Tjokroaminoto after his release from prison. But his passive and conciliatory positions prevented Tjokroaminoto from ever regaining the power and influence he had held in the early days of Sarekat Islām.
Todar Mal (d. 1859). Administrator of the Mughal Empire in India. A Khatri (Punjabi merchant and clerical caste), Todar Mal started his career with Sher Shah and rose to the highest office during the reign of Emperor Akbar. Akbar also conferred the title raja on him. Todar Mal had wide-ranging administrative and military experience, from supervising the construction of forts in hostile territory to several military campaigns. His lasting contribution lay in developing a system of revenue administration under Akbar.
He had made several experiments first in Gujarat and later in the central domain of the empire. Ultimately, the “Ten-Year Settlement” was established. It maximized revenue collection while creating checks and balances that kept the system from complete breakdown.
Todar Mal was born in Gaya, Bihar and rose to become the Finance Minister in Akbar's Darbar of the Mughal empire. He was made in charge of Agra and settled in Gujarat. Later he was made in charge of Gujarat as well. He also managed Akbar's Mint at Bengal and served in Punjab. Todar Mal once took leave of Akbar but was recalled. It is commonly said that Todar Mal made a settlement of Kashmir but Henry Beveridge doubts it. Raja Todamal built a fortress-cum-palace at Laharpur, District Sitapur of UP. There is a large concentration of Khatries at Laharpur, believed to have been arranged by Raja Todar Mal.
Raja Todar Mal got leave from Akbar and was on his way to Haridwar but he received a letter from Akbar in which the latter is said to have said that "it was better to go on working and doing good to the world than to go on a piligrimage." When Todar Mal died his body was burned and Raja Bhagwan Das, his colleague in the charge of Lahore, was present at the ceremony. Of his two sons, Dhari was killed in a battle in Sindh. Another Kalyan Das was sent by Todar Mal to bring in the Kumaon Raja.
Todar Mal is recognized as an able warrior, who led in various battles.
Todar Mal succeeded Khwaja Malik I'timad Khan in 1560. Raja Todar Mal introduced standard weights and measures, a land survey and settlement system, revenue districts and officers. He can be thought of as one of the first statisticians in India, and perhaps in the world. Many of the fundamental data collection schemes as practiced over the centuries in the Indian subcontinent and neighboring countries can be attributed to him.
In 1582, Akbar bestowed on Raja Todar Mal the title, Diwan-I-Ashraf. His systematic land reforms of 1582, popularly known as the Bandobast System, provided the framework of subsequent land taxation systems, including that introduced by Thomas Munro.
Todar Mal died in Lahore on November 8, 1589.
Todar Mal was born in Gaya, Bihar and rose to become the Finance Minister in Akbar's Darbar of the Mughal empire. He was made in charge of Agra and settled in Gujarat. Later he was made in charge of Gujarat as well. He also managed Akbar's Mint at Bengal and served in Punjab. Todar Mal once took leave of Akbar but was recalled. It is commonly said that Todar Mal made a settlement of Kashmir but Henry Beveridge doubts it. Raja Todamal built a fortress-cum-palace at Laharpur, District Sitapur of UP. There is a large concentration of Khatries at Laharpur, believed to have been arranged by Raja Todar Mal.
Raja Todar Mal got leave from Akbar and was on his way to Haridwar but he received a letter from Akbar in which the latter is said to have said that "it was better to go on working and doing good to the world than to go on a piligrimage." When Todar Mal died his body was burned and Raja Bhagwan Das, his colleague in the charge of Lahore, was present at the ceremony. Of his two sons, Dhari was killed in a battle in Sindh. Another Kalyan Das was sent by Todar Mal to bring in the Kumaon Raja.
Todar Mal is recognized as an able warrior, who led in various battles.
Todar Mal succeeded Khwaja Malik I'timad Khan in 1560. Raja Todar Mal introduced standard weights and measures, a land survey and settlement system, revenue districts and officers. He can be thought of as one of the first statisticians in India, and perhaps in the world. Many of the fundamental data collection schemes as practiced over the centuries in the Indian subcontinent and neighboring countries can be attributed to him.
In 1582, Akbar bestowed on Raja Todar Mal the title, Diwan-I-Ashraf. His systematic land reforms of 1582, popularly known as the Bandobast System, provided the framework of subsequent land taxation systems, including that introduced by Thomas Munro.
Todar Mal died in Lahore on November 8, 1589.
Toer, Pramoedya Ananta
Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (Pramoedya Ananta Toer) (Pramudya Ananta Tur) (b. February 6/20, 1925, Blora, Java, Dutch East Indies [now in Indonesia] - d. April 30, 2006, Jakarta, Indonesia). Indonesian novelist. Pramoedya Toer was a soldier in the war of independence and was captured by the Dutch and imprisoned for over two years, an experience that influenced his writing. Without taking sides politically, Toer deals powerfully and realistically with human problems arising out of the brutalities and cruel necessities of the Japanese occupation and the war of independence. Toer’s most important novels are Keluarga Gerilia (“A Guerrilla Family”), Perburuan (“Hunting”), Mereka jung dilumpuhkan (“The Paralyzed”), and Bukan Pasarmalam (“No Fun Fair”).
Pramoedya, the son of a schoolteacher, went to Jakarta while a teenager and worked as a typist there under the Japanese occupation during World War II. When the Indonesian revolt against renewed Dutch colonial rule broke out in 1945, he joined the nationalists, working in radio and producing an Indonesian-language magazine before he was arrested by the Dutch authorities in 1947. He wrote his first published novel, Perburuan (1950; The Fugitive), during a two-year term in a Dutch prison camp (1947–49). This work describes the flight of an anti-Japanese rebel back to his home in Java.
After Indonesia gained independence in 1949, Pramoedya produced a stream of novels and short stories that established his reputation. The novel Keluarga gerilja (1950; “Guerrilla Family”) chronicles the tragic consequences of divided political sympathies in a Javanese family during the Indonesian Revolution against Dutch rule, while Mereka jang dilumpuhkan (1951; “The Paralyzed”) depicts the odd assortment of inmates Pramoedya became acquainted with in the Dutch prison camp. The short stories collected in Subuh (1950;“Dawn”) and Pertjikan revolusi (1950; “Sparks of Revolution”) are set during the Indonesian Revolution, while those in Tjerita dari Blora (1952; “Tales of Bora”) depict Javanese provincial life in the period of Dutch rule. The sketches in Tjerita dari Djakarta (1957; “Tales of Jakarta”) examine the strains and injustices Pramoedya perceived within Indonesian society after independence had been achieved. In these early works Pramoedya evolved a rich prose style that incorporates Javanese everyday speech and images from classical Javanese culture.
By the late 1950s Pramoedya had become sympathetic toward the Indonesian Communist Party, and after 1958 he abandoned fiction for essays and cultural criticism that reflect a left-wing viewpoint. By 1962 he had become closely aligned with communist-sponsored cultural groups. As a result, he was jailed by the army in the course of its bloody suppression of a communist coup in 1965. During his imprisonment he wrote a series of four historical novels that further enhanced his reputation. Two of these, Bumi manusia (1980; This Earth of Mankind) and Anak semua bangsa (1980; Child of All Nations), met with great critical and popular acclaim in Indonesia after their publication, but the government subsequently banned them from circulation, and the last two volumes of the tetralogy, Jejak langkah (1985; Footsteps) and Rumah kaca (1988; House of Glass), had to be published abroad. These late works comprehensively depict Javanese society under Dutch colonial rule in the early 20th century. In contrast to Pramoedya’s earlier works, they are written in a plain, fast-paced narrative style.
Following his release from prison in 1979, Pramoedya was kept under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. His autobiography Nyanyi sunyi seorang bisu (The Mute’s Soliloquy) was published in 1995.
The major works of Pramoedya include:
* Kranji-Bekasi Jatuh (1947)
* Perburuan (The Fugitive) (1950)
* Keluarga Gerilya (1950)
* Bukan Pasar Malam (1951)
* Cerita dari Blora (1952)
* Gulat di Jakarta (1953)
* Korupsi (Corruption) (1954)
* Midah - Si Manis Bergigi Emas (1954)
* Cerita Calon Arang (The King, the Witch, and the Priest) (1957)
* Hoakiau di Indonesia (1960)
* Panggil Aku Kartini Saja I & II (1962)
* The Buru Quartet
o Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind) (1980)
o Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations) (1980)
o Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) (1985)
o Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) (1988)
* Gadis Pantai (The Girl from the Coast) (1982)
* Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute's Soliloquy) (1995)
* Arus Balik (1995)
* Arok Dedes (1999)
* Mangir (1999)
* Larasati (2000)
Pramoedya Ananta Toer see Toer, Pramoedya Ananta
Pramudya Ananta Tur see Toer, Pramoedya Ananta
Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (Pramoedya Ananta Toer) (Pramudya Ananta Tur) (b. February 6/20, 1925, Blora, Java, Dutch East Indies [now in Indonesia] - d. April 30, 2006, Jakarta, Indonesia). Indonesian novelist. Pramoedya Toer was a soldier in the war of independence and was captured by the Dutch and imprisoned for over two years, an experience that influenced his writing. Without taking sides politically, Toer deals powerfully and realistically with human problems arising out of the brutalities and cruel necessities of the Japanese occupation and the war of independence. Toer’s most important novels are Keluarga Gerilia (“A Guerrilla Family”), Perburuan (“Hunting”), Mereka jung dilumpuhkan (“The Paralyzed”), and Bukan Pasarmalam (“No Fun Fair”).
Pramoedya, the son of a schoolteacher, went to Jakarta while a teenager and worked as a typist there under the Japanese occupation during World War II. When the Indonesian revolt against renewed Dutch colonial rule broke out in 1945, he joined the nationalists, working in radio and producing an Indonesian-language magazine before he was arrested by the Dutch authorities in 1947. He wrote his first published novel, Perburuan (1950; The Fugitive), during a two-year term in a Dutch prison camp (1947–49). This work describes the flight of an anti-Japanese rebel back to his home in Java.
After Indonesia gained independence in 1949, Pramoedya produced a stream of novels and short stories that established his reputation. The novel Keluarga gerilja (1950; “Guerrilla Family”) chronicles the tragic consequences of divided political sympathies in a Javanese family during the Indonesian Revolution against Dutch rule, while Mereka jang dilumpuhkan (1951; “The Paralyzed”) depicts the odd assortment of inmates Pramoedya became acquainted with in the Dutch prison camp. The short stories collected in Subuh (1950;“Dawn”) and Pertjikan revolusi (1950; “Sparks of Revolution”) are set during the Indonesian Revolution, while those in Tjerita dari Blora (1952; “Tales of Bora”) depict Javanese provincial life in the period of Dutch rule. The sketches in Tjerita dari Djakarta (1957; “Tales of Jakarta”) examine the strains and injustices Pramoedya perceived within Indonesian society after independence had been achieved. In these early works Pramoedya evolved a rich prose style that incorporates Javanese everyday speech and images from classical Javanese culture.
By the late 1950s Pramoedya had become sympathetic toward the Indonesian Communist Party, and after 1958 he abandoned fiction for essays and cultural criticism that reflect a left-wing viewpoint. By 1962 he had become closely aligned with communist-sponsored cultural groups. As a result, he was jailed by the army in the course of its bloody suppression of a communist coup in 1965. During his imprisonment he wrote a series of four historical novels that further enhanced his reputation. Two of these, Bumi manusia (1980; This Earth of Mankind) and Anak semua bangsa (1980; Child of All Nations), met with great critical and popular acclaim in Indonesia after their publication, but the government subsequently banned them from circulation, and the last two volumes of the tetralogy, Jejak langkah (1985; Footsteps) and Rumah kaca (1988; House of Glass), had to be published abroad. These late works comprehensively depict Javanese society under Dutch colonial rule in the early 20th century. In contrast to Pramoedya’s earlier works, they are written in a plain, fast-paced narrative style.
Following his release from prison in 1979, Pramoedya was kept under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. His autobiography Nyanyi sunyi seorang bisu (The Mute’s Soliloquy) was published in 1995.
The major works of Pramoedya include:
* Kranji-Bekasi Jatuh (1947)
* Perburuan (The Fugitive) (1950)
* Keluarga Gerilya (1950)
* Bukan Pasar Malam (1951)
* Cerita dari Blora (1952)
* Gulat di Jakarta (1953)
* Korupsi (Corruption) (1954)
* Midah - Si Manis Bergigi Emas (1954)
* Cerita Calon Arang (The King, the Witch, and the Priest) (1957)
* Hoakiau di Indonesia (1960)
* Panggil Aku Kartini Saja I & II (1962)
* The Buru Quartet
o Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind) (1980)
o Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations) (1980)
o Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) (1985)
o Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) (1988)
* Gadis Pantai (The Girl from the Coast) (1982)
* Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute's Soliloquy) (1995)
* Arus Balik (1995)
* Arok Dedes (1999)
* Mangir (1999)
* Larasati (2000)
Pramoedya Ananta Toer see Toer, Pramoedya Ananta
Pramudya Ananta Tur see Toer, Pramoedya Ananta
Toghril Beg
Toghril Beg (Tughril Beg) (Toğrul Beg) (Tuğril Beg) (Tuğrul Beg) (990 - September 4, 1063, Rayy, Iran). Leading member of the Seljuk family during the period of its transition from a band of refugees on Islam’s eastern frontier to rulers over all of Iran and Iraq.
Active in Khurasan from the early 1030s, Toghril had begun negotiating with the area’s major cities even before the Seljuks’ decisive defeat of the Ghaznavids at Dandanqan in 1040. From his initial base at Nishapur (1038), Toghril moved quickly to Rayy (1042) and finally Baghdad (1055). There the caliph al-Qa’im received him as “king of the east and the west” in 1058, thereby recognizing his and his family’s dominance over the Islamic heartlands and the effective end of the Buyid dynasty.
Toghril achieved status for Turkish rule in Islam, however, beyond that which accompanied military power. A certain legitimation was realized through his willingness to employ Iranian advisers and adapt to traditional Iranian expectations. It was also during Toghril’s reign that the policy of using the most warlike and troublesome of the Seljuks’ nomadic followers for expansion into Anatolia was initiated.
Toghril left no adult male heir. Thus, at his death leadership of the family and empire transferred to the line of his brother and co-regent Chaghri.
Ṭughril was the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, which ruled in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Anatolia during the 11th through 14th centuries. Under his rule, the Seljuqs assumed the leadership of the Islāmic world by establishing political mastery over the ʿAbbāsid caliphate in Baghdad.
The grandson of Seljuq, chief of the Oğuz tribes in the Jand region, Toghrïl, with his brother Chaghrï, entered Muslim Transoxania shortly before 1016, and in 1025 they and their uncle Arslan entered the service of the Turkish Qarakhanid prince of Bukhara. Defeated by Maḥmūd of Ghazna in the same year, Toghrïl and Chaghrï took refuge in Khwārezm (around the estuary of the Amu Darya [river], southeast of the Aral Sea), while Arslan settled in Khorāsān. Later, however, after their kinsmen in Khorāsān had been driven by Maḥmūd to western Iran, the two brothers themselves entered Khorāsān, where, having established close ties with the orthodox Muslim groups in the large towns, they subdued Merv and Nīshāpūr (1028–29). Finally, in 1040 at Dandānqān, the Seljuqs inflicted a decisive defeat on Maḥmūd’s son Masʿūd. Khorāsān was then formed into a principality for Chaghrï, while Toghrïl was left free to conquer the Iranian plateau.
A methodical ruler, Toghrïl succeeded in building an empire by careful planning. The first conquests were generally made by the Turkmen raiders led by his foster brother Ibrāhīm Ināl. He himself then followed to administer the conquered territories. In this way, between 1040 and 1044, he occupied the Caspian areas of Khorāsān, Rayy, and Hamadan and established his suzerainty over Isfahan. In 1049 and 1054 he sent expeditions of Turkmens into the Byzantine lands of Anatolia, attempting to prevent Turkmen raids into the surrounding Muslim territories while at the same time increasing Seljuq power against the Byzantine Empire.
In 1055 Toghrïl, after conquering the principalities to the east and north of Iraq, entered Baghdad, where he was commissioned to overthrow the Shīʿī Fāṭimid caliphs of Cairo in Egypt and to restore, under the ʿAbbāsid caliph, the religious and political unity of the Islāmic world. A mounting threat from the Shīʿī and discontent among his supporters over administration and reward for services, however, resulted in a general uprising against Toghrïl. Prince Ināl with his Turkmens revolted in Mesopotamia and Iran, while a coalition of Arab and Shīʿī Būyid forces, financed and controlled by the Fāṭimids of Cairo and led by Basāsīrī, entered Baghdad (1058). The ʿAbbāsid caliph was imprisoned, and prayers were recited in the name of the Fāṭimid caliph of Cairo. Toghrïl then crushed the rebellion (1060), regained Baghdad, and pacified the Arabs of Mesopotamia. During his last years he fought the petty princes in northwest Iran and forced the Caliph to give him a daughter in marriage.
Tughril Beg see Toghril Beg
Togrul Beg see Toghril Beg
Tugril Beg see Toghril Beg
Tugrul Beg see Toghril Beg
Toghril Beg (Tughril Beg) (Toğrul Beg) (Tuğril Beg) (Tuğrul Beg) (990 - September 4, 1063, Rayy, Iran). Leading member of the Seljuk family during the period of its transition from a band of refugees on Islam’s eastern frontier to rulers over all of Iran and Iraq.
Active in Khurasan from the early 1030s, Toghril had begun negotiating with the area’s major cities even before the Seljuks’ decisive defeat of the Ghaznavids at Dandanqan in 1040. From his initial base at Nishapur (1038), Toghril moved quickly to Rayy (1042) and finally Baghdad (1055). There the caliph al-Qa’im received him as “king of the east and the west” in 1058, thereby recognizing his and his family’s dominance over the Islamic heartlands and the effective end of the Buyid dynasty.
Toghril achieved status for Turkish rule in Islam, however, beyond that which accompanied military power. A certain legitimation was realized through his willingness to employ Iranian advisers and adapt to traditional Iranian expectations. It was also during Toghril’s reign that the policy of using the most warlike and troublesome of the Seljuks’ nomadic followers for expansion into Anatolia was initiated.
Toghril left no adult male heir. Thus, at his death leadership of the family and empire transferred to the line of his brother and co-regent Chaghri.
Ṭughril was the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, which ruled in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Anatolia during the 11th through 14th centuries. Under his rule, the Seljuqs assumed the leadership of the Islāmic world by establishing political mastery over the ʿAbbāsid caliphate in Baghdad.
The grandson of Seljuq, chief of the Oğuz tribes in the Jand region, Toghrïl, with his brother Chaghrï, entered Muslim Transoxania shortly before 1016, and in 1025 they and their uncle Arslan entered the service of the Turkish Qarakhanid prince of Bukhara. Defeated by Maḥmūd of Ghazna in the same year, Toghrïl and Chaghrï took refuge in Khwārezm (around the estuary of the Amu Darya [river], southeast of the Aral Sea), while Arslan settled in Khorāsān. Later, however, after their kinsmen in Khorāsān had been driven by Maḥmūd to western Iran, the two brothers themselves entered Khorāsān, where, having established close ties with the orthodox Muslim groups in the large towns, they subdued Merv and Nīshāpūr (1028–29). Finally, in 1040 at Dandānqān, the Seljuqs inflicted a decisive defeat on Maḥmūd’s son Masʿūd. Khorāsān was then formed into a principality for Chaghrï, while Toghrïl was left free to conquer the Iranian plateau.
A methodical ruler, Toghrïl succeeded in building an empire by careful planning. The first conquests were generally made by the Turkmen raiders led by his foster brother Ibrāhīm Ināl. He himself then followed to administer the conquered territories. In this way, between 1040 and 1044, he occupied the Caspian areas of Khorāsān, Rayy, and Hamadan and established his suzerainty over Isfahan. In 1049 and 1054 he sent expeditions of Turkmens into the Byzantine lands of Anatolia, attempting to prevent Turkmen raids into the surrounding Muslim territories while at the same time increasing Seljuq power against the Byzantine Empire.
In 1055 Toghrïl, after conquering the principalities to the east and north of Iraq, entered Baghdad, where he was commissioned to overthrow the Shīʿī Fāṭimid caliphs of Cairo in Egypt and to restore, under the ʿAbbāsid caliph, the religious and political unity of the Islāmic world. A mounting threat from the Shīʿī and discontent among his supporters over administration and reward for services, however, resulted in a general uprising against Toghrïl. Prince Ināl with his Turkmens revolted in Mesopotamia and Iran, while a coalition of Arab and Shīʿī Būyid forces, financed and controlled by the Fāṭimids of Cairo and led by Basāsīrī, entered Baghdad (1058). The ʿAbbāsid caliph was imprisoned, and prayers were recited in the name of the Fāṭimid caliph of Cairo. Toghrïl then crushed the rebellion (1060), regained Baghdad, and pacified the Arabs of Mesopotamia. During his last years he fought the petty princes in northwest Iran and forced the Caliph to give him a daughter in marriage.
Tughril Beg see Toghril Beg
Togrul Beg see Toghril Beg
Tugril Beg see Toghril Beg
Tugrul Beg see Toghril Beg
No comments:
Post a Comment