Umara
Umara. Plural of amir (“noble”), a term used for the governing class of the two main political entities of medieval India, the Delhi sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The character and composition of the nobility changed over time, in response either to political pressures or to the personal predilections of rulers. The early Turkish sultans recruited the umara mainly from the Turks, and Iltutmish consolidated them into “forty families.” The Khaljis, however, admitted non-Turks and Muslim converts to the nobility. Under Muhammad bin Tughluq scions of religious families and Alai nobles, converts, Afghans, and Hindus were inducted into the nobility. The land assignments (iqta) held by the nobles during the sultanate period were more in the nature of a bureaucratic institution than a feudal fief.
With the advent of the Mughals, the nobility underwent further changes. Akbar organized the nobles on the basis of mansab (rank), which determined their status, fixed their pay, and laid a concomitant duty of maintaining a certain number of troopers and horses. All mansabdars were directly subordinate to the emperoro. The mansab was represented by two numbers; one indicated zat (personal pay) and the other sawar (cavalry). Toward the end of Akbar’s reign zat was used to designate a mansabdar’s position in the official hierarchy and helped to determine his pay. The sawar rank indicated the number of troopers the mansabdar was required to maintain. During Akbar’s time mansabdars having commands of two hundred or more were entitled to be called umara. Under Shah Jahan, the limit was raised to five hundred.
The Mughal nobility was composed of Turks, Persians, Afghans, Rajputs, and other native born Indians. Under Akbar, Rajputs gained in importance. During the later Mughal period Iranis and Turanis became the two main groupings, and during the eighteenth century the two were in constant conflict.
The Mughal nobility was not hereditary, but the sons of deceased nobles were often taken into service. The law of escheat operated and hence the property of the nobles could be confiscated on death.
Umara. Plural of amir (“noble”), a term used for the governing class of the two main political entities of medieval India, the Delhi sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The character and composition of the nobility changed over time, in response either to political pressures or to the personal predilections of rulers. The early Turkish sultans recruited the umara mainly from the Turks, and Iltutmish consolidated them into “forty families.” The Khaljis, however, admitted non-Turks and Muslim converts to the nobility. Under Muhammad bin Tughluq scions of religious families and Alai nobles, converts, Afghans, and Hindus were inducted into the nobility. The land assignments (iqta) held by the nobles during the sultanate period were more in the nature of a bureaucratic institution than a feudal fief.
With the advent of the Mughals, the nobility underwent further changes. Akbar organized the nobles on the basis of mansab (rank), which determined their status, fixed their pay, and laid a concomitant duty of maintaining a certain number of troopers and horses. All mansabdars were directly subordinate to the emperoro. The mansab was represented by two numbers; one indicated zat (personal pay) and the other sawar (cavalry). Toward the end of Akbar’s reign zat was used to designate a mansabdar’s position in the official hierarchy and helped to determine his pay. The sawar rank indicated the number of troopers the mansabdar was required to maintain. During Akbar’s time mansabdars having commands of two hundred or more were entitled to be called umara. Under Shah Jahan, the limit was raised to five hundred.
The Mughal nobility was composed of Turks, Persians, Afghans, Rajputs, and other native born Indians. Under Akbar, Rajputs gained in importance. During the later Mughal period Iranis and Turanis became the two main groupings, and during the eighteenth century the two were in constant conflict.
The Mughal nobility was not hereditary, but the sons of deceased nobles were often taken into service. The law of escheat operated and hence the property of the nobles could be confiscated on death.
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan (1121-1174). Arab man of letters from Yemen. He studied and taught at Zabid, and was engaged in trade, which brought him in contact with the Najahids. After 1157, he settled in Egypt, where he dedicated his poems to the autocratic viziers Tala’i’ ibn Ruzzik, Ruzzik ibn Tala’i’, Dirgham (d. 1164) and Shirkuh. His sympathies inclined to the Fatimids, for whom he wrote a qasida of lament. He took part in a conspiracy to restore them, and as a result was put to death by Saladin. He wrote a history of the Egyptian viziers, and one of Yemen.
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan (1121-1174). Arab man of letters from Yemen. He studied and taught at Zabid, and was engaged in trade, which brought him in contact with the Najahids. After 1157, he settled in Egypt, where he dedicated his poems to the autocratic viziers Tala’i’ ibn Ruzzik, Ruzzik ibn Tala’i’, Dirgham (d. 1164) and Shirkuh. His sympathies inclined to the Fatimids, for whom he wrote a qasida of lament. He took part in a conspiracy to restore them, and as a result was put to death by Saladin. He wrote a history of the Egyptian viziers, and one of Yemen.
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al-
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al- (1301-1349). Arab author who recorded the history of the Mali Empire. He was an administrator and scholar living in Cairo and Damascus. He gathered information on Mali shortly after the pilgrimage of its famous king, Mansa Musa (1324-1325). Al-‘Umari’s account helped achieve international recognition for Musa and Mali. It remains among the most valuable sources for the empire’s history.
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al- (1301-1349). Arab author who recorded the history of the Mali Empire. He was an administrator and scholar living in Cairo and Damascus. He gathered information on Mali shortly after the pilgrimage of its famous king, Mansa Musa (1324-1325). Al-‘Umari’s account helped achieve international recognition for Musa and Mali. It remains among the most valuable sources for the empire’s history.
Umaru
Umaru (‘Umar ibn ‘Ali) (c. 1824-1891). Ruler of the Fula Sokoto Empire (r.1881-1891). Umaru was a great-grandson of Uthman dan Fodio. Uthman dan Fodio was the founder of the Fula Empire in northern Nigeria. Uthman’s successors had kept alive the tradtions of the jihad (holy war) by assembling the armies of the Sokoto emirates for military campaigns each autumn. These campaigns had degenerated into raids on neighboring territories rather than attempts to extend Sokoto’s boundaries. Umaru discontinued the raids. To make up for lost revenues, Umaru extracted greater tribute within the empire. He also interfered more in the domestic affairs of the individual emirates. These policies were generally accepted, and the period was one of unprecedented security and flourishing trade. Expansion to the north and east continued on a peaceful basis. Ironically, Umaru died while on a military expedition. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman.
'Umar ibn 'Ali see Umaru
Umaru (‘Umar ibn ‘Ali) (c. 1824-1891). Ruler of the Fula Sokoto Empire (r.1881-1891). Umaru was a great-grandson of Uthman dan Fodio. Uthman dan Fodio was the founder of the Fula Empire in northern Nigeria. Uthman’s successors had kept alive the tradtions of the jihad (holy war) by assembling the armies of the Sokoto emirates for military campaigns each autumn. These campaigns had degenerated into raids on neighboring territories rather than attempts to extend Sokoto’s boundaries. Umaru discontinued the raids. To make up for lost revenues, Umaru extracted greater tribute within the empire. He also interfered more in the domestic affairs of the individual emirates. These policies were generally accepted, and the period was one of unprecedented security and flourishing trade. Expansion to the north and east continued on a peaceful basis. Ironically, Umaru died while on a military expedition. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman.
'Umar ibn 'Ali see Umaru
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