Asad, Hafiz al-
Asad, Hafiz al-. See Hafiz al-Assad.
Hafiz al-Azad see Asad, Hafiz al-.
Hafiz al-Azad see Asad, Hafiz al-.
Asaf ud-Daulah
Asaf ud-Daulah (September 23, 1748 - September 21, 1797). The fourth nawab, or ruler, of the North Indian state of Awadh (Oudh) from 1775 until his death. A weak sovereign but an active patron of arts and letters, he reigned during the turbulent period of political decentralization following Mughal decline, when the East India Company was becoming increasingly able to manipulate his regime’s finances and policies.
Asaf ud-Daulah (Asaf-Ud-Dowlah) was the nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 to 1797, and the son of Shuja-ud-Daulah, his mother and grandmother being the begums of Oudh, whose destruction formed one of the chief counts in the charges against Warren Hastings.
When Shuja-ud-Daulah died he left two million pounds sterling buried in the vaults of the zenana (harem). The widow and mother of the deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the terms of a will which was never produced. When Warren Hastings pressed the nawab for the payment of a debt due to the British East India Company, he obtained from his mother a loan of 26 lakh (2.6 million) rupees, for which he gave her a jagir (land) of four times the value. His mother subsequently obtained 30 lakh (3 million) more in return for a full acquittal, and the recognition of her jagirs without interference for life by the Company. These jagirs were afterwards confiscated on the ground of the begum's complicity in the rising of Chai Singh.
In 1775, Asaf ud-Daulah moved the capital of Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow and built various monuments in and around Lucknow, including the Bara Imambara.
Asaf-ud-Daulah is considered the "Architect General" of Lucknow. With the ambition to outshine the splendor of Mughal architecture, he built a number of monuments and developed the city of Lucknow into an architectural marvel. Several of the buildings survive today, including the famed Asafi Imambara, and the Qaisar Bagh area of downtown Lucknow where thousands live in resurrected buildings.
The Nawab became so famous for his generosity that it is still a well-known saying in Lucknow that "he who does not receive (livelihood) from the Lord, will receive it from Asaf-ud-Daulah" (Jisko de na Moula, usko de Asaf-ud-Dowlah).
Asaf-ud-Daulah died on September 21, 1797, in Lucknow and is buried at Bara Imambara, Lucknow.
Daulah, Asaf ud- see Asaf ud-Daulah
Asaf-Ud-Dowlah see Asaf ud-Daulah
Dowlah, Asaf-Ud- see Asaf ud-Daulah
Asaf ud-Daulah (September 23, 1748 - September 21, 1797). The fourth nawab, or ruler, of the North Indian state of Awadh (Oudh) from 1775 until his death. A weak sovereign but an active patron of arts and letters, he reigned during the turbulent period of political decentralization following Mughal decline, when the East India Company was becoming increasingly able to manipulate his regime’s finances and policies.
Asaf ud-Daulah (Asaf-Ud-Dowlah) was the nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 to 1797, and the son of Shuja-ud-Daulah, his mother and grandmother being the begums of Oudh, whose destruction formed one of the chief counts in the charges against Warren Hastings.
When Shuja-ud-Daulah died he left two million pounds sterling buried in the vaults of the zenana (harem). The widow and mother of the deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the terms of a will which was never produced. When Warren Hastings pressed the nawab for the payment of a debt due to the British East India Company, he obtained from his mother a loan of 26 lakh (2.6 million) rupees, for which he gave her a jagir (land) of four times the value. His mother subsequently obtained 30 lakh (3 million) more in return for a full acquittal, and the recognition of her jagirs without interference for life by the Company. These jagirs were afterwards confiscated on the ground of the begum's complicity in the rising of Chai Singh.
In 1775, Asaf ud-Daulah moved the capital of Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow and built various monuments in and around Lucknow, including the Bara Imambara.
Asaf-ud-Daulah is considered the "Architect General" of Lucknow. With the ambition to outshine the splendor of Mughal architecture, he built a number of monuments and developed the city of Lucknow into an architectural marvel. Several of the buildings survive today, including the famed Asafi Imambara, and the Qaisar Bagh area of downtown Lucknow where thousands live in resurrected buildings.
The Nawab became so famous for his generosity that it is still a well-known saying in Lucknow that "he who does not receive (livelihood) from the Lord, will receive it from Asaf-ud-Daulah" (Jisko de na Moula, usko de Asaf-ud-Dowlah).
Asaf-ud-Daulah died on September 21, 1797, in Lucknow and is buried at Bara Imambara, Lucknow.
Daulah, Asaf ud- see Asaf ud-Daulah
Asaf-Ud-Dowlah see Asaf ud-Daulah
Dowlah, Asaf-Ud- see Asaf ud-Daulah
Ashab al-Kahf
Ashab al-Kahf (“Those of the Cave”). The name given in the Qur’an to the youths who in the Christian West are usually called the “Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.”
The Roman Martyrology mentions the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus under the date of June 27, as follows: "Commemoration of the seven Holy Sleepers of Ephesus, who, it is recounted, after undergoing martyrdom, rest in peace, await the day of resurrection." The Byzantine Calendar commemorates them with feasts on 4 August and 22 October. They are also regarded as pious in Islam, and are known as "People of the Cave" (Ashab Al-Kahf).
A legend about them tells of the falling asleep of seven young men in a cave, who wake up after a great deal of time has passed. The basic outline of the tale appears in Gregory of Tours (b. 538 - d. 594), and in Paul the Deacon's (b. 720 - d. 799) History of the Lombards. The best-known version of the story appears in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend. Their story also appears in the Qur'an (Surah 18, verse 9-26), which also includes the mention of an accompanying dog beside them.
The outline of the story of the Ashab al-Kahf is that during the persecutions of the Roman emperor Decius, around 250, seven young men were accused of Christianity. They were given some time to recant their faith, but instead gave their worldly goods to the poor and retired to a mountain to pray, where they fell asleep in a cave. The emperor, seeing that the attitude of the young men towards paganism had not improved, ordered the mouth of the cave to be sealed.
300 (or 309) years passed. At some later time — usually, during the reign of Theodosius (379 - 395) — the landowner decided to open up the sealed mouth of the cave, thinking to use it as a cattle pen. He opened it and found the sleepers inside. They awoke, imagining that they had slept but one day. One of their number returned to Ephesus. He was astounded to find buildings with crosses attached; the townspeople were astounded to find a man trying to spend old coins from the reign of Decius. The bishop was summoned to interview the sleepers. They told him their miracle story, and died praising God.
As the earliest versions of the legend spread from Ephesus, an early Christian catacomb came to be associated with it, attracting pilgrims. On the slopes of Mount Pion (Mount Coelian) near Ephesus (near modern Selçuk in Turkey), the 'Grotto' of the Seven Sleepers with ruins of the church built over it was excavated in 1927-28. The excavation brought to light several hundred graves which were dated to the 5th and 6th centuries. Inscriptions dedicated to the Seven Sleepers were found on the walls of the church and in the graves. The 'Grotto' is still shown to tourists.
The legend appeared in several Syriac sources before Gregory's lifetime. It was retold by Symeon Metaphrastes.
The Seven Sleepers form the subject of a homily in verse by the Edessan poet Jacob of Saruq ('Sarugh') (died 521), which was published in the Acta Sanctorum. Another 6th century version, in a Syrian manuscript in the British Museum, gives eight sleepers. There are considerable variations as to their names.
The legend rapidly attained a wide diffusion throughout Christendom, popularized in the West by Gregory of Tours, in his late 6th century collection of miracles, De gloria martyrum (Glory of the Martyrs).
In the 7th century, the myth gained an even wider audience when it found a mention in the Qur'an, in Sura 18, Al-Kahf, verse 9 to 14. See Islamic interpretation. According to Islamic belief, the "myth" has basis in reality, and the "7 sleepers" were pious men who experienced a miracle of God due to their piety and devotion to Tawhid (The Oneness of God).
In the following century, Paul the Deacon told the tale in his History of the Lombards but gave it a different setting:
During the period of the Crusades, bones from the sepulchres near Ephesus, identified as relics of the Seven Sleepers, were transported to Marseille, France in a large stone coffin, which remained a trophy of the church of Saint Victoire, Marseille.
The Seven Sleepers were included in the Golden Legend compilation, the most popular book of the later Middle Ages, which fixed a precise date for their resurrection, AD 378, in the reign of Theodosius.
The Islamic version is related in Surah (Chapter) Al-Kahf (18, "The Cave"), of the Qur'an. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, the Jews of Medina challenged him to tell them the story of the sleepers knowing that none of the Arabs knew about it. According to tradition, God then sent the angel Gabriel (or Jibreel) to reveal the story to him through Surah Al-Kahf. After hearing it from him, the Jews confirmed that he told the same story they knew.
Mentioning the story in the Quran and the concurrent events that happened before revealing the story is claimed to confirm that the Quran was revealed by God and it contains only the words of God and not those of Muhammad, since it contained information that Muhammad did not know.
The legend of the seven sleepers has given origin to the word syvsover (literally seven-sleeper) in both Swedish, Norwegian and Danish, as in 'one of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus'. It has come to refer to someone who "sleeps hard and long". The word secondarily refers to a hibernating rodent, the edible dormouse. The word "Siebenschläfer" in German and "hétalvó" in Hungarian bear a meaning similar to the Scandinavian; they characterize someone who usually sleeps long, waking up later than what is considered necessary or proper. "Edible dormouse" in German is also "Siebenschläfer."
Kahf, Ashab al- see Ashab al-Kahf
“Those of the Cave" see Ashab al-Kahf
“Seven Sleepers of Ephesus” see Ashab al-Kahf
"People of the Cave" see Ashab al-Kahf
Ashab al-Kahf (“Those of the Cave”). The name given in the Qur’an to the youths who in the Christian West are usually called the “Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.”
The Roman Martyrology mentions the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus under the date of June 27, as follows: "Commemoration of the seven Holy Sleepers of Ephesus, who, it is recounted, after undergoing martyrdom, rest in peace, await the day of resurrection." The Byzantine Calendar commemorates them with feasts on 4 August and 22 October. They are also regarded as pious in Islam, and are known as "People of the Cave" (Ashab Al-Kahf).
A legend about them tells of the falling asleep of seven young men in a cave, who wake up after a great deal of time has passed. The basic outline of the tale appears in Gregory of Tours (b. 538 - d. 594), and in Paul the Deacon's (b. 720 - d. 799) History of the Lombards. The best-known version of the story appears in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend. Their story also appears in the Qur'an (Surah 18, verse 9-26), which also includes the mention of an accompanying dog beside them.
The outline of the story of the Ashab al-Kahf is that during the persecutions of the Roman emperor Decius, around 250, seven young men were accused of Christianity. They were given some time to recant their faith, but instead gave their worldly goods to the poor and retired to a mountain to pray, where they fell asleep in a cave. The emperor, seeing that the attitude of the young men towards paganism had not improved, ordered the mouth of the cave to be sealed.
300 (or 309) years passed. At some later time — usually, during the reign of Theodosius (379 - 395) — the landowner decided to open up the sealed mouth of the cave, thinking to use it as a cattle pen. He opened it and found the sleepers inside. They awoke, imagining that they had slept but one day. One of their number returned to Ephesus. He was astounded to find buildings with crosses attached; the townspeople were astounded to find a man trying to spend old coins from the reign of Decius. The bishop was summoned to interview the sleepers. They told him their miracle story, and died praising God.
As the earliest versions of the legend spread from Ephesus, an early Christian catacomb came to be associated with it, attracting pilgrims. On the slopes of Mount Pion (Mount Coelian) near Ephesus (near modern Selçuk in Turkey), the 'Grotto' of the Seven Sleepers with ruins of the church built over it was excavated in 1927-28. The excavation brought to light several hundred graves which were dated to the 5th and 6th centuries. Inscriptions dedicated to the Seven Sleepers were found on the walls of the church and in the graves. The 'Grotto' is still shown to tourists.
The legend appeared in several Syriac sources before Gregory's lifetime. It was retold by Symeon Metaphrastes.
The Seven Sleepers form the subject of a homily in verse by the Edessan poet Jacob of Saruq ('Sarugh') (died 521), which was published in the Acta Sanctorum. Another 6th century version, in a Syrian manuscript in the British Museum, gives eight sleepers. There are considerable variations as to their names.
The legend rapidly attained a wide diffusion throughout Christendom, popularized in the West by Gregory of Tours, in his late 6th century collection of miracles, De gloria martyrum (Glory of the Martyrs).
In the 7th century, the myth gained an even wider audience when it found a mention in the Qur'an, in Sura 18, Al-Kahf, verse 9 to 14. See Islamic interpretation. According to Islamic belief, the "myth" has basis in reality, and the "7 sleepers" were pious men who experienced a miracle of God due to their piety and devotion to Tawhid (The Oneness of God).
In the following century, Paul the Deacon told the tale in his History of the Lombards but gave it a different setting:
During the period of the Crusades, bones from the sepulchres near Ephesus, identified as relics of the Seven Sleepers, were transported to Marseille, France in a large stone coffin, which remained a trophy of the church of Saint Victoire, Marseille.
The Seven Sleepers were included in the Golden Legend compilation, the most popular book of the later Middle Ages, which fixed a precise date for their resurrection, AD 378, in the reign of Theodosius.
The Islamic version is related in Surah (Chapter) Al-Kahf (18, "The Cave"), of the Qur'an. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, the Jews of Medina challenged him to tell them the story of the sleepers knowing that none of the Arabs knew about it. According to tradition, God then sent the angel Gabriel (or Jibreel) to reveal the story to him through Surah Al-Kahf. After hearing it from him, the Jews confirmed that he told the same story they knew.
Mentioning the story in the Quran and the concurrent events that happened before revealing the story is claimed to confirm that the Quran was revealed by God and it contains only the words of God and not those of Muhammad, since it contained information that Muhammad did not know.
The legend of the seven sleepers has given origin to the word syvsover (literally seven-sleeper) in both Swedish, Norwegian and Danish, as in 'one of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus'. It has come to refer to someone who "sleeps hard and long". The word secondarily refers to a hibernating rodent, the edible dormouse. The word "Siebenschläfer" in German and "hétalvó" in Hungarian bear a meaning similar to the Scandinavian; they characterize someone who usually sleeps long, waking up later than what is considered necessary or proper. "Edible dormouse" in German is also "Siebenschläfer."
Kahf, Ashab al- see Ashab al-Kahf
“Those of the Cave" see Ashab al-Kahf
“Seven Sleepers of Ephesus” see Ashab al-Kahf
"People of the Cave" see Ashab al-Kahf
Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-
Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al- (Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash‘ari) (Abū al-Hasan Alī ibn Ismā'īl al-Ash'arī) (874 – 936). Muslim theologian who was the founder of orthodox scholasticism (kalam) and of the Ash‘ariyya. Al-Ash‘ari became noted for his use of reason to support revelation and his intellectual defense of Sunnite religious beliefs.
Al-Ash‘ari began by supporting the rationalist methods and positions of the Mu‘tazila school, but about 912 abandoned that school in favor of Hanbalite interpretations of Sunnite belief. Indeed, al-Ash‘ari had been a student with the Mu‘tazila theologian al-Jubba’i, but came to disagree with al-Jubba’i on the question of God’s predetermination. Al-Ash‘ari broke with al-Jubba’i and started to produce a large number of texts where he fought the teachings of Mu‘tazilism, like in the ‘al-ibana ‘an ‘usuli d-diyan -- “Clarification on the origin of religion,” as well as unbiased scientific works on Muslim groups, like the maqalatu l-‘islamiyin -- “Islamic articles.”
Against the Mu‘tazilites, al-Ash‘ari held that the Qur’an is eternal and uncreated, … not created. Additionally, he argued that the anthropomorphic expressions in the Qur’an referring to Allah should not be interpreted as metaphors but accepted bi-la kayf (“without asking how”). Most importantly, al-Ash‘ari originated the concept of “acquisition” (kash) with which he opposed the Mu‘tazilite doctrine of human free will.
Al-Ash‘ari argued that Allah creates all the acts of humans but that they “acquire” these acts, thereby becoming responsible for them without creating them. This formula preserved divine determination and sole creatorhood, while making humans responsible and thereby liable to judgment.
Al-Ash‘ari is considered to be the founder of Islamic scholasticism, as he used dialectics in order to combat Mu‘tazilism, and his techniques and theories were accepted by the conservative learned of his time. Ash‘ari’s teaching became the dominant orientation among the Sunni schools.
Al-Ash'ari was born in Basra, Iraq, a descendant of the famous companion of Muhammad and arbitrator at Siffin for Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Musa al-Ashari. He spent the greater part of his life at Baghdad. Although belonging to an orthodox family, he became a pupil of the great Mutazalite teacher al-Jubba'i (d.915), and himself remained a Mutazalite until his fortieth year. In 912 he left the Mu'tazalites and became one of its most distinguished opponents, using the philosophical methods he had learned. Al-Ash'ari then spent the remaining years of his life engaged in developing his views and in composing polemics and arguments against his former Mutazalite colleagues. He is said to have written over a hundred works, from which only four or five are known to be extant.
Al-Ash'ari was noted for his teachings on atomism, among the earliest Islamic philosophies, influenced by Greek and Hindu concepts of atoms of time and matter, and for al-Ash'ari the basis for propagating a deterministic view that Allah created every moment in time and every particle of matter. Thus cause and effect was an illusion. He nonetheless believed in free will, elaborating the thought of Dirar ibn Amr' and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" account of free will.
While al-Ash'ari was opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school for its over-emphasis on ijtihad (reason), he was also opposed to the views of certain orthodox schools such as the Zahiri, Mujassimite (anthropomorphist) and Muhaddithin (traditionalist) schools for their over-emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al‑Khaud.
Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash‘ari see Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-
Abū al-Hasan Alī ibn Ismā'īl al-Ash'arī see Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-
Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al- (Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash‘ari) (Abū al-Hasan Alī ibn Ismā'īl al-Ash'arī) (874 – 936). Muslim theologian who was the founder of orthodox scholasticism (kalam) and of the Ash‘ariyya. Al-Ash‘ari became noted for his use of reason to support revelation and his intellectual defense of Sunnite religious beliefs.
Al-Ash‘ari began by supporting the rationalist methods and positions of the Mu‘tazila school, but about 912 abandoned that school in favor of Hanbalite interpretations of Sunnite belief. Indeed, al-Ash‘ari had been a student with the Mu‘tazila theologian al-Jubba’i, but came to disagree with al-Jubba’i on the question of God’s predetermination. Al-Ash‘ari broke with al-Jubba’i and started to produce a large number of texts where he fought the teachings of Mu‘tazilism, like in the ‘al-ibana ‘an ‘usuli d-diyan -- “Clarification on the origin of religion,” as well as unbiased scientific works on Muslim groups, like the maqalatu l-‘islamiyin -- “Islamic articles.”
Against the Mu‘tazilites, al-Ash‘ari held that the Qur’an is eternal and uncreated, … not created. Additionally, he argued that the anthropomorphic expressions in the Qur’an referring to Allah should not be interpreted as metaphors but accepted bi-la kayf (“without asking how”). Most importantly, al-Ash‘ari originated the concept of “acquisition” (kash) with which he opposed the Mu‘tazilite doctrine of human free will.
Al-Ash‘ari argued that Allah creates all the acts of humans but that they “acquire” these acts, thereby becoming responsible for them without creating them. This formula preserved divine determination and sole creatorhood, while making humans responsible and thereby liable to judgment.
Al-Ash‘ari is considered to be the founder of Islamic scholasticism, as he used dialectics in order to combat Mu‘tazilism, and his techniques and theories were accepted by the conservative learned of his time. Ash‘ari’s teaching became the dominant orientation among the Sunni schools.
Al-Ash'ari was born in Basra, Iraq, a descendant of the famous companion of Muhammad and arbitrator at Siffin for Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Musa al-Ashari. He spent the greater part of his life at Baghdad. Although belonging to an orthodox family, he became a pupil of the great Mutazalite teacher al-Jubba'i (d.915), and himself remained a Mutazalite until his fortieth year. In 912 he left the Mu'tazalites and became one of its most distinguished opponents, using the philosophical methods he had learned. Al-Ash'ari then spent the remaining years of his life engaged in developing his views and in composing polemics and arguments against his former Mutazalite colleagues. He is said to have written over a hundred works, from which only four or five are known to be extant.
Al-Ash'ari was noted for his teachings on atomism, among the earliest Islamic philosophies, influenced by Greek and Hindu concepts of atoms of time and matter, and for al-Ash'ari the basis for propagating a deterministic view that Allah created every moment in time and every particle of matter. Thus cause and effect was an illusion. He nonetheless believed in free will, elaborating the thought of Dirar ibn Amr' and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" account of free will.
While al-Ash'ari was opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school for its over-emphasis on ijtihad (reason), he was also opposed to the views of certain orthodox schools such as the Zahiri, Mujassimite (anthropomorphist) and Muhaddithin (traditionalist) schools for their over-emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al‑Khaud.
Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash‘ari see Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-
Abū al-Hasan Alī ibn Ismā'īl al-Ash'arī see Ash‘ari, Abu ’l-Hasan 'Ali al-
Ash‘ariyya
Ash‘ariyya (Ash‘ari) (Ash'arites). School of theology founded by al-Ash‘ari. It was attacked by the Hanbalites for the use of rational arguments and by the Maturidiyya for being too conservative. The Ash‘ariyya became the dominant school in the Arabic-speaking parts of the ‘Abbasid caliphate.
The teachings of al-Ash‘ari together with those of his principal disciples laid the basis for a doctrine that sought to occupy a middle ground between the rationalism of the Mu’tazilis and the traditionalist views of the Hanbalis. Against the Mu’tazilis, whose views al-Ash’ari himself had once espoused, the Ash‘ari school insisted, among other things, on the following: (1) the reality of God’s eternal attributes; (2) the createdness of the Qur’an; (3) the absolute sovereignty of God over human actions, and (4) the reality of the beatific vision. While thus accepting the substance of traditionalist doctrine, Ash‘aris, however, insisted on the legitimacy of reason as a tool for the defense of the truths of revelation. Since the Ash‘ari position was rejected by both Mu’tazilis and Hanbalis, what early Ash‘aris had hoped would form the basis for a reconciliation of the two polar positions ended by becoming a third school of thought. Although the position represented by al-Ash‘ari and his early defenders underwent some degree of modification in the subsequent period, repudiation of Mu‘tazili doctrine, attachment to tradition, and insistence on the value of reason as an apologetic device remained characteristic features of Ash‘ari thought during the medieval period. Among the leading Ash‘aris of the period are al-Baqillani (d. 1013), al-Juwaini (d. 1086), and al-Ghazali (d. 1111).
From Baghdad, the main center of the early school, Ash‘arism found its way to the major centers of the Near East, especially Khurasan, where it became a major intellectual force. Although Ash‘arism is not to be equated with the Shafi‘i school of law, it found its greatest acceptance in areas where Shafi‘i law was the dominant legal influence.
The Ashʿari theology (Arabic: al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324 AH / 936 AD). The disciples of the school are known as Ash'arites, and the school is also referred to as Ash'arite school. The Ash'arite school was instrumental in drastically changing the direction of Islamic theology, separating its development radically from that of theology in the Christian world. In contrast to the Mutazilite school of Islamic theology, the Ash'arite view was that comprehension of unique nature and characteristics of God were beyond human capability. Thus, while man had free will, he had no power to create anything. It was a taqlid ("faith" or "imitation") based view which did not assume that human reason could discern morality. This doctrine is now known as occasionalism. However, a critical spirit of inquiry was far from absent in the Ash'arite school. Rather, what they lacked, was a trust in reason itself, separate from a moral code, to decide what experiments or what knowledge to pursue.
Contrary to popular opinion, the Ash'arites (or "traditionalists") were not completely traditionalist and anti-rationalist, nor were the Mutazilites (or "rationalists") completely rationalist and anti-traditionalist, as the Ash'arites did depend on rationality and the Mutazilites did depend on tradition. Their goals were the same, to affirm the transcendence and unity of God, but their doctrines were different, with the Ash'arites supporting an Islamic occasionalist doctrine and the Mutazilites supporting an Islamic metaphysics influenced by Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. For Ash'arites, taqlid only applied to the Islamic tradition and not to any other, whereas for Mutazilites, taqlid applied equally to both the Islamic and Aristotelian-Neoplatonic traditions.
Factors affecting the spread of the school of thought include a drastic shift in historical initiative, foreshadowing the later loss of Muslim Spain and Columbus' landing in the Western Hemisphere - both in 1492. But the decisive influence was most likely that of the new Ottoman Empire, which found the Ash'arite views politically useful, and were to a degree taking the advantages of Islamic technologies, sciences, and openness for granted. For some centuries thereafter, as the Ottomans pushed forth into Europe, they were able to continue taking advantage of Muslim sciences and technologies only to begin losing those advantages gradually up until The Enlightenment when European innovation finally surpassed and eventually overwhelmed that of the Muslims.
The influence of the Ash'arites is still hotly debated today. It was commonly believed that the Asharites put an end to philosophy as such in the Muslim world, with the death of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) at the end of the 12th century. While philosophy did indeed decline in the western Islamic world (Al-Andalus and the Maghreb), research has shown that philosophy continued long after in the eastern Islamic world (Persia and India), where the Ibn Sinan (Avicennian), Illuminationist and Sufi schools predominated, until Islamic philosophy reached its zenith with Mulla Sadra's existentialist school of transcendent theosophy in the 17th century.
The 12th to 14th centuries marked the peak of innovation in Muslim civilization, and this continued through to the 16th century. During this period many remarkable achievements in science, engineering and social organization were made, while the ulema began to generate a fiqh based on taqlid ("imitation based on authority") rather than on the old ijtihad. Eventually, however, modern historians think that lack of improvements in basic processes and confusion with theology and law degraded scientific methods. The rigorous means by which the Ash'arites had reached their conclusions were largely forgotten by Muslims before the Renaissance, due in large part to the success of their effort to subordinate inquiry to a prior ethics - and assume ignorance was the norm for humankind.
Modern commentators blame or laud Ash'arites for curtailing much of the Islamic world's innovation in sciences and technology, then leading the world. This innovation was not in general revived in the West until the Renaissance, and emergence of scientific method - which was based on traditional Islamic methods of ijtihad and isnad (backing or scientific citation). The Ash'arites did not reject these, amongst the ulema or learned, but they stifled these in the mosque and discouraged their application by the lay public.
The Ash'arites may have succeeded in laying the groundwork for a stable empire, and for subordinating philosophy as a process to fixed notions of ethics derived directly from Islam - perhaps this even improved the quality of life of average citizens. But it seems the historical impact was to yield the scientific and technological initiative of Western civilization to Christians in Europe.
Ash‘ari see Ash‘ariyya
Ash'arites see Ash‘ariyya
Ash‘ariyya (Ash‘ari) (Ash'arites). School of theology founded by al-Ash‘ari. It was attacked by the Hanbalites for the use of rational arguments and by the Maturidiyya for being too conservative. The Ash‘ariyya became the dominant school in the Arabic-speaking parts of the ‘Abbasid caliphate.
The teachings of al-Ash‘ari together with those of his principal disciples laid the basis for a doctrine that sought to occupy a middle ground between the rationalism of the Mu’tazilis and the traditionalist views of the Hanbalis. Against the Mu’tazilis, whose views al-Ash’ari himself had once espoused, the Ash‘ari school insisted, among other things, on the following: (1) the reality of God’s eternal attributes; (2) the createdness of the Qur’an; (3) the absolute sovereignty of God over human actions, and (4) the reality of the beatific vision. While thus accepting the substance of traditionalist doctrine, Ash‘aris, however, insisted on the legitimacy of reason as a tool for the defense of the truths of revelation. Since the Ash‘ari position was rejected by both Mu’tazilis and Hanbalis, what early Ash‘aris had hoped would form the basis for a reconciliation of the two polar positions ended by becoming a third school of thought. Although the position represented by al-Ash‘ari and his early defenders underwent some degree of modification in the subsequent period, repudiation of Mu‘tazili doctrine, attachment to tradition, and insistence on the value of reason as an apologetic device remained characteristic features of Ash‘ari thought during the medieval period. Among the leading Ash‘aris of the period are al-Baqillani (d. 1013), al-Juwaini (d. 1086), and al-Ghazali (d. 1111).
From Baghdad, the main center of the early school, Ash‘arism found its way to the major centers of the Near East, especially Khurasan, where it became a major intellectual force. Although Ash‘arism is not to be equated with the Shafi‘i school of law, it found its greatest acceptance in areas where Shafi‘i law was the dominant legal influence.
The Ashʿari theology (Arabic: al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324 AH / 936 AD). The disciples of the school are known as Ash'arites, and the school is also referred to as Ash'arite school. The Ash'arite school was instrumental in drastically changing the direction of Islamic theology, separating its development radically from that of theology in the Christian world. In contrast to the Mutazilite school of Islamic theology, the Ash'arite view was that comprehension of unique nature and characteristics of God were beyond human capability. Thus, while man had free will, he had no power to create anything. It was a taqlid ("faith" or "imitation") based view which did not assume that human reason could discern morality. This doctrine is now known as occasionalism. However, a critical spirit of inquiry was far from absent in the Ash'arite school. Rather, what they lacked, was a trust in reason itself, separate from a moral code, to decide what experiments or what knowledge to pursue.
Contrary to popular opinion, the Ash'arites (or "traditionalists") were not completely traditionalist and anti-rationalist, nor were the Mutazilites (or "rationalists") completely rationalist and anti-traditionalist, as the Ash'arites did depend on rationality and the Mutazilites did depend on tradition. Their goals were the same, to affirm the transcendence and unity of God, but their doctrines were different, with the Ash'arites supporting an Islamic occasionalist doctrine and the Mutazilites supporting an Islamic metaphysics influenced by Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. For Ash'arites, taqlid only applied to the Islamic tradition and not to any other, whereas for Mutazilites, taqlid applied equally to both the Islamic and Aristotelian-Neoplatonic traditions.
Factors affecting the spread of the school of thought include a drastic shift in historical initiative, foreshadowing the later loss of Muslim Spain and Columbus' landing in the Western Hemisphere - both in 1492. But the decisive influence was most likely that of the new Ottoman Empire, which found the Ash'arite views politically useful, and were to a degree taking the advantages of Islamic technologies, sciences, and openness for granted. For some centuries thereafter, as the Ottomans pushed forth into Europe, they were able to continue taking advantage of Muslim sciences and technologies only to begin losing those advantages gradually up until The Enlightenment when European innovation finally surpassed and eventually overwhelmed that of the Muslims.
The influence of the Ash'arites is still hotly debated today. It was commonly believed that the Asharites put an end to philosophy as such in the Muslim world, with the death of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) at the end of the 12th century. While philosophy did indeed decline in the western Islamic world (Al-Andalus and the Maghreb), research has shown that philosophy continued long after in the eastern Islamic world (Persia and India), where the Ibn Sinan (Avicennian), Illuminationist and Sufi schools predominated, until Islamic philosophy reached its zenith with Mulla Sadra's existentialist school of transcendent theosophy in the 17th century.
The 12th to 14th centuries marked the peak of innovation in Muslim civilization, and this continued through to the 16th century. During this period many remarkable achievements in science, engineering and social organization were made, while the ulema began to generate a fiqh based on taqlid ("imitation based on authority") rather than on the old ijtihad. Eventually, however, modern historians think that lack of improvements in basic processes and confusion with theology and law degraded scientific methods. The rigorous means by which the Ash'arites had reached their conclusions were largely forgotten by Muslims before the Renaissance, due in large part to the success of their effort to subordinate inquiry to a prior ethics - and assume ignorance was the norm for humankind.
Modern commentators blame or laud Ash'arites for curtailing much of the Islamic world's innovation in sciences and technology, then leading the world. This innovation was not in general revived in the West until the Renaissance, and emergence of scientific method - which was based on traditional Islamic methods of ijtihad and isnad (backing or scientific citation). The Ash'arites did not reject these, amongst the ulema or learned, but they stifled these in the mosque and discouraged their application by the lay public.
The Ash'arites may have succeeded in laying the groundwork for a stable empire, and for subordinating philosophy as a process to fixed notions of ethics derived directly from Islam - perhaps this even improved the quality of life of average citizens. But it seems the historical impact was to yield the scientific and technological initiative of Western civilization to Christians in Europe.
Ash‘ari see Ash‘ariyya
Ash'arites see Ash‘ariyya
‘Ashiq Celebi
‘Ashiq Celebi (1520-1572). Ottoman man of letters. His most important work is his Biography of the Poets.
Celebi, 'Ashiq see ‘Ashiq Celebi
‘Ashiq Celebi (1520-1572). Ottoman man of letters. His most important work is his Biography of the Poets.
Celebi, 'Ashiq see ‘Ashiq Celebi
Ashkenazi
Ashkenazi (Ashkenazim). Those who have an orientation in Judaism which developed in central, northern and the eastern part of Europe. The name "Ashkenaz" was the name that the Jews themselves used for Germany, a name taken from Genesis 10:3. The Ashkenazi communities were from the start organized like small cities inside a Christian city. The Jews had their own laws, they had social contact only with each other, and they organized and armed themselves in order to protect their communities against villains and thieves.
In Poland, the Jews often formed shtetls, small towns where they represented the majority of the inhabitants. Beginning in the eleventh century, the Ashkenazi scholars began to develop material that is still in use in Judaism today, like the Mahzor, a work that contained prayers by poets of Germany and France.
For the Ashkenazi Jews, the study of Hebrew, the Torah and the Talmud was more than just a way of understanding their religion, it was also a way of protecting themselves against the influence of the societies around them.
Ashkenazim and Sephardim came to develop different prayer liturgies. Torah services, Hebrew pronunciation and ways of life. The rituals of the Ashkenazi were of the Palestinian traditions. Ashkenazi and Sephardi tunes for both prayers and Torah reading are different. An Ashkenazi Torah lies flat while being read, while a Sephardi Torah stands up.
In order to decide upon Jewish law, there are different authorities. The Ashkenazim go by Rabbi Moses Isseries, who wrote a commentary on the Shulhan Arukh (by Rabbi Joseph Caro) citing Ashkenazi practice. There are differences in many respects of Jewish law, from which laws women are exempt from what food one is allowed to eat on Pesach.
Today, many of the distinctions between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have disappeared. In Israel, as well as in other countries like the United States, Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews live side by side, even if they generally have separate institutions.
The language of the Ashkenazi Jews was Yiddish, a language close to German. In modern times, Yiddish is in danger of dying out.
Today, about ten million of the thirteen million Jews in the world are Ashkenazi.
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim, are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland in the west of Germany. Ashkenaz is the medieval Hebrew name for the region which in modern times encompasses the country of Germany and German-speaking borderland areas. Ashkenaz is also a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). Thus, Ashkenazim or Ashkenazi Jews are literally "German Jews."
Many Ashkenazi Jews later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in non German-speaking areas, including Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, Russia, Eastern Europe, and elsewhere between the 10th and 19th centuries. With them, they took and diversified Yiddish, a Germanic Jewish language that had since medieval times been the lingua franca among Ashkenazi Jews. To a much lesser extent, the Judaeo-French language Zarphatic and the Slavic-based Knaanic (Judeo-Czech) were also spoken. The Ashkenazi Jews developed a distinct culture and liturgy; influenced, to varying degrees, by interaction with surrounding peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.
Although in the 11th century they comprised only 3% of the world's Jewish population, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for (at their highest) 92% of the world's Jews in 1931 and today make up approximately 80% of Jews worldwide. Most Jewish communities with extended histories in Europe are Ashkenazim, with the exception of those associated with the Mediterranean region. The majority of the Jews who migrated from Europe to other continents in the past two centuries are Ashkenazim, Eastern Ashkenazim in particular. This is especially true in the United States, where 6 out of the 7 million American Jewish population – the largest Jewish population in the world when consistent statistical parameters are employed – is Ashkenazi, representing the world's single largest concentration of Ashkenazim.
Ashkenazim see Ashkenazi
Ashkenazi (Ashkenazim). Those who have an orientation in Judaism which developed in central, northern and the eastern part of Europe. The name "Ashkenaz" was the name that the Jews themselves used for Germany, a name taken from Genesis 10:3. The Ashkenazi communities were from the start organized like small cities inside a Christian city. The Jews had their own laws, they had social contact only with each other, and they organized and armed themselves in order to protect their communities against villains and thieves.
In Poland, the Jews often formed shtetls, small towns where they represented the majority of the inhabitants. Beginning in the eleventh century, the Ashkenazi scholars began to develop material that is still in use in Judaism today, like the Mahzor, a work that contained prayers by poets of Germany and France.
For the Ashkenazi Jews, the study of Hebrew, the Torah and the Talmud was more than just a way of understanding their religion, it was also a way of protecting themselves against the influence of the societies around them.
Ashkenazim and Sephardim came to develop different prayer liturgies. Torah services, Hebrew pronunciation and ways of life. The rituals of the Ashkenazi were of the Palestinian traditions. Ashkenazi and Sephardi tunes for both prayers and Torah reading are different. An Ashkenazi Torah lies flat while being read, while a Sephardi Torah stands up.
In order to decide upon Jewish law, there are different authorities. The Ashkenazim go by Rabbi Moses Isseries, who wrote a commentary on the Shulhan Arukh (by Rabbi Joseph Caro) citing Ashkenazi practice. There are differences in many respects of Jewish law, from which laws women are exempt from what food one is allowed to eat on Pesach.
Today, many of the distinctions between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have disappeared. In Israel, as well as in other countries like the United States, Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews live side by side, even if they generally have separate institutions.
The language of the Ashkenazi Jews was Yiddish, a language close to German. In modern times, Yiddish is in danger of dying out.
Today, about ten million of the thirteen million Jews in the world are Ashkenazi.
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim, are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland in the west of Germany. Ashkenaz is the medieval Hebrew name for the region which in modern times encompasses the country of Germany and German-speaking borderland areas. Ashkenaz is also a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). Thus, Ashkenazim or Ashkenazi Jews are literally "German Jews."
Many Ashkenazi Jews later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in non German-speaking areas, including Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, Russia, Eastern Europe, and elsewhere between the 10th and 19th centuries. With them, they took and diversified Yiddish, a Germanic Jewish language that had since medieval times been the lingua franca among Ashkenazi Jews. To a much lesser extent, the Judaeo-French language Zarphatic and the Slavic-based Knaanic (Judeo-Czech) were also spoken. The Ashkenazi Jews developed a distinct culture and liturgy; influenced, to varying degrees, by interaction with surrounding peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.
Although in the 11th century they comprised only 3% of the world's Jewish population, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for (at their highest) 92% of the world's Jews in 1931 and today make up approximately 80% of Jews worldwide. Most Jewish communities with extended histories in Europe are Ashkenazim, with the exception of those associated with the Mediterranean region. The majority of the Jews who migrated from Europe to other continents in the past two centuries are Ashkenazim, Eastern Ashkenazim in particular. This is especially true in the United States, where 6 out of the 7 million American Jewish population – the largest Jewish population in the world when consistent statistical parameters are employed – is Ashkenazi, representing the world's single largest concentration of Ashkenazim.
Ashkenazim see Ashkenazi
ashraf
ashraf. Term which refers to the people who trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad or to the Companions of the Prophet. In India, the term "ashraf" refers to the Mughal classes.
Ashraf refers to someone claiming descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fatima. The word is the plural of "sharīf" ("noble"), from "sharafa" ("to be highborn").
Like the Sada (plural of Sayyid), Ashraf often take their names from ancestry from Ali, Fatima and Muhammad. In many Muslim societies, Ashraf evolved into an honorific denoting "master" or "gentry". More precisely, the Ashraf are descendants of Ali's elder son, Hassan, and the Sada those of Ali's younger son Husayn.
During the Abbasid period, the term was applied to all Ahl al-Bait, basically Muhammad's own family, including, for example, the descendants of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, of Ali's second wife and of the Hashemites.
During the Fatimid Dynasty, the use of the term was restricted to the descendants of Hassan and Husayn only. This restriction remained in force even after Egypt became Sunni again under the Ayyubids.
Social practice in modern Egypt does not distinguish between Ashraf and Sada. Sada Ashraf and Sayyid became a sharif's title. The distinction between Hassani Ashraf and Husayni Ashraf is not known. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, sayyid had no meaning other than sharif in Egypt. Abdurrahman al-Gabarti felt compelled to explain that a certain as-Sayyid Ali al-Qabtan was a Mamluk and not a Sharif, as might have been mistakenly inferred from his title. The title in this case, meaning a Mamluk master, originated from the Maghribi usage of "Sidi", which was equivalent in meaning to emir or sheikh.
In modern usage, sayyid has lost its religious significance and means simply "mister".
Egyptian Ashraf received great honor and played central roles in the Sufi culture. The status of Ashraf is heritable through either the father or mother, and this class is quite large throughout Egypt.
Well aware of their distinguished descent, the Ashraf in Egypt kept genealogical records and were socially acknowledged as a religious elite. Inevitably, doubts arose concerning the descent of many claimants to the title.
ashraf. Term which refers to the people who trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad or to the Companions of the Prophet. In India, the term "ashraf" refers to the Mughal classes.
Ashraf refers to someone claiming descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fatima. The word is the plural of "sharīf" ("noble"), from "sharafa" ("to be highborn").
Like the Sada (plural of Sayyid), Ashraf often take their names from ancestry from Ali, Fatima and Muhammad. In many Muslim societies, Ashraf evolved into an honorific denoting "master" or "gentry". More precisely, the Ashraf are descendants of Ali's elder son, Hassan, and the Sada those of Ali's younger son Husayn.
During the Abbasid period, the term was applied to all Ahl al-Bait, basically Muhammad's own family, including, for example, the descendants of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, of Ali's second wife and of the Hashemites.
During the Fatimid Dynasty, the use of the term was restricted to the descendants of Hassan and Husayn only. This restriction remained in force even after Egypt became Sunni again under the Ayyubids.
Social practice in modern Egypt does not distinguish between Ashraf and Sada. Sada Ashraf and Sayyid became a sharif's title. The distinction between Hassani Ashraf and Husayni Ashraf is not known. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century, sayyid had no meaning other than sharif in Egypt. Abdurrahman al-Gabarti felt compelled to explain that a certain as-Sayyid Ali al-Qabtan was a Mamluk and not a Sharif, as might have been mistakenly inferred from his title. The title in this case, meaning a Mamluk master, originated from the Maghribi usage of "Sidi", which was equivalent in meaning to emir or sheikh.
In modern usage, sayyid has lost its religious significance and means simply "mister".
Egyptian Ashraf received great honor and played central roles in the Sufi culture. The status of Ashraf is heritable through either the father or mother, and this class is quite large throughout Egypt.
Well aware of their distinguished descent, the Ashraf in Egypt kept genealogical records and were socially acknowledged as a religious elite. Inevitably, doubts arose concerning the descent of many claimants to the title.
Asians of East Africa
Asians of East Africa. The Asian presence in East Africa can be traced back several centuries, but the bulk of the Asian settlement there has occurred within the last 100 years. The overwhelming majority, about 85 percent, of the Asian Muslims of East Africa are Shi‘a and belong to one of three sects: the Ithna Ashari (Twelvers), the Nizari Ismaili (Khoja) and the Mustali Ismaili (Bohra). Sunni Muslims (Punjabi speakers) constitute about ten to fifteen percent of the Asian Muslims and include a large Ahmadiya community.
The precise number of Muslims in Africa is unknown, as statistics regarding religious demography in Africa are incomplete. Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. Forty-five percent (45%) of the population are Muslims, forty perecent (40%) are Christians and less than fifteen (15%) are non-religious or follow African traditional religions. Islam in Africa is increasing, as many Bantu speakers embrace Islam especially in central and eastern Africa. The long and rich history of these religions in the continent has proved to be the source of many conflicts, primarily in countries where there is no clear majority, such as Tanzania, Nigeria, and Cote d'Ivoire.
Islam arrived in Africa in the earliest days of Islam, when Muslims fleeing persecution in Mecca arrived in what was then the Aksumite empire. Islam spread to Africa via passages through the Sinai Peninsula and Egypt and through Islamic Arab and Persian traders and sailors. Islam's first muezzin, Bilal ibn Ribah, was also of Northeast African (Habasha) descent.
From 1869 to 1914 Islam in Africa probably doubled in size of countries. Despite its large contribution to the makeup of the continent, Islam is predominantly concentrated in North and Northeast Africa, as well as the Sahel region. This has served to further differentiate the various cultures, customs and laws of different parts of the African continent.
Islam continued a rapid growth into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Today, backed by gulf oil cash, Muslims have increased success in proselytizing, with a growth rate, by some estimates, that is twice as fast as Christianity in Africa.
Islamic values have much in common with traditional African life: its emphasis on communal living, its clear roles for men and women, its tolerance of polygamy.
Muslim Population Percentage by Country
Country Population Percentage
Somalia 100%
Mauritania 100%
Western Sahara 100%
Tunisia 98%
Morocco 98%
Algeria 97%
Libya 97%
Niger 96%
Senegal 95%
Djibouti 94%
Mali 94%
Guinea 92%
The Gambia 90%
Egypt 85%
Sudan 80%
Sierra Leone 65%
Burkina Faso 65%
Chad 54%
Nigeria 50%
Eritrea 50%
Guinea-Bissau 50%
Ethiopia 45%
Cote D'Ivoire 40%
Tanzania 35%
Benin 24%
Cameroon 22%
Central African Republic 22%
Liberia 20%
Togo 20%
Malawi 20%
Mozambique 18%
Ghana 16%
Uganda 16%
Gabon 12%
Rwanda 10%
Democratic Republic of the Congo 10%
Kenya 10%
Zambia 5%
Namibia 3%
Botswana 3%
South Africa 2%
Angola 2%
Republic of the Congo 2%
Lesotho 1%
Swaziland 1%
Zimbabwe 1%
Asians of East Africa. The Asian presence in East Africa can be traced back several centuries, but the bulk of the Asian settlement there has occurred within the last 100 years. The overwhelming majority, about 85 percent, of the Asian Muslims of East Africa are Shi‘a and belong to one of three sects: the Ithna Ashari (Twelvers), the Nizari Ismaili (Khoja) and the Mustali Ismaili (Bohra). Sunni Muslims (Punjabi speakers) constitute about ten to fifteen percent of the Asian Muslims and include a large Ahmadiya community.
The precise number of Muslims in Africa is unknown, as statistics regarding religious demography in Africa are incomplete. Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. Forty-five percent (45%) of the population are Muslims, forty perecent (40%) are Christians and less than fifteen (15%) are non-religious or follow African traditional religions. Islam in Africa is increasing, as many Bantu speakers embrace Islam especially in central and eastern Africa. The long and rich history of these religions in the continent has proved to be the source of many conflicts, primarily in countries where there is no clear majority, such as Tanzania, Nigeria, and Cote d'Ivoire.
Islam arrived in Africa in the earliest days of Islam, when Muslims fleeing persecution in Mecca arrived in what was then the Aksumite empire. Islam spread to Africa via passages through the Sinai Peninsula and Egypt and through Islamic Arab and Persian traders and sailors. Islam's first muezzin, Bilal ibn Ribah, was also of Northeast African (Habasha) descent.
From 1869 to 1914 Islam in Africa probably doubled in size of countries. Despite its large contribution to the makeup of the continent, Islam is predominantly concentrated in North and Northeast Africa, as well as the Sahel region. This has served to further differentiate the various cultures, customs and laws of different parts of the African continent.
Islam continued a rapid growth into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Today, backed by gulf oil cash, Muslims have increased success in proselytizing, with a growth rate, by some estimates, that is twice as fast as Christianity in Africa.
Islamic values have much in common with traditional African life: its emphasis on communal living, its clear roles for men and women, its tolerance of polygamy.
Muslim Population Percentage by Country
Country Population Percentage
Somalia 100%
Mauritania 100%
Western Sahara 100%
Tunisia 98%
Morocco 98%
Algeria 97%
Libya 97%
Niger 96%
Senegal 95%
Djibouti 94%
Mali 94%
Guinea 92%
The Gambia 90%
Egypt 85%
Sudan 80%
Sierra Leone 65%
Burkina Faso 65%
Chad 54%
Nigeria 50%
Eritrea 50%
Guinea-Bissau 50%
Ethiopia 45%
Cote D'Ivoire 40%
Tanzania 35%
Benin 24%
Cameroon 22%
Central African Republic 22%
Liberia 20%
Togo 20%
Malawi 20%
Mozambique 18%
Ghana 16%
Uganda 16%
Gabon 12%
Rwanda 10%
Democratic Republic of the Congo 10%
Kenya 10%
Zambia 5%
Namibia 3%
Botswana 3%
South Africa 2%
Angola 2%
Republic of the Congo 2%
Lesotho 1%
Swaziland 1%
Zimbabwe 1%
‘Asim, Abu Bakr
‘Asim, Abu Bakr. See Abu Bakr ‘Asim.
‘Asim, Abu Bakr. See Abu Bakr ‘Asim.
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