‘Umar ibn Hafs
‘Umar ibn Hafs (d. 771). Governor of Ifriqiya. He was appointed by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur in 768 to subdue the Kharijites who rose in a general insurrection under the Sufi Abu Qurra.
‘Umar ibn Hafsun
‘Umar ibn Hafsun ('Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far) (Omar ben Hafsun) (c. 850-917/918). Leader of a famous rebellion in Muslim Spain. After his conversion to Islam, he spent some time at Tahert, Algeria. Upon returning he established himself in the almost impregnable fortress of Bobastro and exercised complete authority over the mountainous region between Ronda and Malaga. In 883, he submitted to the Umayyad amir Muhammad I ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman II (r. 852-886), but in the following year recaptured Bobastro. He now became the champion of the malcontents, whether Christians or neo-Muslims, repudiated Islam openly, took the name Samuel and began to lead a regular crusade against Islam. Bobastro was captured by the Umayyad amir ‘Abd al-Rahman III in 928.
`Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far, known in Spanish history as Omar ben Hafsun, was a 9th century Muslim leader of anti-Ummayad dynasty forces in southern Iberia.
The background of Umar ibn Hafsun has been the subject of conflicting claims. His contemporary, the poet Ibn Abd Rabbih (860-940) referred to him as a Sawada, a descendant of black Africans. Writing a century later, Ibn Hayyan recorded a pedigree for Umar ibn Hafsan, tracing his descent to a great-grandfather, Ja'far, who had converted to Islam and settled in the Ronda area. The pedigree then traces back several additional generations to a Count Marcellus (or perhaps Frugelo), son of Alfonso, apparently a Christian Visigoth. This pedigree was copied by later historians, including Ibn Idhari, Ibn Khatib and Ibn Khaldun, as well as the A'lam Malaga (History of Malaga) begun by ibn 'Askar and completed by Ibn Khamis, and more recent authors such as Dozy, in his Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne (History of the Muslims of Spain). However, the pre-conversion portion of this pedigree was probably invented by Umar himself. Regardless, his family owned lands in Iznate, Málaga where ibn Hafsun grew up.
Ibn Hafsun was born around 850 in the mountains near Parauta, in what is now Málaga province. A wild youth, he had a very violent temper and was involved in a number of disputes, even a homicide around the year 879. He joined a group of brigands, was captured by the wali (governor) of Málaga, who merely imposed a fine (having not been informed of the homicide). The governor subsequently lost his post. Ibn Hafsun fled the jurisdiction to Africa where he worked briefly as an apprentice tailor or stone mason.
He soon returned to Andalucia, albeit as an outlaw, and joined the bandits who were in rebellion against the caliphate, wherein he soon rose to a leadership position. He settled in the ruins of the old Bobastro castle. He rebuilt the castle, and fortified the nearby town of Ardales, Malaga. He rallied disaffected muwallads and mozárabs to the cause, playing off resentment at the unfair, heavy taxation and humiliating treatment they were receiving at the hands of Abd ar-Rahman and his successors. He acquired castles and lands in a wide area, not only in Malaga, but including portions of the provinces of Cádiz, Granada known then as Elvira, Jaén, and Seville. By 883, he had become the leader of the rebels in the provinces to the south and west of the Emirate of Cordoba. The year before, in 882, he is said to have fought the Emir in a battle in which ally García Íñiguez of Pamplona was killed. About 885, in order to be more centrally located and quicker to respond to external threats, ibn Hafsun moved his headquarters to the town of Poley, which is now known as Aguilar de la Frontera.
After Ibn Hafsun’s defeat by the forces of Abdallah ibn Muhammad at the battle of Poley in 891, he moved his headquarters back to Bobastro. In 898, Lubb ibn Muhammad, of the Banu Qasi, was marching an army to support Umar when the death of his father at Zaragoza forced Lubb to abandon the campaign. In 899, Ibn Hafsun renounced Islam and became a Christian, being christened as Samuel. His motivations seem to have been opportunistic, hoping to obtain military support from Alfonso III of Leon, who had met with indifference overtures by Ibn Hafsun on behalf of Ibn Marwan. His conversion proved a major political mistake which although helping to attract significant Mozarab support, cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers. He also built at Bobastro the Iglesia Mozarabe (Mozarab Church).
Ibn Hafsun remained a serious threat to Córdoba, even though in 910 he offered allegiance to the Fatimid rulers of north Africa, and when Abd-ar-Rahman III became Emir of Cordoba in 912 he instigated a policy of annual Spring offensives against Ibn Hafsun, using mercenary troops. In 913, they captured the city of Seville, and by the end of 914 had captured 70 of Ibn Hafsun’s castles. In 916, he joined forces with the Umayyads in a campaign against northern Christian kingdoms. The reasons for this are obscure, as is whether it was done in contrition or merely as an expedient compromise. For awhile, even taxes were paid to the Umayyads.
Ibn Hafsun died in 917/918 and was buried in the Iglesia Mozarabe. His coalition then crumbled, and while his sons Ja'far, 'Abd-ar-Rahman and Hafs tried to continue the resistance, they eventually fell to 'Abd-ar-Rahman III's plots and armies. The last, Hafs, surrendered Bobastro in 928 and afterward fought with the Umayyad army in Galicia. With Bobastro's fall, the mortal remains of Ibn Hafsun and his slain sons were exhumed by the emir and posthumously crucified outside the Great Mosque of Córdoba.
'Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far see ‘Umar ibn Hafsun
Omar ben Hafsun see ‘Umar ibn Hafsun
‘Umar ibn Hafsun ('Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far) (Omar ben Hafsun) (c. 850-917/918). Leader of a famous rebellion in Muslim Spain. After his conversion to Islam, he spent some time at Tahert, Algeria. Upon returning he established himself in the almost impregnable fortress of Bobastro and exercised complete authority over the mountainous region between Ronda and Malaga. In 883, he submitted to the Umayyad amir Muhammad I ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman II (r. 852-886), but in the following year recaptured Bobastro. He now became the champion of the malcontents, whether Christians or neo-Muslims, repudiated Islam openly, took the name Samuel and began to lead a regular crusade against Islam. Bobastro was captured by the Umayyad amir ‘Abd al-Rahman III in 928.
`Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far, known in Spanish history as Omar ben Hafsun, was a 9th century Muslim leader of anti-Ummayad dynasty forces in southern Iberia.
The background of Umar ibn Hafsun has been the subject of conflicting claims. His contemporary, the poet Ibn Abd Rabbih (860-940) referred to him as a Sawada, a descendant of black Africans. Writing a century later, Ibn Hayyan recorded a pedigree for Umar ibn Hafsan, tracing his descent to a great-grandfather, Ja'far, who had converted to Islam and settled in the Ronda area. The pedigree then traces back several additional generations to a Count Marcellus (or perhaps Frugelo), son of Alfonso, apparently a Christian Visigoth. This pedigree was copied by later historians, including Ibn Idhari, Ibn Khatib and Ibn Khaldun, as well as the A'lam Malaga (History of Malaga) begun by ibn 'Askar and completed by Ibn Khamis, and more recent authors such as Dozy, in his Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne (History of the Muslims of Spain). However, the pre-conversion portion of this pedigree was probably invented by Umar himself. Regardless, his family owned lands in Iznate, Málaga where ibn Hafsun grew up.
Ibn Hafsun was born around 850 in the mountains near Parauta, in what is now Málaga province. A wild youth, he had a very violent temper and was involved in a number of disputes, even a homicide around the year 879. He joined a group of brigands, was captured by the wali (governor) of Málaga, who merely imposed a fine (having not been informed of the homicide). The governor subsequently lost his post. Ibn Hafsun fled the jurisdiction to Africa where he worked briefly as an apprentice tailor or stone mason.
He soon returned to Andalucia, albeit as an outlaw, and joined the bandits who were in rebellion against the caliphate, wherein he soon rose to a leadership position. He settled in the ruins of the old Bobastro castle. He rebuilt the castle, and fortified the nearby town of Ardales, Malaga. He rallied disaffected muwallads and mozárabs to the cause, playing off resentment at the unfair, heavy taxation and humiliating treatment they were receiving at the hands of Abd ar-Rahman and his successors. He acquired castles and lands in a wide area, not only in Malaga, but including portions of the provinces of Cádiz, Granada known then as Elvira, Jaén, and Seville. By 883, he had become the leader of the rebels in the provinces to the south and west of the Emirate of Cordoba. The year before, in 882, he is said to have fought the Emir in a battle in which ally García Íñiguez of Pamplona was killed. About 885, in order to be more centrally located and quicker to respond to external threats, ibn Hafsun moved his headquarters to the town of Poley, which is now known as Aguilar de la Frontera.
After Ibn Hafsun’s defeat by the forces of Abdallah ibn Muhammad at the battle of Poley in 891, he moved his headquarters back to Bobastro. In 898, Lubb ibn Muhammad, of the Banu Qasi, was marching an army to support Umar when the death of his father at Zaragoza forced Lubb to abandon the campaign. In 899, Ibn Hafsun renounced Islam and became a Christian, being christened as Samuel. His motivations seem to have been opportunistic, hoping to obtain military support from Alfonso III of Leon, who had met with indifference overtures by Ibn Hafsun on behalf of Ibn Marwan. His conversion proved a major political mistake which although helping to attract significant Mozarab support, cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers. He also built at Bobastro the Iglesia Mozarabe (Mozarab Church).
Ibn Hafsun remained a serious threat to Córdoba, even though in 910 he offered allegiance to the Fatimid rulers of north Africa, and when Abd-ar-Rahman III became Emir of Cordoba in 912 he instigated a policy of annual Spring offensives against Ibn Hafsun, using mercenary troops. In 913, they captured the city of Seville, and by the end of 914 had captured 70 of Ibn Hafsun’s castles. In 916, he joined forces with the Umayyads in a campaign against northern Christian kingdoms. The reasons for this are obscure, as is whether it was done in contrition or merely as an expedient compromise. For awhile, even taxes were paid to the Umayyads.
Ibn Hafsun died in 917/918 and was buried in the Iglesia Mozarabe. His coalition then crumbled, and while his sons Ja'far, 'Abd-ar-Rahman and Hafs tried to continue the resistance, they eventually fell to 'Abd-ar-Rahman III's plots and armies. The last, Hafs, surrendered Bobastro in 928 and afterward fought with the Umayyad army in Galicia. With Bobastro's fall, the mortal remains of Ibn Hafsun and his slain sons were exhumed by the emir and posthumously crucified outside the Great Mosque of Córdoba.
'Umar ibn Hafs ibn Ja'far see ‘Umar ibn Hafsun
Omar ben Hafsun see ‘Umar ibn Hafsun
‘Umar ibn Idris
‘Umar ibn Idris (d. c. 1388). Ruler of the Kanuri empire of Kanem-Bornu (r.1384-1388). He moved the center of the empire from Kanem to Bornu. One of his predecessors, the famous Dunama Dibbalemi (around 1250), had precipitated a conflict with the neighboring Bulala nomads, who were descendants of an earlier Kanem ruler. The conflict continued into the 14th century, and ‘Umar’s five immediate predecessors were killed fighting the Bulala. ‘Umar abandoned Kanem, east of Lake Chad, and moved his kingdom to Bornu, west of the lake. The wars with the Bulala continued to the end of the century.
‘Umar ibn Idris (d. c. 1388). Ruler of the Kanuri empire of Kanem-Bornu (r.1384-1388). He moved the center of the empire from Kanem to Bornu. One of his predecessors, the famous Dunama Dibbalemi (around 1250), had precipitated a conflict with the neighboring Bulala nomads, who were descendants of an earlier Kanem ruler. The conflict continued into the 14th century, and ‘Umar’s five immediate predecessors were killed fighting the Bulala. ‘Umar abandoned Kanem, east of Lake Chad, and moved his kingdom to Bornu, west of the lake. The wars with the Bulala continued to the end of the century.
‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi
‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi (Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin) (Umar of Bornu) (d. 1881). Ruler of the Kanuri state of Bornu (r.1837-1881).
‘Umar succeeded his father al-Kanemi. Al-Kanemi had usurped power from the thousand year old Sefawa dynasty of Bornu. ‘Umar, like his father, permitted the Sefawa kings to remain as titular rulers. But when one of these Sefawa kings (Ibrahim) tried to regain power by allying with the state of Wadai. ‘Umar killed both Ibrahim and Ibrahim’s son. This act ended the ancient dynasty of the Sefawa kings.
‘Umar was a weak and indecisive ruler who came to rely heavily on his unpopular wazir -- his unpopular chief advisor. The nobles of the court became so dissatisfied that, in 1853, they supported a coup led by ‘Umar’s brother, Abdurrahman.
Abdurrahman proved to be a tryrannical ruler. Support soon swung back in favor of ‘Umar, who had seemed all the more preferable because his wazir had died. The next year Abdurrahman was deposed and ‘Umar was reinstated. Abdurrahman was killed shortly afterwards.
For the next thirteen years, the most powerful man in Bornu was Laminu Njitiya. Laminu Njitiya was a former bandit who rose to become ‘Umar’s new advisor. A capable and popular man, Laminu died in 1871.
In the last years of ‘Umar’s reign the power of the nobility increased at the king’s expense. ‘Umar was succeeded at his death by his own son, Bukar. Bukar had made his reputation as a military commander while his father was still alive.
Bukar was probably the de facto ruler of Bornu during ‘Umar’s last year.
Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin or Umar of Borno was shehu (Sheik) of the Kanem-Bornu Empire and son of Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi.
Umar came to power after a civil war, the first ruler in a long line from the Kanemi dynasty, and not from the traditional Sayfawa dynasty. The Kanem-Bornu Empire survived the end of the latter dynasty; but Umar, who eschewed the ancient title mai for the simpler designation shehu (from the Arabic shaykh), could not match his father's vitality and gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu began to decline, as a result of administrative disorganization, regional particularism, and attacks by the militant Ouaddai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar's sons, and in 1893 Rabih az-Zubayr, leading an invading army from eastern Sudan, conquered Bornu.
Umar ruled from 1846 until November 1853, and for a second time from September 1854 to 1881. Between these periods, `Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin was mai.
Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin see ‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi
Umar of Bornu see ‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi
‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi (Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin) (Umar of Bornu) (d. 1881). Ruler of the Kanuri state of Bornu (r.1837-1881).
‘Umar succeeded his father al-Kanemi. Al-Kanemi had usurped power from the thousand year old Sefawa dynasty of Bornu. ‘Umar, like his father, permitted the Sefawa kings to remain as titular rulers. But when one of these Sefawa kings (Ibrahim) tried to regain power by allying with the state of Wadai. ‘Umar killed both Ibrahim and Ibrahim’s son. This act ended the ancient dynasty of the Sefawa kings.
‘Umar was a weak and indecisive ruler who came to rely heavily on his unpopular wazir -- his unpopular chief advisor. The nobles of the court became so dissatisfied that, in 1853, they supported a coup led by ‘Umar’s brother, Abdurrahman.
Abdurrahman proved to be a tryrannical ruler. Support soon swung back in favor of ‘Umar, who had seemed all the more preferable because his wazir had died. The next year Abdurrahman was deposed and ‘Umar was reinstated. Abdurrahman was killed shortly afterwards.
For the next thirteen years, the most powerful man in Bornu was Laminu Njitiya. Laminu Njitiya was a former bandit who rose to become ‘Umar’s new advisor. A capable and popular man, Laminu died in 1871.
In the last years of ‘Umar’s reign the power of the nobility increased at the king’s expense. ‘Umar was succeeded at his death by his own son, Bukar. Bukar had made his reputation as a military commander while his father was still alive.
Bukar was probably the de facto ruler of Bornu during ‘Umar’s last year.
Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin or Umar of Borno was shehu (Sheik) of the Kanem-Bornu Empire and son of Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi.
Umar came to power after a civil war, the first ruler in a long line from the Kanemi dynasty, and not from the traditional Sayfawa dynasty. The Kanem-Bornu Empire survived the end of the latter dynasty; but Umar, who eschewed the ancient title mai for the simpler designation shehu (from the Arabic shaykh), could not match his father's vitality and gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu began to decline, as a result of administrative disorganization, regional particularism, and attacks by the militant Ouaddai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar's sons, and in 1893 Rabih az-Zubayr, leading an invading army from eastern Sudan, conquered Bornu.
Umar ruled from 1846 until November 1853, and for a second time from September 1854 to 1881. Between these periods, `Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Amin was mai.
Umar I ibn Muhammad al-Amin see ‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi
Umar of Bornu see ‘Umar ibn Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi
‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall (al-Hajj ‘Umar) (El Hadj Umar Tall) (El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall) (ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal) (el-Hadj Omar ibn Saʿīd Tal) (b. c. 1794/1797, Halvar, Fouta-Toro [now in Senegal] - d. February 12, 1864, near Hamdalahi, Tukulor empire [now in Mali]). Founder of the Tukolor Empire. A theologian, political reformer, and military strategist, he led one of the major West African Islamic revolutionary movements. He was born in Futa Toro in present Senegal, a region known historically for the export of Islamic reform throughout West Africa. His family belonged to the ruling Tukolor clerical class. Although his father was a member of the ancient Qadiriyya Islamic brotherhood, he himself elected to join the newer Tijaniyya sect. The latter appealed more to the masses, emphasizing salvation through deeds rather than through study. Nevertheless, by 1826, the year he undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca, he was an established scholar. On the way to Mecca, he spent about seven months in Sokoto, the seat of the Fula Islamic empire created by ‘Uthman dan Fodio. Arriving at Mecca and Medina, he was made a high official in the Tijaniyya. There he was exposed to the recently suppressed Wahhabi movement in central Arabia. This was a militant, anti-Turkish revivalist movement which stressed a return to fundamental Islam. ‘Umar also observed Muhammad Ali’s attempts to industrialize Egypt.
On his return, ‘Umar stopped in Bornu, and again in Sokoto (in 1832), where he remained for nearly seven years as a guest of Muhammad Bello, the son and successor of ‘Uthman dan Fodio. There he gained a large following and considerable wealth. Shortly after Muhammad Bello died (in 1837), ‘Umar travelled to Macina, then to the rival state of Segu, both of which were later to fall to the Tukolor armies. He returned to Futa Toro briefly in 1840, and then moved with his followers to Futa Jalon in present Guinea. Here the ruler, Bubakar, permitted him to establish a religious community near Timbo, the Futa capital. In 1846, he resumed his travels, touring the Senegambia. He met with French officials, who were receptive to his ideas of uniting and pacifying the Senegal River valley.
‘Umar returned to Futa Jalon but the political authorities there, fearing his power and his ideas on Islamic revivalism, forced him to emigrate to Dinguiray (in 1848), which he made his new base. Shortly afterwards, he attacked a number of nearby non-Muslim states. In 1852, he declared a jihad (holy war). In the next ten years, he conquered Dinguiray, Bure, Segu, Kaarta, and Macina.
‘Umar’s career had a number of parallels with that of ‘Uthman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Empire. Both were strong advocates of revivalist Islam. ‘Umar saw his escape from Futa Jalon in the same way that ‘Uthman viewed his flight from Gobir -- similar to the escape of the Prophet from Mecca. Both were charismatic figures. And like ‘Uthman’s followers, those of ‘Umar joined the jihad for a variety of reasons, not all religious. Many were attempting to bring political revolution to their own lands, using Islamic reform as a vehicle. Unlike ‘Uthman, however, ‘Umar was a capable military strategist, who led his own armies into battle.
The greatest challenge to ‘Umar’s empire came from the French, who under Louis Faidherbe were advancing into the Western Sudan. ‘Umar depended upon French sources for weapons. When these were cut off, he raided French trading posts on the Senegal River (in 1835). At the same time, he urged the Muslim community residing in the French colony of Saint Louis to revolt. Faidherbe advanced French outposts up the Senegal River and gave active support to anti-Tukolor rulers. After ‘Umar completed the conquest of Kaarta he attacked the French fort at Medine (1857). Although he was beaten back, he continued harassing the French until they captured his stronghold at Guemou in 1859.
Since ‘Umar was more interested in fighting the Bambara of Segu, while Faidherbe preferred to consolidate his gains, the two sides signed a treaty in 1860. They continued to clash sporadically. In 1863, however, ‘Umar was distracted by a major rebellion within the empire. Fighting spread throughout Segu and Macina, led by Ba Lobbo and Abdul Salam. In Timbuktu, Shaikh Sidi Ahmad al-Bakka’i amassed an anti-Tukolor army. ‘Umar was trapped in Macina near the town of Hamdallahi in February 1864, and burned to death when the enemy set fire to the area to prevent his escape. Macina, however, was quickly reconquered by ‘Umar’s nephew, Ahmadu Tijani. Leadership of the empire fell to ‘Umar son, Ahmadu ibn ‘Umar.
ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal was a West African Tukulor leader who, after launching a jihad (holy war) in 1854, established a Muslim realm, the Tukulor empire, between the upper Senegal and Niger rivers (in what is now upper Guinea, eastern Senegal, and western and central Mali). The empire survived until the 1890s under his son, Aḥmadu Seku.
ʿUmar Tal was born in the upper valley of the Sénégal River, in the land of the Tukulor people. His father was an educated Muslim who instructed students in the Qurʾān, and ʿUmar, a mystic, perfected his studies in Arabic and the Qurʾān with Moorish scholars who initiated him into the Tijānī brotherhood.
At the age of 23, ʿUmar set out on the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was already well known for his piety and erudition and was received with honor in the countries through which he traveled. Muhammad Bello, emir of Sokoto in Nigeria, offered him his daughter Maryam in marriage. Enriched by this princely alliance, ʿUmar had become an important personage when he reached Mecca about 1827. He visited the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, returned to Mecca, and then settled for a while in Cairo. On a visit to Jerusalem he succeeded in curing a son of Ibrahim Pasha, the viceroy of Egypt. In Mecca, finally, he was designated caliph for black Africa by the head of the Tijānī brotherhood.
Armed with his prestige as a scholar, mystic, and miracle worker, ʿUmar returned to the interior of Africa in 1833. Trained for political leadership by his father-in-law, Muhammad Bello, the emir of Sokoto, with whom he again spent several years, and his position strengthened by the title of caliph, ʿUmar decided to obey the voice of God and to convert the pagan Africans to Islām. By now he not only was looked upon as a miracle worker but also had acquired a bodyguard of followers and of devoted Hausa slaves.
Upon the death of Bello, he departed for his native country, hoping to conquer the Fouta region with the assistance of the French, in exchange for a trade treaty, an agreement the French declined because of ʿUmar’s growing strength. ʿUmar realized that faith without force would be ineffective and made careful preparations for his task. In northeastern Guinea, where he first established himself, he wrote down his teachings in a book called Kitāb rimāḥ ḥizb ar-raḥīm (“Book of the Spears of the Party of God”). Deriving his inspiration from Ṣūfism—a mystic Islāmic doctrine—he defined the Tijānī “way” as the best one for saving one’s soul and for approaching God. He recommended meditation, self-denial, and blind obedience to the sheikh. He gained many followers in Guinea, but, when in 1845 he went to preach in his own country, he met with little success.
El Hadj Umar Tall remains a legendary figure in Senegal, Guinea, and Mali, though his legacy varies by country. Where the Senegalese tend to remember him as a hero of anti-French resistance, Malian sources tend to describe him as an invader who prepared the way for the French by weakening West Africa. Umar Tall also figures prominently in Maryse Condé's historical novel Segu.
El Hadj Umar Tall see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
Hadj Omar ibn Saʿīd Tal, el- see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
Hajj ‘Umar, al- see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall (al-Hajj ‘Umar) (El Hadj Umar Tall) (El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall) (ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal) (el-Hadj Omar ibn Saʿīd Tal) (b. c. 1794/1797, Halvar, Fouta-Toro [now in Senegal] - d. February 12, 1864, near Hamdalahi, Tukulor empire [now in Mali]). Founder of the Tukolor Empire. A theologian, political reformer, and military strategist, he led one of the major West African Islamic revolutionary movements. He was born in Futa Toro in present Senegal, a region known historically for the export of Islamic reform throughout West Africa. His family belonged to the ruling Tukolor clerical class. Although his father was a member of the ancient Qadiriyya Islamic brotherhood, he himself elected to join the newer Tijaniyya sect. The latter appealed more to the masses, emphasizing salvation through deeds rather than through study. Nevertheless, by 1826, the year he undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca, he was an established scholar. On the way to Mecca, he spent about seven months in Sokoto, the seat of the Fula Islamic empire created by ‘Uthman dan Fodio. Arriving at Mecca and Medina, he was made a high official in the Tijaniyya. There he was exposed to the recently suppressed Wahhabi movement in central Arabia. This was a militant, anti-Turkish revivalist movement which stressed a return to fundamental Islam. ‘Umar also observed Muhammad Ali’s attempts to industrialize Egypt.
On his return, ‘Umar stopped in Bornu, and again in Sokoto (in 1832), where he remained for nearly seven years as a guest of Muhammad Bello, the son and successor of ‘Uthman dan Fodio. There he gained a large following and considerable wealth. Shortly after Muhammad Bello died (in 1837), ‘Umar travelled to Macina, then to the rival state of Segu, both of which were later to fall to the Tukolor armies. He returned to Futa Toro briefly in 1840, and then moved with his followers to Futa Jalon in present Guinea. Here the ruler, Bubakar, permitted him to establish a religious community near Timbo, the Futa capital. In 1846, he resumed his travels, touring the Senegambia. He met with French officials, who were receptive to his ideas of uniting and pacifying the Senegal River valley.
‘Umar returned to Futa Jalon but the political authorities there, fearing his power and his ideas on Islamic revivalism, forced him to emigrate to Dinguiray (in 1848), which he made his new base. Shortly afterwards, he attacked a number of nearby non-Muslim states. In 1852, he declared a jihad (holy war). In the next ten years, he conquered Dinguiray, Bure, Segu, Kaarta, and Macina.
‘Umar’s career had a number of parallels with that of ‘Uthman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Empire. Both were strong advocates of revivalist Islam. ‘Umar saw his escape from Futa Jalon in the same way that ‘Uthman viewed his flight from Gobir -- similar to the escape of the Prophet from Mecca. Both were charismatic figures. And like ‘Uthman’s followers, those of ‘Umar joined the jihad for a variety of reasons, not all religious. Many were attempting to bring political revolution to their own lands, using Islamic reform as a vehicle. Unlike ‘Uthman, however, ‘Umar was a capable military strategist, who led his own armies into battle.
The greatest challenge to ‘Umar’s empire came from the French, who under Louis Faidherbe were advancing into the Western Sudan. ‘Umar depended upon French sources for weapons. When these were cut off, he raided French trading posts on the Senegal River (in 1835). At the same time, he urged the Muslim community residing in the French colony of Saint Louis to revolt. Faidherbe advanced French outposts up the Senegal River and gave active support to anti-Tukolor rulers. After ‘Umar completed the conquest of Kaarta he attacked the French fort at Medine (1857). Although he was beaten back, he continued harassing the French until they captured his stronghold at Guemou in 1859.
Since ‘Umar was more interested in fighting the Bambara of Segu, while Faidherbe preferred to consolidate his gains, the two sides signed a treaty in 1860. They continued to clash sporadically. In 1863, however, ‘Umar was distracted by a major rebellion within the empire. Fighting spread throughout Segu and Macina, led by Ba Lobbo and Abdul Salam. In Timbuktu, Shaikh Sidi Ahmad al-Bakka’i amassed an anti-Tukolor army. ‘Umar was trapped in Macina near the town of Hamdallahi in February 1864, and burned to death when the enemy set fire to the area to prevent his escape. Macina, however, was quickly reconquered by ‘Umar’s nephew, Ahmadu Tijani. Leadership of the empire fell to ‘Umar son, Ahmadu ibn ‘Umar.
ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal was a West African Tukulor leader who, after launching a jihad (holy war) in 1854, established a Muslim realm, the Tukulor empire, between the upper Senegal and Niger rivers (in what is now upper Guinea, eastern Senegal, and western and central Mali). The empire survived until the 1890s under his son, Aḥmadu Seku.
ʿUmar Tal was born in the upper valley of the Sénégal River, in the land of the Tukulor people. His father was an educated Muslim who instructed students in the Qurʾān, and ʿUmar, a mystic, perfected his studies in Arabic and the Qurʾān with Moorish scholars who initiated him into the Tijānī brotherhood.
At the age of 23, ʿUmar set out on the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was already well known for his piety and erudition and was received with honor in the countries through which he traveled. Muhammad Bello, emir of Sokoto in Nigeria, offered him his daughter Maryam in marriage. Enriched by this princely alliance, ʿUmar had become an important personage when he reached Mecca about 1827. He visited the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, returned to Mecca, and then settled for a while in Cairo. On a visit to Jerusalem he succeeded in curing a son of Ibrahim Pasha, the viceroy of Egypt. In Mecca, finally, he was designated caliph for black Africa by the head of the Tijānī brotherhood.
Armed with his prestige as a scholar, mystic, and miracle worker, ʿUmar returned to the interior of Africa in 1833. Trained for political leadership by his father-in-law, Muhammad Bello, the emir of Sokoto, with whom he again spent several years, and his position strengthened by the title of caliph, ʿUmar decided to obey the voice of God and to convert the pagan Africans to Islām. By now he not only was looked upon as a miracle worker but also had acquired a bodyguard of followers and of devoted Hausa slaves.
Upon the death of Bello, he departed for his native country, hoping to conquer the Fouta region with the assistance of the French, in exchange for a trade treaty, an agreement the French declined because of ʿUmar’s growing strength. ʿUmar realized that faith without force would be ineffective and made careful preparations for his task. In northeastern Guinea, where he first established himself, he wrote down his teachings in a book called Kitāb rimāḥ ḥizb ar-raḥīm (“Book of the Spears of the Party of God”). Deriving his inspiration from Ṣūfism—a mystic Islāmic doctrine—he defined the Tijānī “way” as the best one for saving one’s soul and for approaching God. He recommended meditation, self-denial, and blind obedience to the sheikh. He gained many followers in Guinea, but, when in 1845 he went to preach in his own country, he met with little success.
El Hadj Umar Tall remains a legendary figure in Senegal, Guinea, and Mali, though his legacy varies by country. Where the Senegalese tend to remember him as a hero of anti-French resistance, Malian sources tend to describe him as an invader who prepared the way for the French by weakening West Africa. Umar Tall also figures prominently in Maryse Condé's historical novel Segu.
El Hadj Umar Tall see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
ʿUmar ibn Saʿīd Tal see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
Hadj Omar ibn Saʿīd Tal, el- see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
Hajj ‘Umar, al- see ‘Umar ibn Sa‘id Tall
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al-
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al- (1301-1349). Arab author who recorded the history of the Mali Empire. He was an administrator and scholar living in Cairo and Damascus. He gathered information on Mali shortly after the pilgrimage of its famous king, Mansa Musa (1324-1325). Al-‘Umari’s account helped achieve international recognition for Musa and Mali. It remains among the most valuable sources for the empire’s history.
‘Umari ibn Fadl ‘Allah, al- (1301-1349). Arab author who recorded the history of the Mali Empire. He was an administrator and scholar living in Cairo and Damascus. He gathered information on Mali shortly after the pilgrimage of its famous king, Mansa Musa (1324-1325). Al-‘Umari’s account helped achieve international recognition for Musa and Mali. It remains among the most valuable sources for the empire’s history.
Umaru
Umaru (‘Umar ibn ‘Ali) (c. 1824-1891). Ruler of the Fula Sokoto Empire (r.1881-1891). Umaru was a great-grandson of Uthman dan Fodio. Uthman dan Fodio was the founder of the Fula Empire in northern Nigeria. Uthman’s successors had kept alive the tradtions of the jihad (holy war) by assembling the armies of the Sokoto emirates for military campaigns each autumn. These campaigns had degenerated into raids on neighboring territories rather than attempts to extend Sokoto’s boundaries. Umaru discontinued the raids. To make up for lost revenues, Umaru extracted greater tribute within the empire. He also interfered more in the domestic affairs of the individual emirates. These policies were generally accepted, and the period was one of unprecedented security and flourishing trade. Expansion to the north and east continued on a peaceful basis. Ironically, Umaru died while on a military expedition. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman.
'Umar ibn 'Ali see Umaru
Umaru (‘Umar ibn ‘Ali) (c. 1824-1891). Ruler of the Fula Sokoto Empire (r.1881-1891). Umaru was a great-grandson of Uthman dan Fodio. Uthman dan Fodio was the founder of the Fula Empire in northern Nigeria. Uthman’s successors had kept alive the tradtions of the jihad (holy war) by assembling the armies of the Sokoto emirates for military campaigns each autumn. These campaigns had degenerated into raids on neighboring territories rather than attempts to extend Sokoto’s boundaries. Umaru discontinued the raids. To make up for lost revenues, Umaru extracted greater tribute within the empire. He also interfered more in the domestic affairs of the individual emirates. These policies were generally accepted, and the period was one of unprecedented security and flourishing trade. Expansion to the north and east continued on a peaceful basis. Ironically, Umaru died while on a military expedition. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman.
'Umar ibn 'Ali see Umaru
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