Sultan al-Dawla Abu Shuja’
Sultan al-Dawla Abu Shuja’(993-December 1024/1025). Buyid ruler (r. 1012-1021). He ruled in Fars, Khuzistan and Iraq, but had to fight his brothers Jalal al-Dawla and especially Abu’l Fawaris (d. 1028), the governor of Kirman.
Abu Shuja (993 – December 1024) was the Buyid amir of Fars (1012-1024) and Iraq (1012-1021). He was the son of Baha' al-Daula.
Abu Shuja lived in Baghdad during his youth. Shortly before Baha' al-Daula's death, he named Abu Shuja as his successor. Upon succeeding his father, he took the title "Sultan al-Daula wa 'Izz al-Milla". Traveling to his father's capital in Shiraz, he did seek the traditional investiture by the caliph, but instead had the required materials sent to him. He entrusted his oldest brothers Jalal al-Daula and Qawam al-Daula with the governorships of Iraq and Kerman, respectively. He stayed in Persia for a long time. When he returned to Iraq three years later, he only went to Ahvaz to meet with his governor.
In 1018 Sultan al-Daula again came to Iraq, in an attempt to maintain friendly terms with the neighboring Amirate of Mosul. Qawam al-Daula, taking advantage of his brother's presence in the west, invaded Fars with the support of the Ghaznavids. The attack failed, Qawam al-Daula's marked the division of the Buyid state. After repulsing Qawam al-Daula's attack, Sultan al-Daula returned to Iraq in order to solidify his rule there. The marchlands of the region, which had long resisted Buyid authority, were finally subjugated.
The Turkish mercenaries, however, became discontented over the presence of Sultan al-Daula's Dailamite troops. They, therefore, raised a brother of the amir, Musharrif al-Daula, as their ruler in 1021. After a long series of negotiations, Sultan al-Daula recognized his brother as "King of Iraq", in exchange for the latter's submittance as a vassal. Sultan al-Daula, however, wanted to retain direct rule over the region, and he invaded with his army. His defeat by Musharrif al-Daula's forces put an end to this plan, and Iraq became fully independent. The concept of the senior amir temporarily died. Each region of the Buyid state was now ruled independently of one another. Having overseen the fragmentation of the Buyids, Sultan al-Daula died in Shiraz in December 1024. He was succeeded in Fars by his son Abu Kalijar.
Abu Shuja (993 – December 1024) was the Buyid amir of Fars (1012-1024) and Iraq (1012-1021). He was the son of Baha' al-Daula.
Abu Shuja lived in Baghdad during his youth. Shortly before Baha' al-Daula's death, he named Abu Shuja as his successor. Upon succeeding his father, he took the title "Sultan al-Daula wa 'Izz al-Milla". Traveling to his father's capital in Shiraz, he did seek the traditional investiture by the caliph, but instead had the required materials sent to him. He entrusted his oldest brothers Jalal al-Daula and Qawam al-Daula with the governorships of Iraq and Kerman, respectively. He stayed in Persia for a long time. When he returned to Iraq three years later, he only went to Ahvaz to meet with his governor.
In 1018 Sultan al-Daula again came to Iraq, in an attempt to maintain friendly terms with the neighboring Amirate of Mosul. Qawam al-Daula, taking advantage of his brother's presence in the west, invaded Fars with the support of the Ghaznavids. The attack failed, Qawam al-Daula's marked the division of the Buyid state. After repulsing Qawam al-Daula's attack, Sultan al-Daula returned to Iraq in order to solidify his rule there. The marchlands of the region, which had long resisted Buyid authority, were finally subjugated.
The Turkish mercenaries, however, became discontented over the presence of Sultan al-Daula's Dailamite troops. They, therefore, raised a brother of the amir, Musharrif al-Daula, as their ruler in 1021. After a long series of negotiations, Sultan al-Daula recognized his brother as "King of Iraq", in exchange for the latter's submittance as a vassal. Sultan al-Daula, however, wanted to retain direct rule over the region, and he invaded with his army. His defeat by Musharrif al-Daula's forces put an end to this plan, and Iraq became fully independent. The concept of the senior amir temporarily died. Each region of the Buyid state was now ruled independently of one another. Having overseen the fragmentation of the Buyids, Sultan al-Daula died in Shiraz in December 1024. He was succeeded in Fars by his son Abu Kalijar.
Sultan Walad
Sultan Walad (Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad) (1226-1312). Eldest son of Jalal al-Din Rumi. In 1285, he succeeded Celebi Husam al-Din, the first successor to Jalal al-Din as head of the Mawlawi order. His works are written in Persian, including some verses in Turkish and Greek. He is said to have been the first representative of the school of Turkish poetry under Persian influence, that of popular mystic poets being represented by Yunus Emre.
Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad, more popularly known as Sultan Walad, was the eldest son of Jalal Al-Din Rumi. He was a Persian poet and a Sufi, and one of the founders of the Mawlawiya order.
Sultan Walad was given the name of his grandfather Sultan al-Ulama Baha al-Din Walad. Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi sent Sultan Walad and his brother Ala al-Din Muhammad to Aleppo and Damascus for the study of religious sciences. Sultan Walad was deeply trusted by Rumi, and it was him that Rumi sent to seek Shams Tabrizi after the disappearance of Shams.
Sultan Walad married the daughter of Salah al-Din Zarkub, Fatima Khatun. He had two daughters by her and one son (Jalal Ali-Din Arif). Sultan Walad at the insistence of his entourage, took up the succession which, at his father's death, he had declined in favor of Husam Al-Din.
With Sultan Walad, the Mawlawiya order starts in the true sense of the word, since he gathered the followers (Murids) of his father around him and organized the order. He also erected a mausoleum for his Rumi, which also became the center of his order.
Sultan Walad died at the advanced age of nearly ninety years on November 12, 1312 in Konya and was buried next to his father. For nearly fifty years he had lived in the shadow of his famous father, whose personality had determined the life and work of his son even beyond his death.
Sultan Walad like his father was prolific and left a considerable Persian literary heritage. His works include:
* Ibitda Nama (The book of the beginning)
* Rabab-nama
* Intiha-nama
* Ma’arif-i Waladi (The Waladi Gnosis)
Sultan Walad was instrumental in laying down the Mawlawiya order and expanding the teaching of his father throughout Anatolia and the rest of the Muslim world.
Walad, Sultan see Sultan Walad
Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad see Sultan Walad
Sultan Walad (Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad) (1226-1312). Eldest son of Jalal al-Din Rumi. In 1285, he succeeded Celebi Husam al-Din, the first successor to Jalal al-Din as head of the Mawlawi order. His works are written in Persian, including some verses in Turkish and Greek. He is said to have been the first representative of the school of Turkish poetry under Persian influence, that of popular mystic poets being represented by Yunus Emre.
Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad, more popularly known as Sultan Walad, was the eldest son of Jalal Al-Din Rumi. He was a Persian poet and a Sufi, and one of the founders of the Mawlawiya order.
Sultan Walad was given the name of his grandfather Sultan al-Ulama Baha al-Din Walad. Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi sent Sultan Walad and his brother Ala al-Din Muhammad to Aleppo and Damascus for the study of religious sciences. Sultan Walad was deeply trusted by Rumi, and it was him that Rumi sent to seek Shams Tabrizi after the disappearance of Shams.
Sultan Walad married the daughter of Salah al-Din Zarkub, Fatima Khatun. He had two daughters by her and one son (Jalal Ali-Din Arif). Sultan Walad at the insistence of his entourage, took up the succession which, at his father's death, he had declined in favor of Husam Al-Din.
With Sultan Walad, the Mawlawiya order starts in the true sense of the word, since he gathered the followers (Murids) of his father around him and organized the order. He also erected a mausoleum for his Rumi, which also became the center of his order.
Sultan Walad died at the advanced age of nearly ninety years on November 12, 1312 in Konya and was buried next to his father. For nearly fifty years he had lived in the shadow of his famous father, whose personality had determined the life and work of his son even beyond his death.
Sultan Walad like his father was prolific and left a considerable Persian literary heritage. His works include:
* Ibitda Nama (The book of the beginning)
* Rabab-nama
* Intiha-nama
* Ma’arif-i Waladi (The Waladi Gnosis)
Sultan Walad was instrumental in laying down the Mawlawiya order and expanding the teaching of his father throughout Anatolia and the rest of the Muslim world.
Walad, Sultan see Sultan Walad
Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad see Sultan Walad
Sulu sultans
Sulu sultans. Sultans who historically ruled the Sulu sultanate which is located in what is now the Philippines. The Sulu sultanate lies at a most strategic point for the maritime trade of the nineteenth century. China, the Philippines, and Mindanao were situated to the north, Borneo to the southwest, and Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Maluku) to the southeast. The geopolitical and economic advantages inherent in the sultanate’s location were both enviable and unique.
By fitting into the patterns of European trade with China in the late eighteenth century, the Sulu sultanate established itself as a powerful commercial center. Its geographical position in relation to Asian routes of trade and exchange and its abundant natural resources attracted the attnetion of the West. The maritime and jungle products -- tripang (sea slug), bird’s nest, wax, camphor, and mother of pearl -- found within the Sulu zone and in the area of its trading partners were new products for redressing the British East India Company’s adverse trade balance on the Canton tea market with China. The trade that Sulu established with Bengal, Manila, Macao, and Canton (and later Labuan and Singapore) initiated large scale importation of weapons, luxury goods, and foodstuffs. On the coast, Taosug (Sulu) merchants and their descendants developed an extensive redistributive trade with the Bugis of Samarinda and Berau to the south, enabling the Sulu sultanate to consolidate its dominance over the outlying areas of the zone.
Slave raiding became fundamental to the Sulu sultanate as its economy expanded, and in the period from 1768 to 1848 it contributed significantly toward making Sulu one of the most powerful states in Southwest Asia. As the sultanate organized its economy around the collection and distribution of marine and jungle produce, the Sulu economy had a greater need for large scale recruitment of workers to do the labor intensive work of procurement. Slaving activity, carried out by the Iranun and Balangingi, developed to meet the accentuated demands of external trade. Jolo, the seat of the Sulu sultanate, became the nerve center for the coordination of long-distance slave raiding. From the end of the eighteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth, Southeast Asia felt the full force of the Sulu zone slave raiders, who earned a reputation as daring and fierce marauders who threatened Southeast Asia’s maritime trade routes, subsistence agriculture, and settlement patterns and dominated the capture and transport of slaves to the Sulu sultanate. Trade created the material and social conditions for the large scale recruitment of slaves and the exploitation of dependent communities. At the same time, the labor of captive and tributary peoples provided the raw materials for expanding trade. More than anything else, it was this source and application of labor that was to give Sulu its distinctive predatory character in the eyes of Europeans -- past and present --as a pirate and slave state.
The Spanish naval campaign of the 1870s, including the blockading of Jolo and the establishment of a garrison there in 1878, and the large scale emigration of Straits Chinese traders from Singapore provided the formula for the economic and political collapse of the Sulu trading zone on the eve of the twentieth century.
Sulu sultans. Sultans who historically ruled the Sulu sultanate which is located in what is now the Philippines. The Sulu sultanate lies at a most strategic point for the maritime trade of the nineteenth century. China, the Philippines, and Mindanao were situated to the north, Borneo to the southwest, and Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Maluku) to the southeast. The geopolitical and economic advantages inherent in the sultanate’s location were both enviable and unique.
By fitting into the patterns of European trade with China in the late eighteenth century, the Sulu sultanate established itself as a powerful commercial center. Its geographical position in relation to Asian routes of trade and exchange and its abundant natural resources attracted the attnetion of the West. The maritime and jungle products -- tripang (sea slug), bird’s nest, wax, camphor, and mother of pearl -- found within the Sulu zone and in the area of its trading partners were new products for redressing the British East India Company’s adverse trade balance on the Canton tea market with China. The trade that Sulu established with Bengal, Manila, Macao, and Canton (and later Labuan and Singapore) initiated large scale importation of weapons, luxury goods, and foodstuffs. On the coast, Taosug (Sulu) merchants and their descendants developed an extensive redistributive trade with the Bugis of Samarinda and Berau to the south, enabling the Sulu sultanate to consolidate its dominance over the outlying areas of the zone.
Slave raiding became fundamental to the Sulu sultanate as its economy expanded, and in the period from 1768 to 1848 it contributed significantly toward making Sulu one of the most powerful states in Southwest Asia. As the sultanate organized its economy around the collection and distribution of marine and jungle produce, the Sulu economy had a greater need for large scale recruitment of workers to do the labor intensive work of procurement. Slaving activity, carried out by the Iranun and Balangingi, developed to meet the accentuated demands of external trade. Jolo, the seat of the Sulu sultanate, became the nerve center for the coordination of long-distance slave raiding. From the end of the eighteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth, Southeast Asia felt the full force of the Sulu zone slave raiders, who earned a reputation as daring and fierce marauders who threatened Southeast Asia’s maritime trade routes, subsistence agriculture, and settlement patterns and dominated the capture and transport of slaves to the Sulu sultanate. Trade created the material and social conditions for the large scale recruitment of slaves and the exploitation of dependent communities. At the same time, the labor of captive and tributary peoples provided the raw materials for expanding trade. More than anything else, it was this source and application of labor that was to give Sulu its distinctive predatory character in the eyes of Europeans -- past and present --as a pirate and slave state.
The Spanish naval campaign of the 1870s, including the blockading of Jolo and the establishment of a garrison there in 1878, and the large scale emigration of Straits Chinese traders from Singapore provided the formula for the economic and political collapse of the Sulu trading zone on the eve of the twentieth century.
Sumayl, al-
Sumayl, al- (Sumayl ibn Hatim Abu Jawshan al-Kilabi, al-) (d. 759). Arab chief in Muslim Spain. In 749, he commanded the district of Saragossa and took the part of Yusuf ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, the governor of Cordoba, against ‘Abd al-Rahman I, who had him strangled.
Sumayl ibn Hatim Abu Jawshan al-Kilabi, al- see Sumayl, al-
Sumayl, al- (Sumayl ibn Hatim Abu Jawshan al-Kilabi, al-) (d. 759). Arab chief in Muslim Spain. In 749, he commanded the district of Saragossa and took the part of Yusuf ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, the governor of Cordoba, against ‘Abd al-Rahman I, who had him strangled.
Sumayl ibn Hatim Abu Jawshan al-Kilabi, al- see Sumayl, al-
Sunbul-zade Wehbi
Sunbul-zade Wehbi (d. 1809). Turkish poet and scholar from Mar‘ash. He is known for his good-humored but ribald lampoons against his close friend Sayyid‘Uthman Sururi. His works are important for the impression made by Persia on an intelligent Turk.
Wehbi, Sunbul-zade see Sunbul-zade Wehbi
Sunbul-zade Wehbi (d. 1809). Turkish poet and scholar from Mar‘ash. He is known for his good-humored but ribald lampoons against his close friend Sayyid‘Uthman Sururi. His works are important for the impression made by Persia on an intelligent Turk.
Wehbi, Sunbul-zade see Sunbul-zade Wehbi
Sundanese
Sundanese. The Sundanese live in the western third of the Indonesian island of Java. They call themselves Urang Sunda, and virtually all consider themselves adherents of Islam. The only significant subgroup of whom this is not true is the Badui, whose members follow pre-Islamic customs and beliefs.
Historically, Sunda has been considered a cultural backwater. The upland peoples, who were at times called orang gunung (mountain men) by those inhabiting the lowlands, seem especially to have been little touched by earlier Indian cultural influences as they spread throughout Southeast Asia.
The only major state to arise in West Java was the kingdom of Pajajaran (1333-1579), with its capital at Pakuan near present day Bogor. It arose after the defeat of the Sumatran kingdom, Srivijaya, by the Javanese kingdom, Singhawari. Srivijay had controlled the Banten area of West Java and maintained a port there. With Srivijayan power gone, Pajajaran took control of the area and some of its trade.
Islam first was brought to Java in the fifteenth century by Indian traders who had been converted on the trade routes between Egypt and the Spice Islands. Muslim influence was thus first felt in the harbor areas from where it spread. Banten, in northwest West Java, was Islamized by 1525. In 1579, the Sultan of Banten killed the royal family at Pakuan and forced the nobles and officials to adopt Islam.
Before long West Java fell under the hegemony of the central Javanese Muslim kingdom of Mataram, and shortly thereafter European interest in the area altered the course of history. Parts of West Java became important in the Dutch plantation system. An Islamic holy war against the Dutch was waged in 1880, but failed. A similar occurrence came after World War II, when the Dar ul-Islam movement attempted unsuccessfully to establish an Islamic state.
While Islam has been practiced in West Java for a long time, generally it has been taught only comparatively recently. The lebbe, who administers village religious affairs, is responsible for entering births and deaths in the village records and the coordination of Islamic religious instruction.
Progress has been made in the teaching of Islam since World War II, with the result that many old beliefs and practices are now beginning to disappear. Religious instruction is offered in the public schools as well as by private teachers. Yet, while most Sundanese claim to be Muslim, only about sixty percent of the men and fifty percent of the women regularly attend services in a mosque.
The Sundanese comprise one of the three principal ethnic groups of the island of Java, Indonesia. The Sundanese, estimated to number about 25,850,000 in the late 20th century, are a highland people of western Java, distinguished from the Javanese mainly by their language and their strict adherence to the Muslim faith.
Historically, they were first recorded under the Indo-Javanese Brahmanical states (8th century of the Christian calendar) and subsequently accepted the Mahāyāna Buddhism adopted by the Shailendra kings. Muslim trade influenced them to accept Islām in the 16th century, the people of Bantam being especially fervent. However, animistic and Hindu influences survive.
The Sundanese village is ruled by a headman and a council of elders. The single-family houses are made of wood or bamboo, raised on piling. Rice culture and ironworking, as well as marriage, birth, and death ceremonies, conform closely to the Javanese pattern, though often mixed with elements of Hindu origin. The Sundanese language, like Javanese, has status styles: kasar (informal), halus (deferential), and panengah (a middle style).
The opening of roads into the highlands, development of the plantation economy, and the establishment of village schools have tended to erase differences between the Sundanese and other peoples of Java. They have spread into central Java and into the Lampung area of southern Sumatra.
Sundanese. The Sundanese live in the western third of the Indonesian island of Java. They call themselves Urang Sunda, and virtually all consider themselves adherents of Islam. The only significant subgroup of whom this is not true is the Badui, whose members follow pre-Islamic customs and beliefs.
Historically, Sunda has been considered a cultural backwater. The upland peoples, who were at times called orang gunung (mountain men) by those inhabiting the lowlands, seem especially to have been little touched by earlier Indian cultural influences as they spread throughout Southeast Asia.
The only major state to arise in West Java was the kingdom of Pajajaran (1333-1579), with its capital at Pakuan near present day Bogor. It arose after the defeat of the Sumatran kingdom, Srivijaya, by the Javanese kingdom, Singhawari. Srivijay had controlled the Banten area of West Java and maintained a port there. With Srivijayan power gone, Pajajaran took control of the area and some of its trade.
Islam first was brought to Java in the fifteenth century by Indian traders who had been converted on the trade routes between Egypt and the Spice Islands. Muslim influence was thus first felt in the harbor areas from where it spread. Banten, in northwest West Java, was Islamized by 1525. In 1579, the Sultan of Banten killed the royal family at Pakuan and forced the nobles and officials to adopt Islam.
Before long West Java fell under the hegemony of the central Javanese Muslim kingdom of Mataram, and shortly thereafter European interest in the area altered the course of history. Parts of West Java became important in the Dutch plantation system. An Islamic holy war against the Dutch was waged in 1880, but failed. A similar occurrence came after World War II, when the Dar ul-Islam movement attempted unsuccessfully to establish an Islamic state.
While Islam has been practiced in West Java for a long time, generally it has been taught only comparatively recently. The lebbe, who administers village religious affairs, is responsible for entering births and deaths in the village records and the coordination of Islamic religious instruction.
Progress has been made in the teaching of Islam since World War II, with the result that many old beliefs and practices are now beginning to disappear. Religious instruction is offered in the public schools as well as by private teachers. Yet, while most Sundanese claim to be Muslim, only about sixty percent of the men and fifty percent of the women regularly attend services in a mosque.
The Sundanese comprise one of the three principal ethnic groups of the island of Java, Indonesia. The Sundanese, estimated to number about 25,850,000 in the late 20th century, are a highland people of western Java, distinguished from the Javanese mainly by their language and their strict adherence to the Muslim faith.
Historically, they were first recorded under the Indo-Javanese Brahmanical states (8th century of the Christian calendar) and subsequently accepted the Mahāyāna Buddhism adopted by the Shailendra kings. Muslim trade influenced them to accept Islām in the 16th century, the people of Bantam being especially fervent. However, animistic and Hindu influences survive.
The Sundanese village is ruled by a headman and a council of elders. The single-family houses are made of wood or bamboo, raised on piling. Rice culture and ironworking, as well as marriage, birth, and death ceremonies, conform closely to the Javanese pattern, though often mixed with elements of Hindu origin. The Sundanese language, like Javanese, has status styles: kasar (informal), halus (deferential), and panengah (a middle style).
The opening of roads into the highlands, development of the plantation economy, and the establishment of village schools have tended to erase differences between the Sundanese and other peoples of Java. They have spread into central Java and into the Lampung area of southern Sumatra.
Sundjata Keita
Sundjata Keita (Mari-Djata) (Sundiata Keita) (Sundjata Keyita) (Mari Djata I) (Sundiata) (c. 1217 – c. 1255). Founder of the Mali Empire and a folk hero of the Mande speaking peoples of West Africa. The story of Sundjata’s creation of Mali, is an epic legend. He was the son of Nare Maghan, ruler of a small western Sudanic state identified by some historians as Kangaba. His mother, Sogolon, had been presented to his father by hunters. According to one version of the legend Sundjata was born a cripple but overcame his infirmity. Then he and his mother went into voluntary exile (c. 1220) to avoid assassination by his half-brother, who had succeeded their father as king. He returned to fight Sumanguru Kante, ruler of Sosso, who had subjugated his people.
Another version states that Sumanguru put to death all of Nare Maghan’s sons except Sundjata, who was spare because of his infirmity. Sundjata magically recovered and then assembled an army to fight Sumanguru. The traditions coalesce at this point. The war between them climaxed at Kirina around 1234 and is remembered as a contest of magic. Sundjata won by concocting a poison which Sumanguru could not counter. It is noteworthy that Sundjata, although a nominal Muslim, turned to the powers ofhis traditional religion to provide the means which proved victorious.
Following the battle Sundjata’s troops subdued Sumanguru’s allies, the Diakhanke in Bambuk and the state of Kita. Afterwards he continued to expand the empire, although the extent of his conquests is not known. Meanwhile, he consolidated his position by gathering the chiefs of all the Mande clans, who swore their allegiance to him and acknowledged the primacy of his Keita clan. Sundjata then constructed a capital at Niani, on the Sankarani River. Mali prospered due to its centralized monarchy, its location on the trans-Saharan trade routes, and its control of the gold fields. According to Ibn Khaldun, Sundjata ruled for twenty-five years. He was succeeded by a son, Uli (Mansa Uli).
Sundiata Keita was the founder of the Mali Empire and celebrated as a hero of the Malinke people of West Africa in the semi-historical Epic of Sundiata. Sundiata is also known by the name Sogolon Djata. The name Sogolon is taken from his mother, daughter of the buffalo woman (so called because of her ugliness and hunchback), and Jata, meaning "lion." A common Mande naming practice combines the mother's name with the personal name to give Sonjata or Sunjata. The last name Keita is a clan name more than a surname. The story of Sundiata is primarily known through oral tradition, transmitted by generations of traditional Mandinka griots. Sundiata was the son of Nare and Sogolon Conde. Growing up, the Mandinkas were conquered by king Sumaoro Kante of the Ghana Empire. He devoted his life to building an army to overthrow the king and liberating his homeland. When he was older and had a strong army, Sundiata did overthrow the king and became king of the Mali Empire. He understood that if he were to have a kingdom, he would need it to be prosperous to keep strong. He had crops such as beans and rice grown and soon introduced cotton. With the crops selling, the Mali Empire became very wealthy. Sundiata supported religion and soon took the title Mansa. After he died, many rulers also took the title mansa, to show their role and authority in society.
Keita, Sundjata see Sundjata Keita
Mari-Djata see Sundjata Keita
Sundiata see Sundjata Keita
Sundjata Keyita see Sundjata Keita
Keyita, Sundjata see Sundjata Keita
Sogolon Djata see Sundjata Keita
Sundjata Keita (Mari-Djata) (Sundiata Keita) (Sundjata Keyita) (Mari Djata I) (Sundiata) (c. 1217 – c. 1255). Founder of the Mali Empire and a folk hero of the Mande speaking peoples of West Africa. The story of Sundjata’s creation of Mali, is an epic legend. He was the son of Nare Maghan, ruler of a small western Sudanic state identified by some historians as Kangaba. His mother, Sogolon, had been presented to his father by hunters. According to one version of the legend Sundjata was born a cripple but overcame his infirmity. Then he and his mother went into voluntary exile (c. 1220) to avoid assassination by his half-brother, who had succeeded their father as king. He returned to fight Sumanguru Kante, ruler of Sosso, who had subjugated his people.
Another version states that Sumanguru put to death all of Nare Maghan’s sons except Sundjata, who was spare because of his infirmity. Sundjata magically recovered and then assembled an army to fight Sumanguru. The traditions coalesce at this point. The war between them climaxed at Kirina around 1234 and is remembered as a contest of magic. Sundjata won by concocting a poison which Sumanguru could not counter. It is noteworthy that Sundjata, although a nominal Muslim, turned to the powers ofhis traditional religion to provide the means which proved victorious.
Following the battle Sundjata’s troops subdued Sumanguru’s allies, the Diakhanke in Bambuk and the state of Kita. Afterwards he continued to expand the empire, although the extent of his conquests is not known. Meanwhile, he consolidated his position by gathering the chiefs of all the Mande clans, who swore their allegiance to him and acknowledged the primacy of his Keita clan. Sundjata then constructed a capital at Niani, on the Sankarani River. Mali prospered due to its centralized monarchy, its location on the trans-Saharan trade routes, and its control of the gold fields. According to Ibn Khaldun, Sundjata ruled for twenty-five years. He was succeeded by a son, Uli (Mansa Uli).
Sundiata Keita was the founder of the Mali Empire and celebrated as a hero of the Malinke people of West Africa in the semi-historical Epic of Sundiata. Sundiata is also known by the name Sogolon Djata. The name Sogolon is taken from his mother, daughter of the buffalo woman (so called because of her ugliness and hunchback), and Jata, meaning "lion." A common Mande naming practice combines the mother's name with the personal name to give Sonjata or Sunjata. The last name Keita is a clan name more than a surname. The story of Sundiata is primarily known through oral tradition, transmitted by generations of traditional Mandinka griots. Sundiata was the son of Nare and Sogolon Conde. Growing up, the Mandinkas were conquered by king Sumaoro Kante of the Ghana Empire. He devoted his life to building an army to overthrow the king and liberating his homeland. When he was older and had a strong army, Sundiata did overthrow the king and became king of the Mali Empire. He understood that if he were to have a kingdom, he would need it to be prosperous to keep strong. He had crops such as beans and rice grown and soon introduced cotton. With the crops selling, the Mali Empire became very wealthy. Sundiata supported religion and soon took the title Mansa. After he died, many rulers also took the title mansa, to show their role and authority in society.
Keita, Sundjata see Sundjata Keita
Mari-Djata see Sundjata Keita
Sundiata see Sundjata Keita
Sundjata Keyita see Sundjata Keita
Keyita, Sundjata see Sundjata Keita
Sogolon Djata see Sundjata Keita
Sunni
Sunni. Arabic term which refers to a Muslim who accepts the legitimacy of the caliphs who succeeded Muhammad and who adhered to one of the legal rites developed in the early caliphal period. A Sunni Muslim is a conscientious follower of Muhammad’s sunna.
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah ("people of the tradition [of Muhammad] and the community"), or Ahl as-Sunnah for short. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Orthodox Islam. The word "Sunni" comes from the term Sunnah, which refers to the words and actions or example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Sunni branch of Islam has four legal schools of thought or madh'hab. This branch of Islam accepts the first four caliphs as rightful successors of Muhammad and accepts hadiths narrated by the companions.
In situations where the Qur’an does not provide a solution to a problem of correct behavior, Sunnis appeal to the sunna (behavior or practice) of Muhammad in Medina, or to the hadith. In contrast to the Shi‘a, which believe in a line of inspired imams, Sunnis accept the validity of the historical line of Caliphs.
Sunni comprise the main group of Islam, making up about ninety percent of the religion’s adherents. Sunnis have been the dominant group in Islam almost continuously since 661 C. C., when the Shi‘is departed from the main fold (the Kharijis left in 658). Sunni Islam claims to be the continuation of the Islam as it was defined through the revelations given to Muhammad and his life, a claim which is substantiated through the fact that Shi‘i Islam for a number of decades had very little following and had no real, formal organization. As for the theology, Sunni Islam represents no more of a continuation of Islam than the other orientations.
Many make the mistake of thinking as Sunni Islam as the orthodox and correct interpretation of Islam, while other sects deviate from this. This is not true: All orientations in Islam are a result of the common Islamic origin and the changes added over time.
Sunni Islam derives its name from its identification with the importance of the Sunna (the examples from the hadiths), which earlier than in Shi‘a Islam was established as a central element in Islam, and central to understanding the full truth in the religion. There was a need to establishing a law, called shari’a (for which the orientation of the rulers, while the Shi ‘is did not establish administrative organizations for yet a long time to come.
The actual theological and ritual differences between Sunni and Shi‘a Islam, came over a couple of centuries with development. For a long time, Sunni Islam was defined from Shi‘a Islam by its adherence to the Caliph as the leader of the Muslim world. But there are many small and some large differences between Sunni and the other orientations, in all respects of the religion. Sunni and Shi‘a Islam share only three core doctrines: oneness of God; the belief in the revelations of Muhammad, and the belief in resurrection on the day of Judgment.
Sunni Islam has a different set of hadiths from Shi‘a Islam. Sunni Islam puts far more importance into the hajj to Mecca, while Shi‘a Islam has some other very important pilgrimages as well. Sunni Islam reveres Ali, but does not hold him up as the only true continuation of the tradition from Muhammad, and has no emphasis on him bringing on a divine light form the Prophet.
Sunni is a short form of the Arabic phrase ahl al-sunna wa-al-jama’a (“the people of custom and community”). The term was gradually adopted during the Abbasid caliphate by those factions of Muslims who, in opposition to the Shi‘a, had accepted the religious authority of Muhammad’s early associates (Abu Bakr, 632-634; Umar, 634-644; Uthman, 644-656; and Ali, 656-661) without distinction, despite the schism that had taken place among them following Muhammad’s death in 632.
What prompted the adoption of the term Sunni was the emphasis laid on the continuity of the Muslim community consciousness with the Umayyad past and the growing interest in the religious practice derived from the sunna (understood as “model pattern of behavior”), as expressed in the prophetic communications, the hadith. The Sunnis represented the idea of a community bound by the principle of jama’a, which upheld the early caliphate and the sunna, in contrast to the Shi‘a, who had rejected the religious authority of those who had not recognized Ali’s sole right to the caliphate. They had instead developed their own version of the sunna that included the elaborations of their imams.
The eighth and ninth centuries were a time of political turmoil for the Muslim community, and Muslim scholars were bent on establishing the jama’a principle that would provide much needed solidarity. They were soon convinced that the sunna of the Prophet could provide detailed directives and that these were deducible from the Qur’anic religious-legal expressions and their presuppositions. Thus the shari‘a, the system of Islamic religious-moral law, was evolved by the community of scholars. Adherence to the detailed prescriptions of the shari‘a as defined by scholars held the Muslims together as the jama’a of Sunni Islam.
Four schools of Sunni shari‘a subsequently came to be acknowledged as valid interpretations of Islamic revelation. Their attitude toward the sunna as a source equally as authoritative as the Qur’an differed, however. Abu Hanifa (d. 767), the founder of the Hanafi school, which became accepted in Turkey, the Fertile Crescent, Afghanistan, and the Indian subcontinent, did not consider the sunna to be sufficient in deriving a decision based on the shari‘a; he sought a rational method based on ra’y (independent judgment) and qiyas (argument by analogy with known cases to secure direction for new situations). Both of these principles were regarded by other scholars as undermining the authority of the Qur’an and the sunna. On the other hand, Malik ibn Anas (b.795), founder of the Maliki school of law, whose adherents are dominant in Upper Egypt, North Africa, and much of West Africa, regarded the sunna of Medina, where Malik lived, as normative and as the basis for organization within the community. But, like Abu Hanifa, he was aware of sunna was being produced. Malik, therefore, admitted the principle of istislah (seeking of public welfare), which could override deduction from the Qur’an and the sunna.
It was not until the time of the most systematic and influential legal theorist, al-Shafi‘i (d. 820) that principles for the derivation of law from the two sacred sources were laid down firmly. Al-Shafi‘i, the founder of the Shafi‘i school of Sunni law, whose followers are in northern Egypt, East Africa, southern Arabia, and the Asian archipelago, ironically paved the way for the most effective means of subordinating independent reasoning in deriving the sunna by insisting that decisions be made on the analogy with decisions found in the sunna or the Qur’an. Such a requirement gave rise to the collection and compilation of authentic sunna. This resulted in six major collections of hadith, recognized as canonical among the Sunnis. Al-Shafi’i’s emphasis upon carefully chosen hadith gave rise to the fourth school of Sunni law, the Hanbali. Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), whose followers are dominant only in parts of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, preferred even a weak hadith over a strong analogy in his derivation of legal decision.
The Shi‘ite-Sunni distinction has its genesis in the dispute over the succession to the leadership of the Muslim community. The Shi‘ites believed that the Prophet had designated Ali, his cousin and intimate associate, as his successor. The legitimate caliphs thus descended from Ali and his wife Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter. The Umayyads, who represented the later Sunni view, claimed a nomination by the choice of the Muslims themselves. This difference still distinguishes Shi‘ite political theory from Sunni. For the Sunnis, the caliph is essentially a political authority. Whereas, for the Shi‘ites, the Prophet’s successor is a political-religious leader whom they prefer to designate as the imam of the Muslims. So construed, the imam was regarded as endowed with prophetic wisdom and divine grace. No such assumption was held by the Sunnis. The caliph was to be chosen from among the believers and could claim no such endowments. The attitude of the Sunnis to their caliphs has, consequently, been determined by the respect shown him by the community; whereas the Shi‘ite attitude is determined by the office of the imamate, which hallows the imam, who is regarded with the deepest religious veneration.
In ritual practices the Sunni and the Shi‘ite differ only in non-essential points. However, the Sunnis do not accord to the Prophet’s family (ahl al-bait, i.e., the descendants of Ali and Fatima) the degree of veneration shown by the Shi‘ites, especially in the Muharram ceremonies held to commemorate the martyrdom of Husain, the Prophet’s grandson.
The authority of the ulama (the Muslim jurist-theologians) among the Sunnis is very great, although as a class they do not exercise the same level of influence and/or are not as venerated as the Shi‘ite mujta. The ulama are responsible for modification in the religious requirements of the Sunnis. In the absence of any effective link between the ruler and the community at large, it is the ulama and the shari‘a they represent that they have maintained the jama‘a principle of cohesive community among the Sunnis.
Sunni. Arabic term which refers to a Muslim who accepts the legitimacy of the caliphs who succeeded Muhammad and who adhered to one of the legal rites developed in the early caliphal period. A Sunni Muslim is a conscientious follower of Muhammad’s sunna.
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah ("people of the tradition [of Muhammad] and the community"), or Ahl as-Sunnah for short. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Orthodox Islam. The word "Sunni" comes from the term Sunnah, which refers to the words and actions or example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Sunni branch of Islam has four legal schools of thought or madh'hab. This branch of Islam accepts the first four caliphs as rightful successors of Muhammad and accepts hadiths narrated by the companions.
In situations where the Qur’an does not provide a solution to a problem of correct behavior, Sunnis appeal to the sunna (behavior or practice) of Muhammad in Medina, or to the hadith. In contrast to the Shi‘a, which believe in a line of inspired imams, Sunnis accept the validity of the historical line of Caliphs.
Sunni comprise the main group of Islam, making up about ninety percent of the religion’s adherents. Sunnis have been the dominant group in Islam almost continuously since 661 C. C., when the Shi‘is departed from the main fold (the Kharijis left in 658). Sunni Islam claims to be the continuation of the Islam as it was defined through the revelations given to Muhammad and his life, a claim which is substantiated through the fact that Shi‘i Islam for a number of decades had very little following and had no real, formal organization. As for the theology, Sunni Islam represents no more of a continuation of Islam than the other orientations.
Many make the mistake of thinking as Sunni Islam as the orthodox and correct interpretation of Islam, while other sects deviate from this. This is not true: All orientations in Islam are a result of the common Islamic origin and the changes added over time.
Sunni Islam derives its name from its identification with the importance of the Sunna (the examples from the hadiths), which earlier than in Shi‘a Islam was established as a central element in Islam, and central to understanding the full truth in the religion. There was a need to establishing a law, called shari’a (for which the orientation of the rulers, while the Shi ‘is did not establish administrative organizations for yet a long time to come.
The actual theological and ritual differences between Sunni and Shi‘a Islam, came over a couple of centuries with development. For a long time, Sunni Islam was defined from Shi‘a Islam by its adherence to the Caliph as the leader of the Muslim world. But there are many small and some large differences between Sunni and the other orientations, in all respects of the religion. Sunni and Shi‘a Islam share only three core doctrines: oneness of God; the belief in the revelations of Muhammad, and the belief in resurrection on the day of Judgment.
Sunni Islam has a different set of hadiths from Shi‘a Islam. Sunni Islam puts far more importance into the hajj to Mecca, while Shi‘a Islam has some other very important pilgrimages as well. Sunni Islam reveres Ali, but does not hold him up as the only true continuation of the tradition from Muhammad, and has no emphasis on him bringing on a divine light form the Prophet.
Sunni is a short form of the Arabic phrase ahl al-sunna wa-al-jama’a (“the people of custom and community”). The term was gradually adopted during the Abbasid caliphate by those factions of Muslims who, in opposition to the Shi‘a, had accepted the religious authority of Muhammad’s early associates (Abu Bakr, 632-634; Umar, 634-644; Uthman, 644-656; and Ali, 656-661) without distinction, despite the schism that had taken place among them following Muhammad’s death in 632.
What prompted the adoption of the term Sunni was the emphasis laid on the continuity of the Muslim community consciousness with the Umayyad past and the growing interest in the religious practice derived from the sunna (understood as “model pattern of behavior”), as expressed in the prophetic communications, the hadith. The Sunnis represented the idea of a community bound by the principle of jama’a, which upheld the early caliphate and the sunna, in contrast to the Shi‘a, who had rejected the religious authority of those who had not recognized Ali’s sole right to the caliphate. They had instead developed their own version of the sunna that included the elaborations of their imams.
The eighth and ninth centuries were a time of political turmoil for the Muslim community, and Muslim scholars were bent on establishing the jama’a principle that would provide much needed solidarity. They were soon convinced that the sunna of the Prophet could provide detailed directives and that these were deducible from the Qur’anic religious-legal expressions and their presuppositions. Thus the shari‘a, the system of Islamic religious-moral law, was evolved by the community of scholars. Adherence to the detailed prescriptions of the shari‘a as defined by scholars held the Muslims together as the jama’a of Sunni Islam.
Four schools of Sunni shari‘a subsequently came to be acknowledged as valid interpretations of Islamic revelation. Their attitude toward the sunna as a source equally as authoritative as the Qur’an differed, however. Abu Hanifa (d. 767), the founder of the Hanafi school, which became accepted in Turkey, the Fertile Crescent, Afghanistan, and the Indian subcontinent, did not consider the sunna to be sufficient in deriving a decision based on the shari‘a; he sought a rational method based on ra’y (independent judgment) and qiyas (argument by analogy with known cases to secure direction for new situations). Both of these principles were regarded by other scholars as undermining the authority of the Qur’an and the sunna. On the other hand, Malik ibn Anas (b.795), founder of the Maliki school of law, whose adherents are dominant in Upper Egypt, North Africa, and much of West Africa, regarded the sunna of Medina, where Malik lived, as normative and as the basis for organization within the community. But, like Abu Hanifa, he was aware of sunna was being produced. Malik, therefore, admitted the principle of istislah (seeking of public welfare), which could override deduction from the Qur’an and the sunna.
It was not until the time of the most systematic and influential legal theorist, al-Shafi‘i (d. 820) that principles for the derivation of law from the two sacred sources were laid down firmly. Al-Shafi‘i, the founder of the Shafi‘i school of Sunni law, whose followers are in northern Egypt, East Africa, southern Arabia, and the Asian archipelago, ironically paved the way for the most effective means of subordinating independent reasoning in deriving the sunna by insisting that decisions be made on the analogy with decisions found in the sunna or the Qur’an. Such a requirement gave rise to the collection and compilation of authentic sunna. This resulted in six major collections of hadith, recognized as canonical among the Sunnis. Al-Shafi’i’s emphasis upon carefully chosen hadith gave rise to the fourth school of Sunni law, the Hanbali. Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), whose followers are dominant only in parts of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, preferred even a weak hadith over a strong analogy in his derivation of legal decision.
The Shi‘ite-Sunni distinction has its genesis in the dispute over the succession to the leadership of the Muslim community. The Shi‘ites believed that the Prophet had designated Ali, his cousin and intimate associate, as his successor. The legitimate caliphs thus descended from Ali and his wife Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter. The Umayyads, who represented the later Sunni view, claimed a nomination by the choice of the Muslims themselves. This difference still distinguishes Shi‘ite political theory from Sunni. For the Sunnis, the caliph is essentially a political authority. Whereas, for the Shi‘ites, the Prophet’s successor is a political-religious leader whom they prefer to designate as the imam of the Muslims. So construed, the imam was regarded as endowed with prophetic wisdom and divine grace. No such assumption was held by the Sunnis. The caliph was to be chosen from among the believers and could claim no such endowments. The attitude of the Sunnis to their caliphs has, consequently, been determined by the respect shown him by the community; whereas the Shi‘ite attitude is determined by the office of the imamate, which hallows the imam, who is regarded with the deepest religious veneration.
In ritual practices the Sunni and the Shi‘ite differ only in non-essential points. However, the Sunnis do not accord to the Prophet’s family (ahl al-bait, i.e., the descendants of Ali and Fatima) the degree of veneration shown by the Shi‘ites, especially in the Muharram ceremonies held to commemorate the martyrdom of Husain, the Prophet’s grandson.
The authority of the ulama (the Muslim jurist-theologians) among the Sunnis is very great, although as a class they do not exercise the same level of influence and/or are not as venerated as the Shi‘ite mujta. The ulama are responsible for modification in the religious requirements of the Sunnis. In the absence of any effective link between the ruler and the community at large, it is the ulama and the shari‘a they represent that they have maintained the jama‘a principle of cohesive community among the Sunnis.
Sunni ‘Ali
Sunni ‘Ali (‘Ali Ber) (Sonni Ali) (Sunni Ali Ber) (Ali Kolon). (d.1492). Ruler of the Songhai Empire (r. 1464-1492). Sunni ‘Ali transformed his small inherited kingdom, centered at Gao (in modern Mali), into the most powerful empire of West Africa. Sunni ‘Ali’s entier reign was occupied with conquests and punitive expeditions. A superb strategist who made skillful use of both cavalry and river flotillas, Sunni ‘Ali drove the Tuaregs out of Timbuktu in 1468, crippled the resistance of the powerful Mossi and Dogon tribes, and, after a seven-year siege captured Djenne in 1471. At the time of his death, the Songhai Empire extended some 3218 kilometers (some 2000 miles) along the Niger River.
When Sunni ‘Ali first began the process of formulating the Songhai Empire, there was a power vacuum in the western and central Sudan. The collapse of Mali, to which Songhai had once been tributary, was well under way. The security of the trans-Saharan trade routes was threatened by Tuareg raiders to the north, and the Mossi to the south. Sunni ‘Ali’s predecessor, Sunni Sulayman Oandi (d. 1464) initiated the expansion of Songhai, but it was Sunni ‘Ali himself who made Songhai an empire.
Sunni ‘Ali was the fifteenth ruler of the Sunni (or Si) dynasty of Songhai. He began his military campaigns soon after ascending the throne. In 1469, he took Timbuktu, which had won its freedom from Mali overlordship only in 1433. To the south his main adversaries were the Mossi. Sunni ‘Ali was never able to dominate the Mossi, although he defeated them in battle and forced them to abandon Baghana and Walata (1483). Earlier to the southwest he captured the important river port of Jenne around 1473, after a six-month naval blockade. Jenne too had only recently won its independence from the Mali Empire. Sunni ‘Ali also directed campaigns against the Fula, the Dogon of Bandiagara-Hombori, and Mali itself. At the time of his death, the Songhai Empire stretched along the Niger from Kebbi to beyond Jenne.
Much of his military success can be attributed to the deployment of Songhai’s river navy. His reliance on the navy was illustrated by his attempt to open an old water course which would have created a canal running from Lake Laguibine to Walata, in order to attack the Mossi who held the city. This was twice the length of the Suez Canal. The Mossi, however, left the city and Sunni ‘Ali abandoned his project.
Tradition says that Sunni ‘Ali was highly skilled in the art of magic. His reluctance to abandon the power and authority bestowed upon him through the traditional religious system may explain his ambivalence towards Islam. Arab chroniclers such as al-Sa‘di, while acknowledging Sunni ‘Ali’s strength and fantastic success on the battlefield, vilified him because of his attitude towards Islam.
Although professing Islam, Sunni ‘Ali ruled essentially as an African shaman-king. It is said that he would often condense all five daily prayer sessions into one sitting, and then simply repeat the name of the prayer he was supposed to be reciting. More serious was his brutal persecution of the Islamic scholars at Timbuktu, whom he saw as a threat to the African nature of his empire. He also placed limits on Islamic practices in his court. On the other hand, he is known to have treated some Muslims with extreme favor. These seeming contradictions indicate that Islam was rapidly gaining popularity in Songhai during Sunni ‘Ali’s rule. Sunni ‘Ali had to concede a place to this new cult, without weakening the traditional basis of his legitimacy. His purge of the scholars of the newly captured city of Timbuktu was probably caused by his distrust of their political loyalties as much as his fear of the threat of Islam. Brutality was not reserved for Muslims. He is known to have ordered the execution of favorite members of his retinue in fits of rage, only to express remorse shortly after the act.
Administratively, Sunni ‘Ali divided his territory into provinces under trusted governors and organized the traditional African cults in the service of the state. His fleet patrolled the Niger, keeping trade routes open and securing the peace, and restive tribes were kept in check.
Sunni ‘Ali died in 1492 under mysterious circumstances while returning from a military campaign against the Fula. The Ta’rikh al-Sudan claims he drowned crossing a flooded Niger tributary. However, such a river would have long been dry at that time of year. Oral tradition says he was killed by his sister’s son -- Askia Muhammad Ture -- later usurped the throne from Sunni ‘Ali’s son and successor, Sunni Baru, and became one of the most famous rulers of Songhai.
'Ali Ber see Sunni ‘Ali
Sonni Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Sunni Ali Ber see Sunni ‘Ali
Ali Kolon see Sunni ‘Ali
Kolon, Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Ber, 'Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Sunni ‘Ali (‘Ali Ber) (Sonni Ali) (Sunni Ali Ber) (Ali Kolon). (d.1492). Ruler of the Songhai Empire (r. 1464-1492). Sunni ‘Ali transformed his small inherited kingdom, centered at Gao (in modern Mali), into the most powerful empire of West Africa. Sunni ‘Ali’s entier reign was occupied with conquests and punitive expeditions. A superb strategist who made skillful use of both cavalry and river flotillas, Sunni ‘Ali drove the Tuaregs out of Timbuktu in 1468, crippled the resistance of the powerful Mossi and Dogon tribes, and, after a seven-year siege captured Djenne in 1471. At the time of his death, the Songhai Empire extended some 3218 kilometers (some 2000 miles) along the Niger River.
When Sunni ‘Ali first began the process of formulating the Songhai Empire, there was a power vacuum in the western and central Sudan. The collapse of Mali, to which Songhai had once been tributary, was well under way. The security of the trans-Saharan trade routes was threatened by Tuareg raiders to the north, and the Mossi to the south. Sunni ‘Ali’s predecessor, Sunni Sulayman Oandi (d. 1464) initiated the expansion of Songhai, but it was Sunni ‘Ali himself who made Songhai an empire.
Sunni ‘Ali was the fifteenth ruler of the Sunni (or Si) dynasty of Songhai. He began his military campaigns soon after ascending the throne. In 1469, he took Timbuktu, which had won its freedom from Mali overlordship only in 1433. To the south his main adversaries were the Mossi. Sunni ‘Ali was never able to dominate the Mossi, although he defeated them in battle and forced them to abandon Baghana and Walata (1483). Earlier to the southwest he captured the important river port of Jenne around 1473, after a six-month naval blockade. Jenne too had only recently won its independence from the Mali Empire. Sunni ‘Ali also directed campaigns against the Fula, the Dogon of Bandiagara-Hombori, and Mali itself. At the time of his death, the Songhai Empire stretched along the Niger from Kebbi to beyond Jenne.
Much of his military success can be attributed to the deployment of Songhai’s river navy. His reliance on the navy was illustrated by his attempt to open an old water course which would have created a canal running from Lake Laguibine to Walata, in order to attack the Mossi who held the city. This was twice the length of the Suez Canal. The Mossi, however, left the city and Sunni ‘Ali abandoned his project.
Tradition says that Sunni ‘Ali was highly skilled in the art of magic. His reluctance to abandon the power and authority bestowed upon him through the traditional religious system may explain his ambivalence towards Islam. Arab chroniclers such as al-Sa‘di, while acknowledging Sunni ‘Ali’s strength and fantastic success on the battlefield, vilified him because of his attitude towards Islam.
Although professing Islam, Sunni ‘Ali ruled essentially as an African shaman-king. It is said that he would often condense all five daily prayer sessions into one sitting, and then simply repeat the name of the prayer he was supposed to be reciting. More serious was his brutal persecution of the Islamic scholars at Timbuktu, whom he saw as a threat to the African nature of his empire. He also placed limits on Islamic practices in his court. On the other hand, he is known to have treated some Muslims with extreme favor. These seeming contradictions indicate that Islam was rapidly gaining popularity in Songhai during Sunni ‘Ali’s rule. Sunni ‘Ali had to concede a place to this new cult, without weakening the traditional basis of his legitimacy. His purge of the scholars of the newly captured city of Timbuktu was probably caused by his distrust of their political loyalties as much as his fear of the threat of Islam. Brutality was not reserved for Muslims. He is known to have ordered the execution of favorite members of his retinue in fits of rage, only to express remorse shortly after the act.
Administratively, Sunni ‘Ali divided his territory into provinces under trusted governors and organized the traditional African cults in the service of the state. His fleet patrolled the Niger, keeping trade routes open and securing the peace, and restive tribes were kept in check.
Sunni ‘Ali died in 1492 under mysterious circumstances while returning from a military campaign against the Fula. The Ta’rikh al-Sudan claims he drowned crossing a flooded Niger tributary. However, such a river would have long been dry at that time of year. Oral tradition says he was killed by his sister’s son -- Askia Muhammad Ture -- later usurped the throne from Sunni ‘Ali’s son and successor, Sunni Baru, and became one of the most famous rulers of Songhai.
'Ali Ber see Sunni ‘Ali
Sonni Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Sunni Ali Ber see Sunni ‘Ali
Ali Kolon see Sunni ‘Ali
Kolon, Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Ber, 'Ali see Sunni ‘Ali
Suqman ibn Artuq Mu‘in al-Dawla
Suqman ibn Artuq Mu‘in al-Dawla(d.1104). First ruler of the line of the Artuqids in Hisn Kayfa and Amid (Diyarbakr). He received Jerusalem as a fief from the Saljuq Tutush ibn Alp Arslan, but it was taken from him by the Fatimids in 1096. He then took Saruj and Hisn Kayfa. Together with his old enemy Chekirmish, the lord of Jazirat Ibn ‘Umar, he defeated the Franks and took Count Baldwin of Edessa and Joscelin prisoners.
Suqman ibn Artuq Mu‘in al-Dawla(d.1104). First ruler of the line of the Artuqids in Hisn Kayfa and Amid (Diyarbakr). He received Jerusalem as a fief from the Saljuq Tutush ibn Alp Arslan, but it was taken from him by the Fatimids in 1096. He then took Saruj and Hisn Kayfa. Together with his old enemy Chekirmish, the lord of Jazirat Ibn ‘Umar, he defeated the Franks and took Count Baldwin of Edessa and Joscelin prisoners.
Sur
Sur. Name of a clan of Afghans. They are a subdivision of a clan of the Lodi, whose sultans ruled at Delhi between 1451 and 1526 and attracted many Afghans to India. The Suris ruled as sultans of Delhi from 1540 until 1555, their strongest ruler being Farid ibn Muhammad, known as Shir Shah Suri. After his death, the internecine strife was no longer restrained. The last Suri ruler, Ahmad Khan Sikandar Shah III was defeated by the Mughal Akbar.
Sur. Name of a clan of Afghans. They are a subdivision of a clan of the Lodi, whose sultans ruled at Delhi between 1451 and 1526 and attracted many Afghans to India. The Suris ruled as sultans of Delhi from 1540 until 1555, their strongest ruler being Farid ibn Muhammad, known as Shir Shah Suri. After his death, the internecine strife was no longer restrained. The last Suri ruler, Ahmad Khan Sikandar Shah III was defeated by the Mughal Akbar.
Suris
Suris. Suri dynasty (1538-1545) represented the resurgence of Indian Afghan authority over North India during a brief (1540-1555) caesura of Mughal power. Sher Shah (c. 1486-1545), the first Suri sultan, was a brilliant general and administrator who consolidated much of North India with the unified support of divergent Afghan tribes. His son and successor, Islam Shah (r. 1545-1554), a skilled general, overcentralized the administration; moreover, he distrusted his father’s nobles, thus splintering the Afghans. His successors, Firoz Shah (r. 1554) and Muhammad Adil Shah (r. 1554-1556), were ineffectual, allowing for the Mughal Humayun’s return to power in 1555. Until about 1570 Suri claimaints continued to assert power in eastern India.
The Suris were an Afghan family that ruled in northern India from 1540 to 1556. Its founder, Shēr Shah of Sūr, was descended from an Afghan adventurer recruited by Sultan Bahlūl Lodī of Delhi during his long contest with the Sharqī sultans of Jaunpur. The shah’s personal name was Farīd; the title of Shēr (“Tiger”) was conferred when, as a young man, he killed a tiger. After Bābur, founder of the Mughal dynasty, defeated the Lodīs, Shēr Shah of Sūr obtained control of the Afghan kingdoms of Bihar and Bengal and defeated the Mughal emperor Humāyūn at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Shēr Shah ruled the whole of north India for five years, annexing Malwa and defeating the Rajputs. He reorganized the administration, laying foundations on which the Mughal emperor Akbar later built. He was killed by a cannonball while besieging the fortress of Kalinjar in central India.
Shēr Shah’s son, Islam, or Salīm Shah, was a man of ability and maintained Afghan rule despite dissensions. On his death in 1553, the Sūr dynasty broke up among rival claimants. Sikandar Sūr was defeated in June 1555 by Humāyūn, who occupied Delhi in July. When Muḥammad ʿĀdil Shah’s Hindu general Hemu threw off his allegiance only to be defeated by the Mughals at Panipat (1556), the Sūr dynasty ended. The Sūrs’ reign was a brief interlude in Mughal rule, brightened only by the brilliance of Shēr Shah. They were the last Afghan rulers of northern India.
Suris. Suri dynasty (1538-1545) represented the resurgence of Indian Afghan authority over North India during a brief (1540-1555) caesura of Mughal power. Sher Shah (c. 1486-1545), the first Suri sultan, was a brilliant general and administrator who consolidated much of North India with the unified support of divergent Afghan tribes. His son and successor, Islam Shah (r. 1545-1554), a skilled general, overcentralized the administration; moreover, he distrusted his father’s nobles, thus splintering the Afghans. His successors, Firoz Shah (r. 1554) and Muhammad Adil Shah (r. 1554-1556), were ineffectual, allowing for the Mughal Humayun’s return to power in 1555. Until about 1570 Suri claimaints continued to assert power in eastern India.
The Suris were an Afghan family that ruled in northern India from 1540 to 1556. Its founder, Shēr Shah of Sūr, was descended from an Afghan adventurer recruited by Sultan Bahlūl Lodī of Delhi during his long contest with the Sharqī sultans of Jaunpur. The shah’s personal name was Farīd; the title of Shēr (“Tiger”) was conferred when, as a young man, he killed a tiger. After Bābur, founder of the Mughal dynasty, defeated the Lodīs, Shēr Shah of Sūr obtained control of the Afghan kingdoms of Bihar and Bengal and defeated the Mughal emperor Humāyūn at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Shēr Shah ruled the whole of north India for five years, annexing Malwa and defeating the Rajputs. He reorganized the administration, laying foundations on which the Mughal emperor Akbar later built. He was killed by a cannonball while besieging the fortress of Kalinjar in central India.
Shēr Shah’s son, Islam, or Salīm Shah, was a man of ability and maintained Afghan rule despite dissensions. On his death in 1553, the Sūr dynasty broke up among rival claimants. Sikandar Sūr was defeated in June 1555 by Humāyūn, who occupied Delhi in July. When Muḥammad ʿĀdil Shah’s Hindu general Hemu threw off his allegiance only to be defeated by the Mughals at Panipat (1556), the Sūr dynasty ended. The Sūrs’ reign was a brief interlude in Mughal rule, brightened only by the brilliance of Shēr Shah. They were the last Afghan rulers of northern India.
Sururi
Sururi. Name of several Ottoman poets. One of the most notable is Muslih al-Din Mustafa Efendi, a distinguished philologist. He was perhaps the greatest authority on Persian language and literature that Turkey has ever produced, and he had also a perfect command of Arabic. He wrote well-known commentaries on the works of Hafiz, a text book of prosody and rhyme and a synopsis of Qazwini’s Cosmography. Another poet known under this name is Sayyid ‘Uthman (Sururi-yi Mu’errikh (1751-1814). He was an intimate friend of Sunbul-zade Wehbi and is considered the greatest Ottoman writer of chronograms.
Sururi. Name of several Ottoman poets. One of the most notable is Muslih al-Din Mustafa Efendi, a distinguished philologist. He was perhaps the greatest authority on Persian language and literature that Turkey has ever produced, and he had also a perfect command of Arabic. He wrote well-known commentaries on the works of Hafiz, a text book of prosody and rhyme and a synopsis of Qazwini’s Cosmography. Another poet known under this name is Sayyid ‘Uthman (Sururi-yi Mu’errikh (1751-1814). He was an intimate friend of Sunbul-zade Wehbi and is considered the greatest Ottoman writer of chronograms.
Su‘udi, Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-
Su‘udi, Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-Su‘udi). Arab theologian of the sixteenth century. He is known for a polemical work against the Christians and the Jews.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-Su‘udi see Su‘udi, Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-
Su‘udi, Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-Su‘udi). Arab theologian of the sixteenth century. He is known for a polemical work against the Christians and the Jews.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-Su‘udi see Su‘udi, Abu’l-Fadl al-Maliki al-
Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al- (Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti) (Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti) (Ibn al-Kutub) (Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī) (1445, Cairo, Egypt - October 17, 1505, Cairo, Egypt). Most prolific Egyptian writer in the Mameluke period and perhaps in Arabic literature. The list of his writings contains 561 works, but it includes numerous quite short treatises. His compilations are of great value as compensating for lost works.
Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī was an Egyptian writer and teacher whose works deal with a wide variety of subjects, the Islamic religious sciences predominating.
The son of a judge, al-Suyūṭī was tutored by a Sufi (Muslim mystic) friend of his father. He was precocious and was already a teacher in 1462. A controversial figure, he was deeply embroiled in the political conflicts and theological disputes of his time, and at one point he proclaimed himself the mujaddid (“renewer”) of the Islamic faith. In 1486 he was appointed head of the Sufi Lodge (Khānaqāh) attached to the mosque of Baybars in Cairo and was living in virtual retirement. When in 1501 he tried to reduce the stipends of Sufi scholars at the mosque, a revolt broke out, and al-Suyūṭī was nearly killed. After his trial, he was placed under house arrest on the island of Rawḍah (near Cairo). He worked there in seclusion until his death.
Al-Suyūṭī’s works number more than 500; many are mere booklets, and others are encyclopaedic. He was co-author of Tafsīr al-Jalālayn (“Commentary of the Two Jalāls”), a word-by-word commentary on the Qurʾān, the first part of which was written by Jalāl al-Dīn al-Maḥallī. His Itqān fī ʿulūm al-Qurʾān (“Mastery in the Sciences of the Qurʾān”) is a well-known work on Qurʾānic exegesis. Among his works that have been translated into English is Taʾrīkh al-khulafāʾ(History of the Caliphs), as well as a work on cosmology, another on exegesis, and several others.
Al-Suyūṭī was a compiler of genius rather than an original writer, but it is precisely his ability to select and abridge that makes the books useful. This faculty characterizes his most important philological work, Al-Muẓhir fī ʿulūm al-lughah wa anwāʿihā (“The Luminous Work Concerning the Sciences of Language and its Subfields”), a linguistic encyclopaedia covering such topics as the history of the Arabic language, phonetics, semantics, and morphology. It was largely derived from the works of two predecessors, Ibn Jinnī and Ibn Fāris.
Al-Suyuti listed 283 of his own works in Husn al-Muhađarah. Some of the more famous works he produced were:
* Tafsir al-Jalalayn
* Al-Jaami' al-Kabîr
* Al-Jaami' al-Saghîr
* Dur al-Manthur
* Alfiyyah al-Hadith
* Tadrib al-Rawi
* History of the Caliphs (Arabic:Tarikh al-khulafa)
* The Khalifas who took the right way (Arabic Al-Khulafah Ar-Rashidun)
* Tabaqat al-huffaz an appendix to al-Dhahabi's Tadhkirat al-huffaz
* Khasaais-e-Kubra, which mentions the miracles of Muhammad
Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Ibn al-Kutub see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al- (Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti) (Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti) (Ibn al-Kutub) (Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī) (1445, Cairo, Egypt - October 17, 1505, Cairo, Egypt). Most prolific Egyptian writer in the Mameluke period and perhaps in Arabic literature. The list of his writings contains 561 works, but it includes numerous quite short treatises. His compilations are of great value as compensating for lost works.
Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī was an Egyptian writer and teacher whose works deal with a wide variety of subjects, the Islamic religious sciences predominating.
The son of a judge, al-Suyūṭī was tutored by a Sufi (Muslim mystic) friend of his father. He was precocious and was already a teacher in 1462. A controversial figure, he was deeply embroiled in the political conflicts and theological disputes of his time, and at one point he proclaimed himself the mujaddid (“renewer”) of the Islamic faith. In 1486 he was appointed head of the Sufi Lodge (Khānaqāh) attached to the mosque of Baybars in Cairo and was living in virtual retirement. When in 1501 he tried to reduce the stipends of Sufi scholars at the mosque, a revolt broke out, and al-Suyūṭī was nearly killed. After his trial, he was placed under house arrest on the island of Rawḍah (near Cairo). He worked there in seclusion until his death.
Al-Suyūṭī’s works number more than 500; many are mere booklets, and others are encyclopaedic. He was co-author of Tafsīr al-Jalālayn (“Commentary of the Two Jalāls”), a word-by-word commentary on the Qurʾān, the first part of which was written by Jalāl al-Dīn al-Maḥallī. His Itqān fī ʿulūm al-Qurʾān (“Mastery in the Sciences of the Qurʾān”) is a well-known work on Qurʾānic exegesis. Among his works that have been translated into English is Taʾrīkh al-khulafāʾ(History of the Caliphs), as well as a work on cosmology, another on exegesis, and several others.
Al-Suyūṭī was a compiler of genius rather than an original writer, but it is precisely his ability to select and abridge that makes the books useful. This faculty characterizes his most important philological work, Al-Muẓhir fī ʿulūm al-lughah wa anwāʿihā (“The Luminous Work Concerning the Sciences of Language and its Subfields”), a linguistic encyclopaedia covering such topics as the history of the Arabic language, phonetics, semantics, and morphology. It was largely derived from the works of two predecessors, Ibn Jinnī and Ibn Fāris.
Al-Suyuti listed 283 of his own works in Husn al-Muhađarah. Some of the more famous works he produced were:
* Tafsir al-Jalalayn
* Al-Jaami' al-Kabîr
* Al-Jaami' al-Saghîr
* Dur al-Manthur
* Alfiyyah al-Hadith
* Tadrib al-Rawi
* History of the Caliphs (Arabic:Tarikh al-khulafa)
* The Khalifas who took the right way (Arabic Al-Khulafah Ar-Rashidun)
* Tabaqat al-huffaz an appendix to al-Dhahabi's Tadhkirat al-huffaz
* Khasaais-e-Kubra, which mentions the miracles of Muhammad
Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Ibn al-Kutub see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
Jalāl al-Dīn Abū al-Faḍl ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Suyūṭī see Suyuti, Jalal al-Din al-
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