Swahili
Swahili. Arabic term which is applied to all the Islamic populations of the eastern coast of Africa and the islands of the Indian Ocean, from southern Somalia to the Comoros. The word Swahili also refers to the language which is today the most spoken language in Black Africa. The Swahili language is a Bantu (African) language with at least a third of its vocabulary consisting of Arabic words. The word Swahili is derived from the Arabic word sahil which means“coast.” The plural of the word sahil is sawahil.
The East African littoral, including the islands of Lamu, Mombasa, Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia, stretches from the Somali-Kenya border in the north to the central coastline of Mozambique. This narrow coastal strip, which is separated from the up-country areas of Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique by a 300 mile expanse of arid land, is the homeland of the Swahili people to whom the Swahili language is the mother tongue.
The Swahili language is basically Bantu, but modified through the need for a medium of communication between the largely Arab traders who sailed (and still sail) their dhows to the East African coast on the seasonal monsoons and the Bantu-speaking Africans of the region. The Swahili are distinguished from the Northeast Bantu not only by the fact that they employ Swahili as their first language (rather than as a lingua franca for the intergroup communication) but also by their being 100 percent Sunni Muslim and by various aspects of their material culture.
Technically, Swahili is an adjective, as in “Swahili people.” Within the Bantu noun-class prefix system, the people are Wa swahili, the language Ki swahili (which is less complex than most Bantu languages, probably because of the simplification characteristic of languages that have been used as trade languages). Linguistically, then, the Swahili people may be thought of as Bantu. Culturally, however, they are distinct.
Swahili is not the name of any tribal group. Rather, it is the name of the collection of those groups which share a common culture, Uswahili. They are people who consider themselves to be distinct from other Muslim peoples of the coast: Arabs, Asians and converted coastal Northeast Bantu. Much of the existing literature stresses that Swahili are believed to be the descendants of the children of Arab traders and Bantu women, especially those descendants who cannot trace their ancestry back through an exclusively male line. This definition, however, causes the term to appear as a racial one rather than the cultural or organizational term it is, and it downplays the indigenous cultural aspects which are not by-products of the African-Arab admixture. Arab and Persian influences, certainly, cannot be denied. However, this aspect of Swahili origins has been overstated. Uswahili is unique. It has been modified and enriched by these influences, but not formed by them.
Swahili culture (Uswahili) represents a syncretic mixture of coastal Northeast Bantu and Arab elements with some input of Indian and Persian cultures as well. In recent years, Western influences have been strong, especially in the major port cities.
Swahili. Arabic term which is applied to all the Islamic populations of the eastern coast of Africa and the islands of the Indian Ocean, from southern Somalia to the Comoros. The word Swahili also refers to the language which is today the most spoken language in Black Africa. The Swahili language is a Bantu (African) language with at least a third of its vocabulary consisting of Arabic words. The word Swahili is derived from the Arabic word sahil which means“coast.” The plural of the word sahil is sawahil.
The East African littoral, including the islands of Lamu, Mombasa, Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia, stretches from the Somali-Kenya border in the north to the central coastline of Mozambique. This narrow coastal strip, which is separated from the up-country areas of Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique by a 300 mile expanse of arid land, is the homeland of the Swahili people to whom the Swahili language is the mother tongue.
The Swahili language is basically Bantu, but modified through the need for a medium of communication between the largely Arab traders who sailed (and still sail) their dhows to the East African coast on the seasonal monsoons and the Bantu-speaking Africans of the region. The Swahili are distinguished from the Northeast Bantu not only by the fact that they employ Swahili as their first language (rather than as a lingua franca for the intergroup communication) but also by their being 100 percent Sunni Muslim and by various aspects of their material culture.
Technically, Swahili is an adjective, as in “Swahili people.” Within the Bantu noun-class prefix system, the people are Wa swahili, the language Ki swahili (which is less complex than most Bantu languages, probably because of the simplification characteristic of languages that have been used as trade languages). Linguistically, then, the Swahili people may be thought of as Bantu. Culturally, however, they are distinct.
Swahili is not the name of any tribal group. Rather, it is the name of the collection of those groups which share a common culture, Uswahili. They are people who consider themselves to be distinct from other Muslim peoples of the coast: Arabs, Asians and converted coastal Northeast Bantu. Much of the existing literature stresses that Swahili are believed to be the descendants of the children of Arab traders and Bantu women, especially those descendants who cannot trace their ancestry back through an exclusively male line. This definition, however, causes the term to appear as a racial one rather than the cultural or organizational term it is, and it downplays the indigenous cultural aspects which are not by-products of the African-Arab admixture. Arab and Persian influences, certainly, cannot be denied. However, this aspect of Swahili origins has been overstated. Uswahili is unique. It has been modified and enriched by these influences, but not formed by them.
Swahili culture (Uswahili) represents a syncretic mixture of coastal Northeast Bantu and Arab elements with some input of Indian and Persian cultures as well. In recent years, Western influences have been strong, especially in the major port cities.
Syrian Catholics
Syrian Catholics. Members of the Syrian Catholic Church, a semi-autonomous Christian church which is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Eastern Rite. Under the Eastern Rite arrangement, the Syrian Catholics are allowed to retain their customs and rites, even when these differ from the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. For example, the Syrian Catholics follow the liturgy of James, which even today is performed in Syriac, not Latin. Syriac is still spoken in some communities in eastern Syria and northern Iraq, but for most, Arabic is the vernacular language.
The official center of the Syrian Catholic Church is Antioch, but the Patriarch has not been there for centuries. The Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church is today headquartered in Beirut, Lebanon. The Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church always adds the name “Ignatius” to his other names.
Despite its name, the Syrian Catholic Church is today strongest in Iraq and Lebanon. Many Syrian Catholic priests are today married, even though they have been legally bound to celibacy since 1888.
A brief history of the Syrian Catholic Church reads as follows:
The history of the Syrian Catholic Church is linked to the Syrian Orthodox Church. Beginning in the thirteenth century of the Christian calendar, attempts were made by the Catholic Church to reconcile with the Syrian Orthodox Church.
In 1626, Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began working from Aleppo. In 1662, many Syrian Christians accepted communion with Rome.
In 1667, two opposing Patriarchs were elected, resulting in the effective break of the Syrian Church. One group became affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, and accepted the pope in Rome as the highest authority. The other part continued as an independent church.
In the eighteenth century, the Syrian Catholics suffered from much persecution from the Ottoman rulers, as they considered the Syrian Orthodox Church to be the legitimate Syrian Christians.
In 1782, the office of the Syrian Catholic Patriarch of Antioch was formalized, after Patriarch Michael Jarweh took refuge in Lebanon.
In 1829, the Syrian Catholic Church received legal recognition inside the Ottoman Empire.
In 1831, the residence of the Patriarch was established in Aleppo.
In 1850, facing hardship from the locals in Aleppo, the Patriarch’s headquarters were moved to Mardin (in modern day Turkey).
In the 1920s, the Patriarch moved his headquarters to Beirut, Lebanon.
In 2001, Ignatius Peter VII was elected Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church.
The Christians of Syria have been Monophysites since the 5th century. That is, they rejected the rulings of the Council of Chalcedon (451) and believed in the existence of only one nature in Christ. Attempts at unification with Rome were made, without success, in 1237 and 1247. With the establishment of the Capuchins and Jesuits in Aleppo in 1626, however, conversions to Catholicism followed; and Andrew Akhidjan, a Syrian Catholic priest, was elected bishop of Aleppo (1656) and then patriarch of all Syrians (1662). Following his death and for about a century thereafter, the Catholics were severely persecuted by the Jacobites (as the Monophysite Syrians were called). Not until 1782, when Michael Jarweh, the bishop of Aleppo, was elected patriarch, did a continuous series of Syrian Catholic patriarchs begin. The patriarchs resided successively in Dayr az-Zafaran, Sharfeh, Aleppo, Mardin (in Turkey), and finally Beirut. There are patriarchal vicariates or exarchies in Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan, and Egypt, five archdioceses (Aleppo, Baghdad, Damascus, Hịmṣ, and Mosul), and one diocese (Hassakeh). Catholic Syrians observe the Liturgy of St. James in Syriac, though certain readings are in Arabic, the language spoken by the faithful.
Syrian Catholics. Members of the Syrian Catholic Church, a semi-autonomous Christian church which is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Eastern Rite. Under the Eastern Rite arrangement, the Syrian Catholics are allowed to retain their customs and rites, even when these differ from the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. For example, the Syrian Catholics follow the liturgy of James, which even today is performed in Syriac, not Latin. Syriac is still spoken in some communities in eastern Syria and northern Iraq, but for most, Arabic is the vernacular language.
The official center of the Syrian Catholic Church is Antioch, but the Patriarch has not been there for centuries. The Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church is today headquartered in Beirut, Lebanon. The Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church always adds the name “Ignatius” to his other names.
Despite its name, the Syrian Catholic Church is today strongest in Iraq and Lebanon. Many Syrian Catholic priests are today married, even though they have been legally bound to celibacy since 1888.
A brief history of the Syrian Catholic Church reads as follows:
The history of the Syrian Catholic Church is linked to the Syrian Orthodox Church. Beginning in the thirteenth century of the Christian calendar, attempts were made by the Catholic Church to reconcile with the Syrian Orthodox Church.
In 1626, Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began working from Aleppo. In 1662, many Syrian Christians accepted communion with Rome.
In 1667, two opposing Patriarchs were elected, resulting in the effective break of the Syrian Church. One group became affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church, and accepted the pope in Rome as the highest authority. The other part continued as an independent church.
In the eighteenth century, the Syrian Catholics suffered from much persecution from the Ottoman rulers, as they considered the Syrian Orthodox Church to be the legitimate Syrian Christians.
In 1782, the office of the Syrian Catholic Patriarch of Antioch was formalized, after Patriarch Michael Jarweh took refuge in Lebanon.
In 1829, the Syrian Catholic Church received legal recognition inside the Ottoman Empire.
In 1831, the residence of the Patriarch was established in Aleppo.
In 1850, facing hardship from the locals in Aleppo, the Patriarch’s headquarters were moved to Mardin (in modern day Turkey).
In the 1920s, the Patriarch moved his headquarters to Beirut, Lebanon.
In 2001, Ignatius Peter VII was elected Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church.
The Christians of Syria have been Monophysites since the 5th century. That is, they rejected the rulings of the Council of Chalcedon (451) and believed in the existence of only one nature in Christ. Attempts at unification with Rome were made, without success, in 1237 and 1247. With the establishment of the Capuchins and Jesuits in Aleppo in 1626, however, conversions to Catholicism followed; and Andrew Akhidjan, a Syrian Catholic priest, was elected bishop of Aleppo (1656) and then patriarch of all Syrians (1662). Following his death and for about a century thereafter, the Catholics were severely persecuted by the Jacobites (as the Monophysite Syrians were called). Not until 1782, when Michael Jarweh, the bishop of Aleppo, was elected patriarch, did a continuous series of Syrian Catholic patriarchs begin. The patriarchs resided successively in Dayr az-Zafaran, Sharfeh, Aleppo, Mardin (in Turkey), and finally Beirut. There are patriarchal vicariates or exarchies in Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan, and Egypt, five archdioceses (Aleppo, Baghdad, Damascus, Hịmṣ, and Mosul), and one diocese (Hassakeh). Catholic Syrians observe the Liturgy of St. James in Syriac, though certain readings are in Arabic, the language spoken by the faithful.
Syrian Orthodox Christians
Syrian Orthodox Christians. Members of the Syrian Orthodox Church, an independent Christian church of Southwest Asia, also known as the Jacobite Church. The Syrian Orthodox Church uses the Antiochene liturgy, and performs it in Syriac, which is a language close to Aramaic, the language Jesus spoke. According to their own traditions, their church was established by the Apostle Peter by the year 37 of the Christian calendar (see Acts 11:26). The church traces its first leaders back to Peter. The Antiochene church was central in formulating early Christian doctrines, through its active role in the first three synods (between 325 and 431).
A brief history of the Syrian Orthodox Church reads as follows:
Between the years 40 to 50 of the Christian calendar, one of the first Jesus-Jewish (early Christianity having not yet been defined as being distinct from Judaism) congregations outside Israel was formed in Antioch, possibly by the apostle Peter. Missionary activities subsequently began in the region, directed mainly at the non-Jewish population. Even though Antioch was the seat of the bishopric, Edessa (located 500 km east) soon got the largest congregation, and is often considered the cradle of Syriac Christianity.
In 325, the bishopric of Antioch was recognized as one of the Patriarchates in Christianity at the first Synod at Nicaea.
In 451, with the divisions of the Christian world after the Council of Chalcedon, the Syrian church joined the Sees of Antioch and Alexandria. Thereafter, the ties between Rome and Antioch were cut for good.
In the sixth century, the present church was organized by Jacob Baradaeus in cooperation with Empress Theodara. The background for this was that many Christians supported the Monophysitic idea that Jesus had only one nature, not two (divine and human), as the other large group in the region, the Nestorians, believed.
In 1663, the Syrian Church split with one group becoming affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church and accepting the pope in Rome as the highest authority. This group became known as the Syrian Catholic Church.
In 1895, about 25,000 Syrian Orthodox were killed by Muslims in East Turkey.
During the 1910s, most of the Syrian Orthodox living in Turkey left the country out of fear for their safety. Indeed, in 1915, about one-third of all Syriac Christians, around 90,000, were killed by Turkish Muslim nationalists.
In 1930, the Syrian Orthodox Church of Kerala, India, split from the main church in Syria, and joined the Roman Catholic Church as the Malankarese Catholic Church. In 1933, the Patriarch moved his headquarters to Homs. In 1959, the Patriarch moved his headquarters again to Damascus.
The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East, with members spread throughout the world. The Syriac Orthodox Church derives its origin from one of the first Christian communities, established in Antioch by the Apostle St. Peter. It employs the oldest surviving liturgy in Christianity, the Liturgy of St. James the Apostle, and uses Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic spoken by the Lord and His Apostles, as its official and liturgical language. The church is led by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch.
Syrian Orthodox Christians. Members of the Syrian Orthodox Church, an independent Christian church of Southwest Asia, also known as the Jacobite Church. The Syrian Orthodox Church uses the Antiochene liturgy, and performs it in Syriac, which is a language close to Aramaic, the language Jesus spoke. According to their own traditions, their church was established by the Apostle Peter by the year 37 of the Christian calendar (see Acts 11:26). The church traces its first leaders back to Peter. The Antiochene church was central in formulating early Christian doctrines, through its active role in the first three synods (between 325 and 431).
A brief history of the Syrian Orthodox Church reads as follows:
Between the years 40 to 50 of the Christian calendar, one of the first Jesus-Jewish (early Christianity having not yet been defined as being distinct from Judaism) congregations outside Israel was formed in Antioch, possibly by the apostle Peter. Missionary activities subsequently began in the region, directed mainly at the non-Jewish population. Even though Antioch was the seat of the bishopric, Edessa (located 500 km east) soon got the largest congregation, and is often considered the cradle of Syriac Christianity.
In 325, the bishopric of Antioch was recognized as one of the Patriarchates in Christianity at the first Synod at Nicaea.
In 451, with the divisions of the Christian world after the Council of Chalcedon, the Syrian church joined the Sees of Antioch and Alexandria. Thereafter, the ties between Rome and Antioch were cut for good.
In the sixth century, the present church was organized by Jacob Baradaeus in cooperation with Empress Theodara. The background for this was that many Christians supported the Monophysitic idea that Jesus had only one nature, not two (divine and human), as the other large group in the region, the Nestorians, believed.
In 1663, the Syrian Church split with one group becoming affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church and accepting the pope in Rome as the highest authority. This group became known as the Syrian Catholic Church.
In 1895, about 25,000 Syrian Orthodox were killed by Muslims in East Turkey.
During the 1910s, most of the Syrian Orthodox living in Turkey left the country out of fear for their safety. Indeed, in 1915, about one-third of all Syriac Christians, around 90,000, were killed by Turkish Muslim nationalists.
In 1930, the Syrian Orthodox Church of Kerala, India, split from the main church in Syria, and joined the Roman Catholic Church as the Malankarese Catholic Church. In 1933, the Patriarch moved his headquarters to Homs. In 1959, the Patriarch moved his headquarters again to Damascus.
The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East, with members spread throughout the world. The Syriac Orthodox Church derives its origin from one of the first Christian communities, established in Antioch by the Apostle St. Peter. It employs the oldest surviving liturgy in Christianity, the Liturgy of St. James the Apostle, and uses Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic spoken by the Lord and His Apostles, as its official and liturgical language. The church is led by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch.
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