Ibadiyah
Ibadiyah. See Ibadiyya, al-.
Ibadiyya see Ibadiyah.
Ibadiyah. See Ibadiyya, al-.
Ibadiyya see Ibadiyah.
Ibadiyya, al-
Ibadiyya, al- (Ibadiya) (Abadiyya). One of the main branches of the Kharijites, representatives of which are today found in Oman, East Africa, Tripolitania and southern Algeria. The name is derived from ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Ibad (of the eighth century) of Basra, who broke away from the Khariji extremists.
The al-Ibadiyya (the Ibadites) was a branch of the first religious division of Islam, the Kharijites (“Rebels”), with their own state structures. The Ibadites first waged war against the Umayyad caliphs from Basra and established several theocratic republics under the leadership of their own Imams. In the mid-8th century, they ruled various towns in Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria. The Ibadites then migrated to the Algerian Sahara. Ibadite imams ruled from 751 until the end of the 18th century in Muscat and Oman, and during the 18th century in Bahrain and Zanzibar too. Ibadite communities still exist today in Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, and are particularly strong in Oman.
The chief scholar and organizer of the Ibadis was Jabir ibn Zayd al-Azdi from Oman (c. 639-c.711). His scholarly pupil Abu ‘Ubayda Muslim at first hoped to win the caliphs to Ibadism, but later made Basra into the center of missionary activities. Outside Basra there were Ibadi centers at Kufa, Mosul, the Hijaz, even at Mecca and Medina, in Central Arabia, Hadhramaut, Yemen and Oman, where the town of Nizwa was their capital. The first to preach Ibadism in East Africa in the ninth century were probably merchants from Oman. The movement also spread to Persia (Khurasan), Egypt, Ifriqiya, the Maghrib, western and central Sudan, and to Spain and Sicily.
Unlike the Khariji extremists, represented by the Azraqis, the Ibadis do not regard a non-Khariji Muslim as an infidel and a polytheist, and thus reject assassination for religious reasons. Marriage with non-Ibadis is also permitted. If circumstances were unfavorable, it was not necessary to have an Imam. The latter was elected by a council of important lay persons or by shaykhs, and proclaimed before the people. He was also leader in war, judge and theologian. He could be deposed if he did not observe the Qur‘an, the Sunna of the Prophet and the example of the first Imams. In general, the dogma and the politico-religious theories of the Ibadiyya resemble those of the Sunnis
Among the several Ibadi sects should be mentioned the Nukkaris of North Africa.
The Kharijite movement broke with the fourth caliph Ali in 657 after he agreed to submit his conflict with the governor of Syria, Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, to arbitration. This action, the Kharijites argued, undermined both the religious and political leadership of Ali. Equally hostile to Umayyad rule by hereditary succession, the Kharijites espoused an ideology of absolute egalitarianism, social austerity, and militant puritanism. The two major Kharijite factions were the Azariqa, who waged a relentless war to overthrow the existing social and political order, and the Ibadiyya, who took a politically quiescent position (kitman) during the civil wars of the seventh century.
The Ibadiyya, who derive their name from their founder Abdallah ibn Ibad al-Murri al-Tamimi (died c. 720), were originally based in Basra. Under the early Abbasids in the eighth and ninth centuries, the Ibadiyya took an activist missionary approach (zuhur) and spread in the desert frontier regions of north Africa (Tahert), and eastern and southern Arabia (Hadramawt) among tribal social segments. The Ibadiyya developed an elaborate political theory that emphasizes the primacy of religious leadership (imamate), but allows the coexistence of various imams (unlike in Shiʿism). Notwithstanding their acceptance of the Muʿtazilite doctrine of the createdness of the Qurʾan, the Ibadiyya largely concur with Sunni Islam, particularly the Maliki school on matters of law. The sect survives today in Oman, eastern Africa (Zanzibar), Libya (Jabal Nafusa and Zuagha), the island of Djerba (Tunisia), and southern Algeria (Wargla and Mzab).
According to Ibadi doctrine, an imam must be elected with absolute ruling authority over the community. His authority is absolute as long as he abides by Ibadi principles and law, and he can be deposed if he has committed a great disobedience and has not repented. However, such conditions remain theoretical in general. There is a tradition of a “chief elector” which had its root deep in the development of Ibadiyah in Oman. Although there is no post in the Ibadi jurisprudence for the chief elector, the rules and acts considered correct are derived from the acts and judgments of the consecutive chief electors. Ibadi jurisprudence and literature hold in high esteem the ‘ulama‘ (learned men) in general, and the imam is expected to obey them and to abide by their rulings. However, when the time is considered convenient for electing an imam, it is the ‘ulama‘ who lead the tribal chiefs to prepare for such an election, and the leading figure of the ‘ulama‘ will act as the chief elector. This task begins by getting the main Ibadi scholars in the country to communicate with each other and to reach an agreement on a person who will be proper for the post. They prepare for the election and assure that the tribal chiefs will give their support to the eleced imam. They continue, led by the chief elector, to check on the imam and to ensure that he abides by the Ibadi creed and rules of conduct.
Ibadi political power in Oman began with a seizure of power by the first publicly elected imam, al-Julanda ibn Mas‘ud (r. c. 749-751), who was slain in battle by an ‘Abbasid force. The imamate was revived in 793 under Imam Muhammad ibn ‘Affan. In 893, the ‘Abbasid force reconquered Oman, after which the Ibadiyah continued to elect imams there and to exercise considerable authority. Imam Nasir ibn Murshid al-Ya‘rubi (r. c. 1624-1649) established an Ibadi dynasty in the course of his struggle against Portuguese colonial dominance. This dynasty was replaced by the present ruling family, whose first ruler was Imam Ahmad ibn Sa‘id al-Busa‘idi (r. 1753/54-1783).
Ibadi revivalism in nineteenth century Oman was characterized by disputes centered on the election of a zuhur (public) imam, in which various rulers were accused of departing from true Ibadi principles (the only legitimate basis for deposing an imam). Thus, the rise of Imam ‘Azzan ibn Qays (r. 1868-1871) was supported by the theologian Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili (d. 1871), and the rise of Imam Rashid al-Kharusi (r. 1913-1920) by the noted historian and theologian ‘Abd Allah al-Salimi (d. 1914).
Abadiyya see Ibadiyya, al-
Ibadites see Ibadiyya, al-
Ibadiyya, al- (Ibadiya) (Abadiyya). One of the main branches of the Kharijites, representatives of which are today found in Oman, East Africa, Tripolitania and southern Algeria. The name is derived from ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Ibad (of the eighth century) of Basra, who broke away from the Khariji extremists.
The al-Ibadiyya (the Ibadites) was a branch of the first religious division of Islam, the Kharijites (“Rebels”), with their own state structures. The Ibadites first waged war against the Umayyad caliphs from Basra and established several theocratic republics under the leadership of their own Imams. In the mid-8th century, they ruled various towns in Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria. The Ibadites then migrated to the Algerian Sahara. Ibadite imams ruled from 751 until the end of the 18th century in Muscat and Oman, and during the 18th century in Bahrain and Zanzibar too. Ibadite communities still exist today in Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, and are particularly strong in Oman.
The chief scholar and organizer of the Ibadis was Jabir ibn Zayd al-Azdi from Oman (c. 639-c.711). His scholarly pupil Abu ‘Ubayda Muslim at first hoped to win the caliphs to Ibadism, but later made Basra into the center of missionary activities. Outside Basra there were Ibadi centers at Kufa, Mosul, the Hijaz, even at Mecca and Medina, in Central Arabia, Hadhramaut, Yemen and Oman, where the town of Nizwa was their capital. The first to preach Ibadism in East Africa in the ninth century were probably merchants from Oman. The movement also spread to Persia (Khurasan), Egypt, Ifriqiya, the Maghrib, western and central Sudan, and to Spain and Sicily.
Unlike the Khariji extremists, represented by the Azraqis, the Ibadis do not regard a non-Khariji Muslim as an infidel and a polytheist, and thus reject assassination for religious reasons. Marriage with non-Ibadis is also permitted. If circumstances were unfavorable, it was not necessary to have an Imam. The latter was elected by a council of important lay persons or by shaykhs, and proclaimed before the people. He was also leader in war, judge and theologian. He could be deposed if he did not observe the Qur‘an, the Sunna of the Prophet and the example of the first Imams. In general, the dogma and the politico-religious theories of the Ibadiyya resemble those of the Sunnis
Among the several Ibadi sects should be mentioned the Nukkaris of North Africa.
The Kharijite movement broke with the fourth caliph Ali in 657 after he agreed to submit his conflict with the governor of Syria, Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, to arbitration. This action, the Kharijites argued, undermined both the religious and political leadership of Ali. Equally hostile to Umayyad rule by hereditary succession, the Kharijites espoused an ideology of absolute egalitarianism, social austerity, and militant puritanism. The two major Kharijite factions were the Azariqa, who waged a relentless war to overthrow the existing social and political order, and the Ibadiyya, who took a politically quiescent position (kitman) during the civil wars of the seventh century.
The Ibadiyya, who derive their name from their founder Abdallah ibn Ibad al-Murri al-Tamimi (died c. 720), were originally based in Basra. Under the early Abbasids in the eighth and ninth centuries, the Ibadiyya took an activist missionary approach (zuhur) and spread in the desert frontier regions of north Africa (Tahert), and eastern and southern Arabia (Hadramawt) among tribal social segments. The Ibadiyya developed an elaborate political theory that emphasizes the primacy of religious leadership (imamate), but allows the coexistence of various imams (unlike in Shiʿism). Notwithstanding their acceptance of the Muʿtazilite doctrine of the createdness of the Qurʾan, the Ibadiyya largely concur with Sunni Islam, particularly the Maliki school on matters of law. The sect survives today in Oman, eastern Africa (Zanzibar), Libya (Jabal Nafusa and Zuagha), the island of Djerba (Tunisia), and southern Algeria (Wargla and Mzab).
According to Ibadi doctrine, an imam must be elected with absolute ruling authority over the community. His authority is absolute as long as he abides by Ibadi principles and law, and he can be deposed if he has committed a great disobedience and has not repented. However, such conditions remain theoretical in general. There is a tradition of a “chief elector” which had its root deep in the development of Ibadiyah in Oman. Although there is no post in the Ibadi jurisprudence for the chief elector, the rules and acts considered correct are derived from the acts and judgments of the consecutive chief electors. Ibadi jurisprudence and literature hold in high esteem the ‘ulama‘ (learned men) in general, and the imam is expected to obey them and to abide by their rulings. However, when the time is considered convenient for electing an imam, it is the ‘ulama‘ who lead the tribal chiefs to prepare for such an election, and the leading figure of the ‘ulama‘ will act as the chief elector. This task begins by getting the main Ibadi scholars in the country to communicate with each other and to reach an agreement on a person who will be proper for the post. They prepare for the election and assure that the tribal chiefs will give their support to the eleced imam. They continue, led by the chief elector, to check on the imam and to ensure that he abides by the Ibadi creed and rules of conduct.
Ibadi political power in Oman began with a seizure of power by the first publicly elected imam, al-Julanda ibn Mas‘ud (r. c. 749-751), who was slain in battle by an ‘Abbasid force. The imamate was revived in 793 under Imam Muhammad ibn ‘Affan. In 893, the ‘Abbasid force reconquered Oman, after which the Ibadiyah continued to elect imams there and to exercise considerable authority. Imam Nasir ibn Murshid al-Ya‘rubi (r. c. 1624-1649) established an Ibadi dynasty in the course of his struggle against Portuguese colonial dominance. This dynasty was replaced by the present ruling family, whose first ruler was Imam Ahmad ibn Sa‘id al-Busa‘idi (r. 1753/54-1783).
Ibadi revivalism in nineteenth century Oman was characterized by disputes centered on the election of a zuhur (public) imam, in which various rulers were accused of departing from true Ibadi principles (the only legitimate basis for deposing an imam). Thus, the rise of Imam ‘Azzan ibn Qays (r. 1868-1871) was supported by the theologian Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili (d. 1871), and the rise of Imam Rashid al-Kharusi (r. 1913-1920) by the noted historian and theologian ‘Abd Allah al-Salimi (d. 1914).
Abadiyya see Ibadiyya, al-
Ibadites see Ibadiyya, al-
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