Ibn Naqiya
Ibn Naqiya (1020-1092). Poet and man of letters of Baghdad. Among other works, he wrote a collection of Sessions which reflect an attitude of denigration and sarcasm.
Ibn Naqiya (1020-1092). Poet and man of letters of Baghdad. Among other works, he wrote a collection of Sessions which reflect an attitude of denigration and sarcasm.
Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr (Abu Bakr ibn Nubata) (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Nubāta Fariqi al-Ḥuḏāqī al-Misri) (Nubata ibn al-Misri) (1287, in Cairo - January/February 1366, in Cairo). Poet and prose writer. He was the favorite poet of the Ayyubid ruler al-Malik al-Mu‘ayyad Abu‘l-Fida‘ in Hamat.
Ibn Nubata Ibn al-Misri was an Arab poet. He is known primarily for his poetry, but he also wrote prose. Most of his works are still not or not critically edited. Research on Ibn Nubata's work is still in its infancy.
Ibn Nubata was the son of a Hadith master. Already in his youth he was interested in poetry and began to write short poems. In 1316, he left Cairo and went to Damascus. There, his stay was interrupted by short stays in Hama and Aleppo. In 1360, the Sultan summoned him back to an-Nasir al-Hasan in Cairo. Ibn Nubata died there in January or February 1366.
Abu Bakr ibn Nubata see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Nubata ibn al-Misri see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Nubāta Fariqi al-Ḥuḏāqī al-Misri see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr (Abu Bakr ibn Nubata) (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Nubāta Fariqi al-Ḥuḏāqī al-Misri) (Nubata ibn al-Misri) (1287, in Cairo - January/February 1366, in Cairo). Poet and prose writer. He was the favorite poet of the Ayyubid ruler al-Malik al-Mu‘ayyad Abu‘l-Fida‘ in Hamat.
Ibn Nubata Ibn al-Misri was an Arab poet. He is known primarily for his poetry, but he also wrote prose. Most of his works are still not or not critically edited. Research on Ibn Nubata's work is still in its infancy.
Ibn Nubata was the son of a Hadith master. Already in his youth he was interested in poetry and began to write short poems. In 1316, he left Cairo and went to Damascus. There, his stay was interrupted by short stays in Hama and Aleppo. In 1360, the Sultan summoned him back to an-Nasir al-Hasan in Cairo. Ibn Nubata died there in January or February 1366.
Abu Bakr ibn Nubata see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Nubata ibn al-Misri see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Nubāta Fariqi al-Ḥuḏāqī al-Misri see Ibn Nubata, Abu Bakr
Ibn Nubata, Abu Yahya
Ibn Nubata, Abu Yahya (Abu Yahya ibn Nubata) (d. 984). Preacher at the court of the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla ‘Ali I. His sermons, written to exhort the population to support the ruler in the war against the Byzantines, aroused great enthusiasm.
Abu Yahya ibn Nubata see Ibn Nubata, Abu Yahya
Ibn Nubata, Abu Yahya (Abu Yahya ibn Nubata) (d. 984). Preacher at the court of the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla ‘Ali I. His sermons, written to exhort the population to support the ruler in the war against the Byzantines, aroused great enthusiasm.
Abu Yahya ibn Nubata see Ibn Nubata, Abu Yahya
Ibn Qalaqis
Ibn Qalaqis (1137-1172). Arab poet, author and letter-writer of Alexandria. He visited Aden, Zabid and ‘Aydhab and wrote a description of his travels in Sicily.
Ibn Qalaqis (1137-1172). Arab poet, author and letter-writer of Alexandria. He visited Aden, Zabid and ‘Aydhab and wrote a description of his travels in Sicily.
Ibn Qasi, Abu‘l-Qasim
Ibn Qasi, Abu‘l-Qasim (Abu‘l-Qasim ibn Qasi) (d. 1151). Rebel in the Algarve. He created a fragile kingdom, but when hard-pressed, approached the Almohads who landed at Cadiz in 1146 and caused his fall as well as that of the Almoravids.
Abu'l-Qasim ibn Qasi see Ibn Qasi, Abu‘l-Qasim
Ibn Qasi, Abu‘l-Qasim (Abu‘l-Qasim ibn Qasi) (d. 1151). Rebel in the Algarve. He created a fragile kingdom, but when hard-pressed, approached the Almohads who landed at Cadiz in 1146 and caused his fall as well as that of the Almoravids.
Abu'l-Qasim ibn Qasi see Ibn Qasi, Abu‘l-Qasim
Ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat, ‘Ubayd Allah
Ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat, ‘Ubayd Allah (‘Ubayd Allah ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat). Arab poet of the Umayyad period. His verses were set to music by the great singers of Medina and later by those at the court of the ‘Abbasids.
'Ubayd Allah ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat see Ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat, ‘Ubayd Allah
Ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat, ‘Ubayd Allah (‘Ubayd Allah ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat). Arab poet of the Umayyad period. His verses were set to music by the great singers of Medina and later by those at the court of the ‘Abbasids.
'Ubayd Allah ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat see Ibn Qays al-Ruqayyat, ‘Ubayd Allah
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (Ibn al-Qayyim) (February 4, 1292-1350). Hanbali theologian and jurisconsult of Damascus. He was the most famous pupil of Ibn Taymiyya but, unlike his master, was much more strongly influenced by Sufism. He also was less of a polemicist and much more a preacher, and a writer of great talent. He is still today an author very highly esteemed among the Wahhabiyya, the Salafiyya and in many circles of North African Islam.
Ibn al-Qayyim was a famous Sunni Islamic jurist, commentator on the Qur'an, astronomer, chemist, philosopher, psychologist, scientist and theologian. Although he is commonly referred to as "the scholar of the heart," given his extensive works pertaining to human behavior and ethics, Ibn al-Qayyim's scholarship focused on the sciences of Hadith and Fiqh.
Ibn al-Qayyim was born in the village of Izra' in Hauran, near Damascus, Syria. There is little known of his childhood except that he received a comprehensive Islamic education thanks to his father. From an early age, he set about acquiring knowledge of the Islamic sciences from the scholars of his time. He studied under his father who was a principal at the Madrasa al-Jawziyya, one of the few centers devoted to Hanbalite fiqh in Damascus, and thereafter pursued his quest for knowledge studying the works and teachings of scholars known in his time. His schooling centered around Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and the science of prophetic traditions.
Ibn al-Qayyim's teachers included his father, Abu Bakr, Shihaab al-'Abir, Taqiyyud-Deen Sulaymaan, Safiyyud-Deen al-Hindee, Ismaa'eel Ibn Muhammad al-Harraanee. However, the most notable of his teachers was Shaykhul-lslaam Ibn Taymiyyah, whom he accompanied and studied under for sixteen years.
Ibn al-Qayyim ultimately joined the study circle of the Muslim scholar Sheikh ul-Islam Taqiyyu-Deen Ahmad Ibn Taymiyah (1263-1328), who kept him in his company as his closest student, disciple and his successor. Ibn al-Qayyim was fervent in his devotion to Islam, and he was a loyal student and disciple of Ibn Taymiyah. He defended Ibn Taymiyyah's religious opinions and approaches, he compiled and edited most of his works, and taught the same.
Because of their views, both the teacher and the student were persecuted, tortured by tyrannical rulers, and humiliated in public by the local authorities, as they were imprisoned in a single cell in the central prison of Damascus, known today as al-Qala.
When Ibn Taymiyyah died, Ibn al-Qayyim was freed and subsequently furthered his studies, holding study circles and classes. He taught Islamic Jurisprudence at al-Sadriyya school in Damascus, before he held the position of the Imam of the Jawziyyah school. Most of his writings were compilations, although he authored several books and manuscripts with his own handwriting which are preserved in the central Library of Damascus.
Among the renowned Muslim scholars who studied under him, include Ibn 'Abd al-Haadi, al-Fayruz Aabadi, Ibn Rajab, Ibn Kathir, and others who frequented his circles.
Ibn al-Qayyim catered to all the branches of Islamic science, and was particularly known and commended for his commentaries.
Imam Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah was an avid and a resolute worshipper. He devoted long hours to his supererogatory nightly prayers, and was in a constant state of remembrance (dhikr), as he was known for his extended prostrations. During Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah's imprisonment in al-Qal'a prison in Damascus, he was constantly reading the Qur'an, and studying its meanings. Ibn Rajab noted that during that period of seclusion, he gained extensive spiritual success, as well as he developed a great analytical wisdom, knowledge, and understanding of the prophetic traditions.
Upon his release, he performed the pilgrimage to Makkah several times, and sometimes he stayed in Makkah for a prolonged period of devotion and circumambulation of the holy Ka'ba.
Ibn al-Qayyim died at the age of sixty, on or about September 23, 1350, and was buried besides his father at al-Saghīr Cemetery.
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah's contributions to the Islamic library are extensive, and they particularly deal with the Qur'anic commentaries, and understanding and analysis of the prophetic traditions (Fiqh-us Sunnah):
* Zad al-Ma'ad (Provision of the hereafter)
* Al-Waabil Sayyib minal kalim tayyib - a commentary on hadith about Prophet Yahya ibn Zakariyya.
* I'laam ul Muwaqqi'een 'an Rabb il 'Aalameen
* Tahthib Sunan Abi Da'ud
* Madaarij Saalikeen which is a rearrangement of the book by Shaikh Abdullah al-Ansari, Manazil-u Sa'ireen (Stations of the Seekers);
* Tafsir Mu'awwadhatain (Tafsir of Surah Falaq and Nas);
* Fawā'id
* Ad-Dā'i wa Dawā also known as Al Jawābul kāfi liman sa'ala 'an Dawā'i Shaafi
* Haadi Arwah ila biladil Afrah
* Uddatu Sabirin wa Dhakhiratu Shakirin
* Ighadatu lahfan fi masayid shaytan
* Rawdhatul Muhibbīn
* Ahkām ahl al-dhimma"
* Tuhfatul Mawdud bi Ahkam al-Mawlud
* Miftah Dar As-Sa'adah
* Jala al-afham fi fadhl salati ala khayral anam
* Al-Manar al-Munif
* Al-Tibb al-Nabawiya - a book on Prophetic Medicine (available in English as "The Prophetic Medicine", or as "Healing with the Medicine of the Prophet" (sal allahu `alayhi wa salim)
* Al-Furusiyya
Amongst his most prominent students were: Ibn Kathir (d. c. 1373), Al-Dhahabi (d. c. 1347), Ibn Rajab (d. c. 1393) and Ibn Abdul-Haadee (d. c. 1343), as well as two of his sons, Ibraaheem and Sharafud-Deen Abdullaah.
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (Ibn al-Qayyim) (February 4, 1292-1350). Hanbali theologian and jurisconsult of Damascus. He was the most famous pupil of Ibn Taymiyya but, unlike his master, was much more strongly influenced by Sufism. He also was less of a polemicist and much more a preacher, and a writer of great talent. He is still today an author very highly esteemed among the Wahhabiyya, the Salafiyya and in many circles of North African Islam.
Ibn al-Qayyim was a famous Sunni Islamic jurist, commentator on the Qur'an, astronomer, chemist, philosopher, psychologist, scientist and theologian. Although he is commonly referred to as "the scholar of the heart," given his extensive works pertaining to human behavior and ethics, Ibn al-Qayyim's scholarship focused on the sciences of Hadith and Fiqh.
Ibn al-Qayyim was born in the village of Izra' in Hauran, near Damascus, Syria. There is little known of his childhood except that he received a comprehensive Islamic education thanks to his father. From an early age, he set about acquiring knowledge of the Islamic sciences from the scholars of his time. He studied under his father who was a principal at the Madrasa al-Jawziyya, one of the few centers devoted to Hanbalite fiqh in Damascus, and thereafter pursued his quest for knowledge studying the works and teachings of scholars known in his time. His schooling centered around Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and the science of prophetic traditions.
Ibn al-Qayyim's teachers included his father, Abu Bakr, Shihaab al-'Abir, Taqiyyud-Deen Sulaymaan, Safiyyud-Deen al-Hindee, Ismaa'eel Ibn Muhammad al-Harraanee. However, the most notable of his teachers was Shaykhul-lslaam Ibn Taymiyyah, whom he accompanied and studied under for sixteen years.
Ibn al-Qayyim ultimately joined the study circle of the Muslim scholar Sheikh ul-Islam Taqiyyu-Deen Ahmad Ibn Taymiyah (1263-1328), who kept him in his company as his closest student, disciple and his successor. Ibn al-Qayyim was fervent in his devotion to Islam, and he was a loyal student and disciple of Ibn Taymiyah. He defended Ibn Taymiyyah's religious opinions and approaches, he compiled and edited most of his works, and taught the same.
Because of their views, both the teacher and the student were persecuted, tortured by tyrannical rulers, and humiliated in public by the local authorities, as they were imprisoned in a single cell in the central prison of Damascus, known today as al-Qala.
When Ibn Taymiyyah died, Ibn al-Qayyim was freed and subsequently furthered his studies, holding study circles and classes. He taught Islamic Jurisprudence at al-Sadriyya school in Damascus, before he held the position of the Imam of the Jawziyyah school. Most of his writings were compilations, although he authored several books and manuscripts with his own handwriting which are preserved in the central Library of Damascus.
Among the renowned Muslim scholars who studied under him, include Ibn 'Abd al-Haadi, al-Fayruz Aabadi, Ibn Rajab, Ibn Kathir, and others who frequented his circles.
Ibn al-Qayyim catered to all the branches of Islamic science, and was particularly known and commended for his commentaries.
Imam Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah was an avid and a resolute worshipper. He devoted long hours to his supererogatory nightly prayers, and was in a constant state of remembrance (dhikr), as he was known for his extended prostrations. During Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah's imprisonment in al-Qal'a prison in Damascus, he was constantly reading the Qur'an, and studying its meanings. Ibn Rajab noted that during that period of seclusion, he gained extensive spiritual success, as well as he developed a great analytical wisdom, knowledge, and understanding of the prophetic traditions.
Upon his release, he performed the pilgrimage to Makkah several times, and sometimes he stayed in Makkah for a prolonged period of devotion and circumambulation of the holy Ka'ba.
Ibn al-Qayyim died at the age of sixty, on or about September 23, 1350, and was buried besides his father at al-Saghīr Cemetery.
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah's contributions to the Islamic library are extensive, and they particularly deal with the Qur'anic commentaries, and understanding and analysis of the prophetic traditions (Fiqh-us Sunnah):
* Zad al-Ma'ad (Provision of the hereafter)
* Al-Waabil Sayyib minal kalim tayyib - a commentary on hadith about Prophet Yahya ibn Zakariyya.
* I'laam ul Muwaqqi'een 'an Rabb il 'Aalameen
* Tahthib Sunan Abi Da'ud
* Madaarij Saalikeen which is a rearrangement of the book by Shaikh Abdullah al-Ansari, Manazil-u Sa'ireen (Stations of the Seekers);
* Tafsir Mu'awwadhatain (Tafsir of Surah Falaq and Nas);
* Fawā'id
* Ad-Dā'i wa Dawā also known as Al Jawābul kāfi liman sa'ala 'an Dawā'i Shaafi
* Haadi Arwah ila biladil Afrah
* Uddatu Sabirin wa Dhakhiratu Shakirin
* Ighadatu lahfan fi masayid shaytan
* Rawdhatul Muhibbīn
* Ahkām ahl al-dhimma"
* Tuhfatul Mawdud bi Ahkam al-Mawlud
* Miftah Dar As-Sa'adah
* Jala al-afham fi fadhl salati ala khayral anam
* Al-Manar al-Munif
* Al-Tibb al-Nabawiya - a book on Prophetic Medicine (available in English as "The Prophetic Medicine", or as "Healing with the Medicine of the Prophet" (sal allahu `alayhi wa salim)
* Al-Furusiyya
Amongst his most prominent students were: Ibn Kathir (d. c. 1373), Al-Dhahabi (d. c. 1347), Ibn Rajab (d. c. 1393) and Ibn Abdul-Haadee (d. c. 1343), as well as two of his sons, Ibraaheem and Sharafud-Deen Abdullaah.
Ibn Qutayba
Ibn Qutayba (Ibn Qutaybah) (Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullaah bin Muslim Ibn Qutaybah Ad-Dinawaree) (828-889). One of the great Sunni polygraphs, being both a theologian and a man of letters. The some sixteen authentic works of Ibn Qutayba show the influence of a number of teachers in all fields of extant scholarship. He also borrowed from existing, and remarkably faithful, translations of the Torah and the Gospels. In his theological works, he put his literary talents at the service of the restoration of Sunnism, undertaken by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil after the latter had put an end to the disputation
Ibn Qutayba (Ibn Qutaybah) (Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullaah bin Muslim Ibn Qutaybah Ad-Dinawaree) (828-889). One of the great Sunni polygraphs, being both a theologian and a man of letters. The some sixteen authentic works of Ibn Qutayba show the influence of a number of teachers in all fields of extant scholarship. He also borrowed from existing, and remarkably faithful, translations of the Torah and the Gospels. In his theological works, he put his literary talents at the service of the restoration of Sunnism, undertaken by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil after the latter had put an end to the disputation
whether the Qur‘an was created or not (in Arabic, mihna). He also wrote two chronologically arranged anthologies, one on poetic themes and the other on the poets themselves.
Ibn Qutaybah was born in Kufa in what is now modern day Iraq. He was of Iranian descent. His father was from Merv. Having studied tradition and philology he became qadi in Dinawar, and afterwards a teacher in Baghdad, where he died. He was the first representative of the eclectic school of Baghdad philologists that succeeded the schools of Kufa and Basra. Throughout his life of warfare, Qutaybah succeeded in the capture of Bhari and Samarqand. Throughout the distance of over 3000 km towards Sammarqand, Qutayba and his army consisting of 30,000 soldiers and cavalry fought more than 20 battles and won all of them.
Ibn Qutaybah was viewed by Sunni Muslims as a hadith master, foremost philologist, linguist, and man of letters.
Some of the works attributed to Ibn Qutaybah are:
* Gharīb al-Qur’ān also known as Mushkil al-Qur’ān.
* The Interpretation of Conflicting Narrations (Arabic: Ta’wīl Mukhtalif al-Hadīth)
* Adab al-Kitāb.
* al-Akhbār al-T.iwāl.
* al-Amwāl.
* al-Anwā’.
* al-‘Arab wa ‘Ulūmuhā, on Arab intellectual history.
* al-Ashriba, on alcoholic beverages.
* Dalā’il al-Nubuwwa or A‘lām al-Nubuwwa, on the proofs of Prophethood.
* Fad.l al-‘Arab ‘alā al-‘Ajam, in praise of the Arabs.
* I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, a philological commentary.
* al-Ikhtilāf fī al-Lafz. wa al-Radd ‘alā al-Jahmiyya wal-Mushabbiha, a refutation of both the allegorizers and the anthropomorphists. This slim volume received editions in Egypt.
* al-Ishtiqāq.
* Is.lāh. Ghalat. Abī ‘Ubayd, corrections on al-Qāsim ibn Salām’s Gharīb al-H.adīth.
* Jāmi‘ al-Fiqh, on jurisprudence.
* Jāmi‘ al-Nah.w al-Kabīr and Jāmi‘ al-Nah.w al-S.aghīr.
* al-Jarāthīm, on linguistics.
* al-Jawābāt al-H.ādira.
* al-Ma‘ānī al-Kabīr.
* al-Ma‘ārif, a slim volume that manages to cover topics from the beginning of creation and facts about the Jāhiliyya to the names of the Companions and famous jurists and hadīth masters.
* al-Masā’il wal-Ajwiba.
* al-Maysar wal-Qidāh, on dice and lots.
* al-Na‘m wal-Bahā’im, on cattle and livestock.
* al-Nabāt,on botany.
* al-Qirā’āt, on the canonical readings.
* al-Radd ‘alā al-Qā’il bi Khalq al-Qur’ān, against those who assert the createdness of the Qur’an.
* al-Radd ‘alā al-Shu‘aybiyya, a refutation of a sub-sect of the ‘Ajārida ‘At.awiyya, itself a sub-sect of the Khawārij.
* al-Rah.l wal-Manzil.
* Ta‘bīr al-Ru’yā, on the interpretation of dreams.
* Talqīn al-Muta‘allim min al-Nah, on grammar.
* ‘Uyūn al-Akhbār, on history.
* ‘Uyūn al-Shi‘r, on poetry.
* al-Shi‘r wal-Shu‘arā’
Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullaah bin Muslim Ibn Qutaybah Ad-Dinawaree see Ibn Qutayba
Ibn Qutaybah see Ibn Qutayba
Ibn Qutaybah was born in Kufa in what is now modern day Iraq. He was of Iranian descent. His father was from Merv. Having studied tradition and philology he became qadi in Dinawar, and afterwards a teacher in Baghdad, where he died. He was the first representative of the eclectic school of Baghdad philologists that succeeded the schools of Kufa and Basra. Throughout his life of warfare, Qutaybah succeeded in the capture of Bhari and Samarqand. Throughout the distance of over 3000 km towards Sammarqand, Qutayba and his army consisting of 30,000 soldiers and cavalry fought more than 20 battles and won all of them.
Ibn Qutaybah was viewed by Sunni Muslims as a hadith master, foremost philologist, linguist, and man of letters.
Some of the works attributed to Ibn Qutaybah are:
* Gharīb al-Qur’ān also known as Mushkil al-Qur’ān.
* The Interpretation of Conflicting Narrations (Arabic: Ta’wīl Mukhtalif al-Hadīth)
* Adab al-Kitāb.
* al-Akhbār al-T.iwāl.
* al-Amwāl.
* al-Anwā’.
* al-‘Arab wa ‘Ulūmuhā, on Arab intellectual history.
* al-Ashriba, on alcoholic beverages.
* Dalā’il al-Nubuwwa or A‘lām al-Nubuwwa, on the proofs of Prophethood.
* Fad.l al-‘Arab ‘alā al-‘Ajam, in praise of the Arabs.
* I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, a philological commentary.
* al-Ikhtilāf fī al-Lafz. wa al-Radd ‘alā al-Jahmiyya wal-Mushabbiha, a refutation of both the allegorizers and the anthropomorphists. This slim volume received editions in Egypt.
* al-Ishtiqāq.
* Is.lāh. Ghalat. Abī ‘Ubayd, corrections on al-Qāsim ibn Salām’s Gharīb al-H.adīth.
* Jāmi‘ al-Fiqh, on jurisprudence.
* Jāmi‘ al-Nah.w al-Kabīr and Jāmi‘ al-Nah.w al-S.aghīr.
* al-Jarāthīm, on linguistics.
* al-Jawābāt al-H.ādira.
* al-Ma‘ānī al-Kabīr.
* al-Ma‘ārif, a slim volume that manages to cover topics from the beginning of creation and facts about the Jāhiliyya to the names of the Companions and famous jurists and hadīth masters.
* al-Masā’il wal-Ajwiba.
* al-Maysar wal-Qidāh, on dice and lots.
* al-Na‘m wal-Bahā’im, on cattle and livestock.
* al-Nabāt,on botany.
* al-Qirā’āt, on the canonical readings.
* al-Radd ‘alā al-Qā’il bi Khalq al-Qur’ān, against those who assert the createdness of the Qur’an.
* al-Radd ‘alā al-Shu‘aybiyya, a refutation of a sub-sect of the ‘Ajārida ‘At.awiyya, itself a sub-sect of the Khawārij.
* al-Rah.l wal-Manzil.
* Ta‘bīr al-Ru’yā, on the interpretation of dreams.
* Talqīn al-Muta‘allim min al-Nah, on grammar.
* ‘Uyūn al-Akhbār, on history.
* ‘Uyūn al-Shi‘r, on poetry.
* al-Shi‘r wal-Shu‘arā’
Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullaah bin Muslim Ibn Qutaybah Ad-Dinawaree see Ibn Qutayba
Ibn Qutaybah see Ibn Qutayba
Ibn Quzman
Ibn Quzman. Name of a Cordoban family, of which the following five men of letters are worthy of mention: (1) Abu‘l-Asbagh, a poet of the tenth century; (2) Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Akbar (d. 1114) , a famous stylist and poet; (3) Abu Marwan ibn Abi Bakr (d. 1169), a scholar and jurist; (4) Abu‘l-Husayn ibn Abi Marwan (d. 1196), a jurist and poet; and (5) Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Asghar (d. 1160), the famous poet of the popular Arabic poem in strophic form, called zajal, which is written only in the Arabic dialect of Spain.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Quzman (Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Asghar) was born in 1078 in Cordoba and died in 1160 also in Cordoba. He is one of the most famous poets of al-Andalus and he is also considered to be one of its most original. He is the author of classical poetry, but above all of zéjeles. Characteristic of the zejel is its colloquial language, as well as a typical rhyming scheme: aaab cccb dddb where b rhymes with a constantly recurring refrain of one or two lines. The zejel can be seen as a form of the muwashshah.
The life-style of Ibn Quzman was similar to that of troubadours. His approach to life as expressed in his melodious poems, together with their mixed idiom (occasionally using words of the Romance languages), shows a resemblance to the later vernacular troubadour poetry of France.
Ibn Quzman. Name of a Cordoban family, of which the following five men of letters are worthy of mention: (1) Abu‘l-Asbagh, a poet of the tenth century; (2) Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Akbar (d. 1114) , a famous stylist and poet; (3) Abu Marwan ibn Abi Bakr (d. 1169), a scholar and jurist; (4) Abu‘l-Husayn ibn Abi Marwan (d. 1196), a jurist and poet; and (5) Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Asghar (d. 1160), the famous poet of the popular Arabic poem in strophic form, called zajal, which is written only in the Arabic dialect of Spain.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Quzman (Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Asghar) was born in 1078 in Cordoba and died in 1160 also in Cordoba. He is one of the most famous poets of al-Andalus and he is also considered to be one of its most original. He is the author of classical poetry, but above all of zéjeles. Characteristic of the zejel is its colloquial language, as well as a typical rhyming scheme: aaab cccb dddb where b rhymes with a constantly recurring refrain of one or two lines. The zejel can be seen as a form of the muwashshah.
The life-style of Ibn Quzman was similar to that of troubadours. His approach to life as expressed in his melodious poems, together with their mixed idiom (occasionally using words of the Romance languages), shows a resemblance to the later vernacular troubadour poetry of France.
Ibn Ra‘iq
Ibn Ra‘iq (Muhammad ibn Ra‘iq) (d. 942). First commander-in-chief of the army of the ‘Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad.
Muhammad ibn Ra'iq see Ibn Ra‘iq
Ibn Ra‘iq (Muhammad ibn Ra‘iq) (d. 942). First commander-in-chief of the army of the ‘Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad.
Muhammad ibn Ra'iq see Ibn Ra‘iq
Ibn Rashiq, Abu ‘Ali Hasan
Ibn Rashiq, Abu ‘Ali Hasan (Abu ‘Ali Hasan ibn Rashiq) (1000-1063). One of the most illustrious men of letters of Ifriqiya. His poetry is characterized by its conscious artistic elegance.
Abu 'Ali Hasan ibn Rashiq see Ibn Rashiq, Abu ‘Ali Hasan
Ibn Rashiq, Abu ‘Ali Hasan (Abu ‘Ali Hasan ibn Rashiq) (1000-1063). One of the most illustrious men of letters of Ifriqiya. His poetry is characterized by its conscious artistic elegance.
Abu 'Ali Hasan ibn Rashiq see Ibn Rashiq, Abu ‘Ali Hasan
Ibn Ridwan
Ibn Ridwan (Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri) (998-1061). Renowned physician, medical author and polemicist of Egypt. His commentaries on Ptolemy and Galen were translated into Latin, Turkish and Hebrew. Another work of his contains important information on the transmission of Greek science to the Arabs.
Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (c. 988–c. 1061) was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer who was born in Giza. He was a commentator on ancient Greek medicine, and in particular on Galen. His commentary on Galen's Ars Parva was translated by Gerardo Cremonese. However, he is better known for providing the most detailed description of the supernova now known as SN 1006, the brightest steller event in recorded history, which he observed in the year 1006. This was written in a commentary on Ptolemy's work Tetrabiblos.
Ibn Ridwan was later cited by European authors as Haly, or Haly Abenrudian. He also contributed to the theory of induction. He engaged in a celebrated polemic against another physician, Ibn Butlan of Baghdad.
The works attributed to Ibn Ridwan include:
* a commentary on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos (the pseudo-Ptolemaic Centiloquy and its commentary, which is sometimes attributed to Ali, is actually the work of Ahmad ibn Yusuf ibn al-Daya)
* De revolutionibus nativitatum (The Revolutions of Nativities)
* Tractatus de cometarum significationibus per xii signa zodiaci (Treatise on the Significations of Comets in the twelve Signs of the Zodiac)
Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri see Ibn Ridwan
Ibn Ridwan (Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri) (998-1061). Renowned physician, medical author and polemicist of Egypt. His commentaries on Ptolemy and Galen were translated into Latin, Turkish and Hebrew. Another work of his contains important information on the transmission of Greek science to the Arabs.
Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (c. 988–c. 1061) was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer who was born in Giza. He was a commentator on ancient Greek medicine, and in particular on Galen. His commentary on Galen's Ars Parva was translated by Gerardo Cremonese. However, he is better known for providing the most detailed description of the supernova now known as SN 1006, the brightest steller event in recorded history, which he observed in the year 1006. This was written in a commentary on Ptolemy's work Tetrabiblos.
Ibn Ridwan was later cited by European authors as Haly, or Haly Abenrudian. He also contributed to the theory of induction. He engaged in a celebrated polemic against another physician, Ibn Butlan of Baghdad.
The works attributed to Ibn Ridwan include:
* a commentary on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos (the pseudo-Ptolemaic Centiloquy and its commentary, which is sometimes attributed to Ali, is actually the work of Ahmad ibn Yusuf ibn al-Daya)
* De revolutionibus nativitatum (The Revolutions of Nativities)
* Tractatus de cometarum significationibus per xii signa zodiaci (Treatise on the Significations of Comets in the twelve Signs of the Zodiac)
Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri see Ibn Ridwan
Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad (Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad ibn Rushd) (Abul-Waleed Muhammad ibn Rushd) (Averroes) (1126 - December 10, 1198). Muslim philosopher, physician, Maliki jurist, and Ash'ari theologian. .
Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd, better known just as Ibn Rushd, and in European literature as Averroes, was an Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath: a master of Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern day Spain, and died in Marrakech, modern day Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism. He has been described as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe.
Ibn Rushd was born in Cordoba, Spain, and would spend all of his life in Muslim Spain. His father, a judge in Cordoba, instructed Ibn Rushd in Muslim jurisprudence. In his native city, he also studied theology, philosophy, and mathematics under the Arab philosopher Ibn Tufayl (d.1185) and medicine under the Arab physician Avenzoar (c.1090-1162).
Ibn Rushd was appointed judge in Seville in 1169 and in Cordoba in 1171. In 1182, he succeeded Ibn Tufayl and became chief physician to Abu Yaqub Yusuf, the Almohad caliph of Morocco and Muslim Spain (Andalusia). During the reign of Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (1184-1199), Ibn Rushd was exiled (in 1195) because of his view that reason takes precedence over religion. He was restored to favor shortly before his death. He died in Marrakesh, from where his body was later brought to Cordoba.
Ibn Rushd’s fields of study were the Qur’anic sciences and the natural sciences, including physics, medicine, biology and astronomy, as well as theology and philosophy. Only a small number of his works in Arabic survive, the majority having been preserved in Latin and Hebrew translations.
Ibn Rushd held that metaphysical truths can be expressed in two ways: through philosophy, as represented by the views of Aristotle, and through religion, which is truth presented in a form that the ordinary person can understand. Although Ibn Rushd did not actually propound the existence of two kinds of truth, philosophical and religious, his view was interpreted in that way by Christian thinkers, who called it the theory of “double truth.”
Ibn Rushd rejected the concept of a creation of the world in the history of time. Instead, he maintained that the world has no beginning. God is the “prime mover,” the self-moved force that stimulates all motion, who transforms the potential into the actual. The individual human soul emanates from the one universal soul.
Ibn Rushd’s extensive commentaries on the works of Aristotle were translated into Latin and Hebrew and greatly influenced the Scholastic school of philosophy in medieval Europe and medieval Jewish philosophy. Ibn Rushd’s main independent work was Tahafut al-Tahafut (Incoherence of the Incoherence), a rebuttal of the attack on Neo-platonic and Aristotelian philosophy by the Islamic theologian al-Ghazzali.
In his philosophical works, Ibn Rushd attacked both Ibn Sina’s and al-Ghazzali’s solutions to major problems. Ibn Rushd’s most notable achievement, the Tahabfut al-Tahafut, was a commentary on Aristotle’s Metaphysics. Ibn Rushd was unmatched in his faithfulness to Aristotle’s original text. Many of his writings have been preserved in Latin and Hebrew as well as Arabic.
Ibn Rushd, a noted Spanish-Arab physician and astronomer as well as being a philosopher and jurist, also wrote books on medicine, astronomy, law, and grammar. He was one of the most influential thinkers of the period which has come to be known as the Middle Ages.
Ibn Rushd came from a family of Islamic legal scholars; his grandfather Abu Al-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126) was chief judge of Córdoba under the Almoravid dynasty. His father, Abu Al-Qasim Ahmad, held the same position until the coming of the Almohad dynasty in 1146.
Ibn Rushd began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail ("Aben Tofail" to the West), the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and philosophic vizier of Almohad amir Abu Yaqub Yusuf. It was Ibn Tufail who introduced him to the court and to Ibn Zuhr ("Avenzoar" to the West), the great Muslim physician, who became Ibn Rushd's teacher and friend. Ibn Rushd later reported how it was also Ibn Tufail who inspired him to write his famous Aristotelian commentaries.
Ibn Rushd was also a student of Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace" to the West), another famous Islamic philosopher who greatly influenced his own Averroist thought. However, while the thought of his mentors Ibn Tufail and Ibn Bajjah were mystic to an extent, the thought of Ibn Rushd was purely rationalist. Together, the three men are considered the greatest Andalusian philosophers.
In 1160, Ibn Rushd was made Qadi (judge) of Seville and he served in many court appointments in Seville, Cordoba, and Morocco during his career. At the end of the 12th century, following the Almohads conquest of Al-Andalus, his political career was ended. Ibn Rushd's strictly rationalist views which collided with the more orthodox views of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur led to him banishing Ibn Rushd though he had previously appointed him as his personal physician. Ibn Rushd was not reinstated until shortly before his death. He devoted the rest of his life to his philosophical writings.
Ibn Rushd's works were spread over 20,000 pages covering a variety of different subjects, including early Islamic philosophy, logic in Islamic philosophy, Arabic medicine, Arabic mathematics, Arabic astronomy, Arabic grammar, Islamic theology, Sharia (Islamic law), and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). In particular, his most important works dealt with Islamic philosophy, medicine and Fiqh. He wrote at least 67 original works, which included 28 works on philosophy, 20 on medicine, 8 on law, 5 on theology, and 4 on grammar, in addition to his commentaries on most of Aristotle's works and his commentary on Plato's The Republic.
He wrote commentaries on most of the surviving works of Aristotle. These were not based on primary sources (it is not known whether Ibn Rushd knew Greek), but rather on Arabic translations. There were three levels of commentary: the Jami, the Talkhis and the Tafsir which are, respectively, a simplified overview, an intermediate commentary with more critical material, and an advanced study of Aristotelian thought in a Muslim context. The terms are taken from
Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad (Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad ibn Rushd) (Abul-Waleed Muhammad ibn Rushd) (Averroes) (1126 - December 10, 1198). Muslim philosopher, physician, Maliki jurist, and Ash'ari theologian. .
Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd, better known just as Ibn Rushd, and in European literature as Averroes, was an Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath: a master of Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern day Spain, and died in Marrakech, modern day Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism. He has been described as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe.
Ibn Rushd was born in Cordoba, Spain, and would spend all of his life in Muslim Spain. His father, a judge in Cordoba, instructed Ibn Rushd in Muslim jurisprudence. In his native city, he also studied theology, philosophy, and mathematics under the Arab philosopher Ibn Tufayl (d.1185) and medicine under the Arab physician Avenzoar (c.1090-1162).
Ibn Rushd was appointed judge in Seville in 1169 and in Cordoba in 1171. In 1182, he succeeded Ibn Tufayl and became chief physician to Abu Yaqub Yusuf, the Almohad caliph of Morocco and Muslim Spain (Andalusia). During the reign of Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (1184-1199), Ibn Rushd was exiled (in 1195) because of his view that reason takes precedence over religion. He was restored to favor shortly before his death. He died in Marrakesh, from where his body was later brought to Cordoba.
Ibn Rushd’s fields of study were the Qur’anic sciences and the natural sciences, including physics, medicine, biology and astronomy, as well as theology and philosophy. Only a small number of his works in Arabic survive, the majority having been preserved in Latin and Hebrew translations.
Ibn Rushd held that metaphysical truths can be expressed in two ways: through philosophy, as represented by the views of Aristotle, and through religion, which is truth presented in a form that the ordinary person can understand. Although Ibn Rushd did not actually propound the existence of two kinds of truth, philosophical and religious, his view was interpreted in that way by Christian thinkers, who called it the theory of “double truth.”
Ibn Rushd rejected the concept of a creation of the world in the history of time. Instead, he maintained that the world has no beginning. God is the “prime mover,” the self-moved force that stimulates all motion, who transforms the potential into the actual. The individual human soul emanates from the one universal soul.
Ibn Rushd’s extensive commentaries on the works of Aristotle were translated into Latin and Hebrew and greatly influenced the Scholastic school of philosophy in medieval Europe and medieval Jewish philosophy. Ibn Rushd’s main independent work was Tahafut al-Tahafut (Incoherence of the Incoherence), a rebuttal of the attack on Neo-platonic and Aristotelian philosophy by the Islamic theologian al-Ghazzali.
In his philosophical works, Ibn Rushd attacked both Ibn Sina’s and al-Ghazzali’s solutions to major problems. Ibn Rushd’s most notable achievement, the Tahabfut al-Tahafut, was a commentary on Aristotle’s Metaphysics. Ibn Rushd was unmatched in his faithfulness to Aristotle’s original text. Many of his writings have been preserved in Latin and Hebrew as well as Arabic.
Ibn Rushd, a noted Spanish-Arab physician and astronomer as well as being a philosopher and jurist, also wrote books on medicine, astronomy, law, and grammar. He was one of the most influential thinkers of the period which has come to be known as the Middle Ages.
Ibn Rushd came from a family of Islamic legal scholars; his grandfather Abu Al-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126) was chief judge of Córdoba under the Almoravid dynasty. His father, Abu Al-Qasim Ahmad, held the same position until the coming of the Almohad dynasty in 1146.
Ibn Rushd began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail ("Aben Tofail" to the West), the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and philosophic vizier of Almohad amir Abu Yaqub Yusuf. It was Ibn Tufail who introduced him to the court and to Ibn Zuhr ("Avenzoar" to the West), the great Muslim physician, who became Ibn Rushd's teacher and friend. Ibn Rushd later reported how it was also Ibn Tufail who inspired him to write his famous Aristotelian commentaries.
Ibn Rushd was also a student of Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace" to the West), another famous Islamic philosopher who greatly influenced his own Averroist thought. However, while the thought of his mentors Ibn Tufail and Ibn Bajjah were mystic to an extent, the thought of Ibn Rushd was purely rationalist. Together, the three men are considered the greatest Andalusian philosophers.
In 1160, Ibn Rushd was made Qadi (judge) of Seville and he served in many court appointments in Seville, Cordoba, and Morocco during his career. At the end of the 12th century, following the Almohads conquest of Al-Andalus, his political career was ended. Ibn Rushd's strictly rationalist views which collided with the more orthodox views of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur led to him banishing Ibn Rushd though he had previously appointed him as his personal physician. Ibn Rushd was not reinstated until shortly before his death. He devoted the rest of his life to his philosophical writings.
Ibn Rushd's works were spread over 20,000 pages covering a variety of different subjects, including early Islamic philosophy, logic in Islamic philosophy, Arabic medicine, Arabic mathematics, Arabic astronomy, Arabic grammar, Islamic theology, Sharia (Islamic law), and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). In particular, his most important works dealt with Islamic philosophy, medicine and Fiqh. He wrote at least 67 original works, which included 28 works on philosophy, 20 on medicine, 8 on law, 5 on theology, and 4 on grammar, in addition to his commentaries on most of Aristotle's works and his commentary on Plato's The Republic.
He wrote commentaries on most of the surviving works of Aristotle. These were not based on primary sources (it is not known whether Ibn Rushd knew Greek), but rather on Arabic translations. There were three levels of commentary: the Jami, the Talkhis and the Tafsir which are, respectively, a simplified overview, an intermediate commentary with more critical material, and an advanced study of Aristotelian thought in a Muslim context. The terms are taken from
the names of different types of commentary on the Qur'an. It is not known whether he wrote commentaries of all three types on all the works. In most cases only one or two commentaries survive.
Ibn Rushd did not have access to any text of Aristotle's Politics. As a substitute for this, he commented on Plato's The Republic, arguing that the ideal state there described was the same as the original constitution of the Arab Caliphate, as well as the Almohad state of Ibn Tumart.
Ibn Rushd's most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-tahafut), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam. Ibn Rushd's rebuttal was two-pronged. He contended both that al-Ghazali's arguments were mistaken and that, in any case, the system of Ibn Sina was a distortion of genuine Aristotelianism so that al-Ghazali was aiming at the wrong target. Other works were the Fasl al-Maqal, which argued for the legality of philosophical investigation under Islamic law, and the Kitab al-Kashf, which argued against the proofs of Islam advanced by the Ash'arite school and discussed what proofs, on the popular level, should be used instead.
Ibn Rushd was also a highly-regarded legal scholar of the Maliki school. Perhaps his best-known work in this field is Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, a textbook of Maliki doctrine in a comparative framework.
In medicine, Ibn Rushd wrote a medical encyclopedia called Kulliyat ("Generalities", i.e. general medicine), known in its Latin translation as Colliget. He also made a compilation of the works of Galen (129-200) and wrote a commentary on The Law of Medicine (Qanun fi 't-tibb) of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037).
Jacob Anatoli translated several of the works of Averroes from Arabic into Hebrew in the 1200s. Many of them were later translated from Hebrew into Latin by Jacob Mantino and Abraham de Balmes. Other works were translated directly from Arabic into Latin by Michael Scot. Many of his works in logic and metaphysics have been permanently lost, while others, including some of the longer Aristotelian commentaries, have only survived in Latin or Hebrew translation, not in the original Arabic. The fullest version of his works is in Latin, and forms part of the multi-volume Juntine edition of Aristotle published in Venice 1562-1574.
According to Ibn Rushd, there is no conflict between religion and philosophy, rather that they are different ways of reaching the same truth. He believed in the eternity of the universe. He also held that the soul is divided into two parts, one individual and one divine; while the individual soul is not eternal, all humans at the basic level share one and the same divine soul. Ibn Rushd has two kinds of Knowledge of Truth. The first being his knowledge of truth of religion being based in faith and thus could not be tested, nor did it require training to understand. The second knowledge of truth is philosophy, which was reserved for an elite few who had the intellectual capacity to undertake this study.
The concept of "existence precedes essence", a key foundational concept of existentialism, can also be found in the works of Ibn Rushd, as a reaction to Ibn Sina's concept of "essence precedes existence". Ibn Rushd's most famous original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence, a rebuttal to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. In medieval Europe, his school of philosophy known as Averroism exerted a strong influence on Christian philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Jewish philosophers such as Gersonides and Maimonides.
At the age of 25, Ibn Rushd conducted astronomical observations near Marrakech, Morocco, during which he discovered a previously unobserved star.
In astronomical theory, Ibn Rushd rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. Ibn Rushd also argued that the Moon is opaque and obscure, and has some parts which are thicker than others, with the thicker parts receiving more light from the Sun than the thinner parts of the Moon. He also gave one of the first descriptions on sunspots.
As a Qadi (judge), Ibn Rushd wrote the Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtasid, a Maliki legal treatise dealing with Sharia (law) and Fiqh (jurisprudence) which, according to Al-Dhahabi in the 13th century, was considered the best treatise ever written on the subject. Ibn Rushd's summary of the opinions (fatwa) of previous Islamic jurists on a variety of issues has continued to influence Islamic scholars to the present day, notably Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Ibn Rushd also claimed that women in Islam were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine in peace and in war.
Ibn Rushd discussed Islamic economic jurisprudence, particularly the concept of Riba (usury). He reported that Ibn ‘Abbas, a sahaba (companion) of Muhammad, did not accept Riba al-Fadl (interest in excess) because, according to him, the Prophet Muhammad had clarified that there was no Riba except in credit. He also discussed the role of Islamic criminal jurisprudence in the Islamic dietary laws in regards to the consumption of alcohol. He stated that physical punishment for alcoholic consumption was not originally established as part of the Sharia in Muhammad's time but was later decided by the Shura (consultive council) of the Rashidun Caliphate.
In his Islamic philosophy of law, Ibn Rushd also discussed the concept of natural law. In his treatise on Justice and Jihad and his commentary on Plato's Republic, he writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic Sharia or to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason. The concept of natural law entered the mainstream of Western culture through his Aristotelian commentaries, influencing the subsequent Averroist movement and the writings of Thomas Aquinas.
Ibn Rushd was the last major Muslim logician from Al-Andalus. He is known for writing the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic.
As a physician, Ibn Rushd wrote twenty treatises on Arabic medicine, including a seven-volume medical encyclopedia entitled Kitābu’l Kulliyāt fī al-Tibb (General Rules of Medicine), better known as Colliget in Latin. This encyclopedic work was completed at some time before 1162 and elaborated on physiology, general pathology, diagnosis, medical material, hygiene and general therapeutics. He argued that no one can suffer from smallpox twice, and fully understood the function of the retina. However, his Colliget was largely overshadowed by the earlier medical encyclopedias, Continents by Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) and The Canon of Medicine by Ibn Sina (Avicenna). As a result, Ibn Rushd's fame as a physician was eclipsed by his own fame as a philosopher. His Kulliyāt was translated into Latin by the Jewish translator Bonacosa in the late 13th century and again by Syphorien Champier in circa 1537, and it was also translated into Hebrew twice. It has been noted that the prototypes for the physician-philosophers that predominated in Spain were Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
Ibn Rushd discussed the topic of human dissection and autopsy. Although he never undertook human dissection, he was aware of it being carried out by some of his contemporaries, such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), and appears to have supported the practice.
In urology, Ibn Rushd identified the issues of sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction, and was among the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of these problems. He used several methods of therapy for this issue, including the single drug method where a tested drug is prescribed, and a combination method of either a drug or food. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical or transurethral means.
In neurology and neuroscience, Ibn Rushd suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease, and in ophthalmology and optics, he was the first to attribute photoreceptor properties to the retina. In his Colliget, he was also the first to suggest that the principal organ of sight might be the arachnoid membrane (aranea). His work led to much discussion in 16th century Europe over whether the principal organ of sight is the traditional Galenic crystalline humor or the Averroist aranea, which in turn led to the discovery that the retina is the principal organ of sight.
As an Arabic music theorist, Ibn Rushd contributed to music theory with his commentary on Aristotle's On the Soul, where Ibn Rushd dealt perspicuously with the theory of sound. This text was translated into Latin by Michael Scot (d. 1232).
In Ibn Rushd's commentary on Aristotle's Physics, he commented on the theory of motion proposed by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), and also made his own contributions to physics, particularly mechanics. Ibn Rushd was the first to define and measure force as the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body and the first to correctly argue that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass. It seems he was also the first to introduce the notion that bodies have a (non-gravitational) inherent resistance to motion into physics, subsequently first dubbed "inertia" by Kepler.
For Ibn Rushd, the human soul is a separate substance ontologically identical with the active intellect, and when this active intellect is embodied in an individual human it is the material intellect. The material intellect is analogous to prime matter, in that it is pure potentiality able to receive universal forms. As such, the human mind is a composite of the material intellect and the passive intellect, which is the third element of the intellect. The passive intellect is identified with the imagination, which is the sense-connected finite and passive faculty that receives particular sensual forms. When the material intellect is actualized by information received, it is described as the speculative (habitual) intellect. As the speculative intellect moves towards perfection, having the active intellect as an object of thought, it becomes the acquired intellect. In that, it is aided by the active intellect, perceived in the way Aristotle had taught, to acquire intelligible thoughts. The idea of the soul's perfection occurring through having the active intellect as a greater object of thought is introduced elsewhere, and its application to religious doctrine is seen. In the Tahafut, Ibn Rushd speaks of the soul as a faculty that comes to resemble the focus of its intention, and when its attention focuses more upon eternal and universal knowledge, it becomes more like the eternal and universal. As such, when the soul perfects itself, it becomes like our intellect.
Ibn Rushd succeeded in providing an explanation of the human soul and intellect that did not involve an immediate transcendent agent. This opposed the explanations found among the Neoplatonists, allowing a further argument for rejecting of Neoplatonic emanation theories.
Ibn Rushd is most famous for his translations and commentaries of Aristotle's works, which had been mostly forgotten in the West. Before 1150, only a few translated works of Aristotle existed in Latin Europe, and they were not studied much or given much credence by monastic scholars. It was through the Latin translations of Ibn Rushd's work beginning in the 12th century that the legacy of Aristotle became more widely known in the medieval West.
In medieval Europe, Ibn Rushd's school of philosophy, known as Averroism, exerted a strong influence on Christian philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Jewish philosophers such as Gersonides and Maimonides (Ibn Maymun). Despite negative reactions from Jewish Talmudists and the Christian clergy, Ibn Rushd's writings were taught at the University of Paris and other medieval universities, and Averroism remained the dominant school of thought in Europe through to the 16th century.
Ibn Rushd's argument in The Decisive Treatise provided a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology. Accordingly, Averroism has been regarded as a precursor to modern secularism, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) has been described as one of the founding fathers of secular thought in Western Europe.
Ibn Rushd's work on Aristotle spans almost three decades, and he wrote commentaries on almost all of Aristotle's work except for Aristotle's Politics, to which he did not have access. Ibn Rushd greatly influenced philosophy in the Islamic world. His death coincides with a change in the culture of Al-Andalus. In his work Fasl al-Maqāl (translated as The Decisive Treatise), he stresses the importance of analytical thinking as a prerequisite to interpret the Qur'an. This is in contrast to orthodox Ash'ari theology, where the emphasis is less on analytical thinking but on extensive knowledge of sources other than the Qur'an, i.e. the hadith.
Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy, in particular Gersonides, who wrote supercommentaries on many of the works. In the Christian world, his ideas were assimilated by Siger of Brabant and Thomas Aquinas and others (especially in the University of Paris) within the Christian scholastic tradition which valued Aristotelian logic. Famous scholastics such as Aquinas believed Ibn Rushd to be so important they did not refer to him by name, simply calling him "The Commentator" and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher." Averroes's treatise on Plato's Republic has played a major role in both the transmission and the adaptation of the Platonic tradition in the West. It has been a primary source in medieval political philosophy. On the other hand Ibn Rushd was feared by many Christian theologians who accused him of advocating a "double truth" and denying orthodox doctrines such as individual immortality, and an underground mythology grew up stigmatising Ibn Rushd as the ultimate unbeliever. However, these accusations were largely based on misunderstandings of his work.
The asteroid "8318 Averroes" was named in his honor.
Abu'l-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abu'l-Walid Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abul-Waleed Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Averroes see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Ibn Rushd did not have access to any text of Aristotle's Politics. As a substitute for this, he commented on Plato's The Republic, arguing that the ideal state there described was the same as the original constitution of the Arab Caliphate, as well as the Almohad state of Ibn Tumart.
Ibn Rushd's most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-tahafut), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam. Ibn Rushd's rebuttal was two-pronged. He contended both that al-Ghazali's arguments were mistaken and that, in any case, the system of Ibn Sina was a distortion of genuine Aristotelianism so that al-Ghazali was aiming at the wrong target. Other works were the Fasl al-Maqal, which argued for the legality of philosophical investigation under Islamic law, and the Kitab al-Kashf, which argued against the proofs of Islam advanced by the Ash'arite school and discussed what proofs, on the popular level, should be used instead.
Ibn Rushd was also a highly-regarded legal scholar of the Maliki school. Perhaps his best-known work in this field is Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, a textbook of Maliki doctrine in a comparative framework.
In medicine, Ibn Rushd wrote a medical encyclopedia called Kulliyat ("Generalities", i.e. general medicine), known in its Latin translation as Colliget. He also made a compilation of the works of Galen (129-200) and wrote a commentary on The Law of Medicine (Qanun fi 't-tibb) of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037).
Jacob Anatoli translated several of the works of Averroes from Arabic into Hebrew in the 1200s. Many of them were later translated from Hebrew into Latin by Jacob Mantino and Abraham de Balmes. Other works were translated directly from Arabic into Latin by Michael Scot. Many of his works in logic and metaphysics have been permanently lost, while others, including some of the longer Aristotelian commentaries, have only survived in Latin or Hebrew translation, not in the original Arabic. The fullest version of his works is in Latin, and forms part of the multi-volume Juntine edition of Aristotle published in Venice 1562-1574.
According to Ibn Rushd, there is no conflict between religion and philosophy, rather that they are different ways of reaching the same truth. He believed in the eternity of the universe. He also held that the soul is divided into two parts, one individual and one divine; while the individual soul is not eternal, all humans at the basic level share one and the same divine soul. Ibn Rushd has two kinds of Knowledge of Truth. The first being his knowledge of truth of religion being based in faith and thus could not be tested, nor did it require training to understand. The second knowledge of truth is philosophy, which was reserved for an elite few who had the intellectual capacity to undertake this study.
The concept of "existence precedes essence", a key foundational concept of existentialism, can also be found in the works of Ibn Rushd, as a reaction to Ibn Sina's concept of "essence precedes existence". Ibn Rushd's most famous original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence, a rebuttal to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. In medieval Europe, his school of philosophy known as Averroism exerted a strong influence on Christian philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Jewish philosophers such as Gersonides and Maimonides.
At the age of 25, Ibn Rushd conducted astronomical observations near Marrakech, Morocco, during which he discovered a previously unobserved star.
In astronomical theory, Ibn Rushd rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. Ibn Rushd also argued that the Moon is opaque and obscure, and has some parts which are thicker than others, with the thicker parts receiving more light from the Sun than the thinner parts of the Moon. He also gave one of the first descriptions on sunspots.
As a Qadi (judge), Ibn Rushd wrote the Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtasid, a Maliki legal treatise dealing with Sharia (law) and Fiqh (jurisprudence) which, according to Al-Dhahabi in the 13th century, was considered the best treatise ever written on the subject. Ibn Rushd's summary of the opinions (fatwa) of previous Islamic jurists on a variety of issues has continued to influence Islamic scholars to the present day, notably Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Ibn Rushd also claimed that women in Islam were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine in peace and in war.
Ibn Rushd discussed Islamic economic jurisprudence, particularly the concept of Riba (usury). He reported that Ibn ‘Abbas, a sahaba (companion) of Muhammad, did not accept Riba al-Fadl (interest in excess) because, according to him, the Prophet Muhammad had clarified that there was no Riba except in credit. He also discussed the role of Islamic criminal jurisprudence in the Islamic dietary laws in regards to the consumption of alcohol. He stated that physical punishment for alcoholic consumption was not originally established as part of the Sharia in Muhammad's time but was later decided by the Shura (consultive council) of the Rashidun Caliphate.
In his Islamic philosophy of law, Ibn Rushd also discussed the concept of natural law. In his treatise on Justice and Jihad and his commentary on Plato's Republic, he writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic Sharia or to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason. The concept of natural law entered the mainstream of Western culture through his Aristotelian commentaries, influencing the subsequent Averroist movement and the writings of Thomas Aquinas.
Ibn Rushd was the last major Muslim logician from Al-Andalus. He is known for writing the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic.
As a physician, Ibn Rushd wrote twenty treatises on Arabic medicine, including a seven-volume medical encyclopedia entitled Kitābu’l Kulliyāt fī al-Tibb (General Rules of Medicine), better known as Colliget in Latin. This encyclopedic work was completed at some time before 1162 and elaborated on physiology, general pathology, diagnosis, medical material, hygiene and general therapeutics. He argued that no one can suffer from smallpox twice, and fully understood the function of the retina. However, his Colliget was largely overshadowed by the earlier medical encyclopedias, Continents by Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) and The Canon of Medicine by Ibn Sina (Avicenna). As a result, Ibn Rushd's fame as a physician was eclipsed by his own fame as a philosopher. His Kulliyāt was translated into Latin by the Jewish translator Bonacosa in the late 13th century and again by Syphorien Champier in circa 1537, and it was also translated into Hebrew twice. It has been noted that the prototypes for the physician-philosophers that predominated in Spain were Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
Ibn Rushd discussed the topic of human dissection and autopsy. Although he never undertook human dissection, he was aware of it being carried out by some of his contemporaries, such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), and appears to have supported the practice.
In urology, Ibn Rushd identified the issues of sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction, and was among the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of these problems. He used several methods of therapy for this issue, including the single drug method where a tested drug is prescribed, and a combination method of either a drug or food. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical or transurethral means.
In neurology and neuroscience, Ibn Rushd suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease, and in ophthalmology and optics, he was the first to attribute photoreceptor properties to the retina. In his Colliget, he was also the first to suggest that the principal organ of sight might be the arachnoid membrane (aranea). His work led to much discussion in 16th century Europe over whether the principal organ of sight is the traditional Galenic crystalline humor or the Averroist aranea, which in turn led to the discovery that the retina is the principal organ of sight.
As an Arabic music theorist, Ibn Rushd contributed to music theory with his commentary on Aristotle's On the Soul, where Ibn Rushd dealt perspicuously with the theory of sound. This text was translated into Latin by Michael Scot (d. 1232).
In Ibn Rushd's commentary on Aristotle's Physics, he commented on the theory of motion proposed by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), and also made his own contributions to physics, particularly mechanics. Ibn Rushd was the first to define and measure force as the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body and the first to correctly argue that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass. It seems he was also the first to introduce the notion that bodies have a (non-gravitational) inherent resistance to motion into physics, subsequently first dubbed "inertia" by Kepler.
For Ibn Rushd, the human soul is a separate substance ontologically identical with the active intellect, and when this active intellect is embodied in an individual human it is the material intellect. The material intellect is analogous to prime matter, in that it is pure potentiality able to receive universal forms. As such, the human mind is a composite of the material intellect and the passive intellect, which is the third element of the intellect. The passive intellect is identified with the imagination, which is the sense-connected finite and passive faculty that receives particular sensual forms. When the material intellect is actualized by information received, it is described as the speculative (habitual) intellect. As the speculative intellect moves towards perfection, having the active intellect as an object of thought, it becomes the acquired intellect. In that, it is aided by the active intellect, perceived in the way Aristotle had taught, to acquire intelligible thoughts. The idea of the soul's perfection occurring through having the active intellect as a greater object of thought is introduced elsewhere, and its application to religious doctrine is seen. In the Tahafut, Ibn Rushd speaks of the soul as a faculty that comes to resemble the focus of its intention, and when its attention focuses more upon eternal and universal knowledge, it becomes more like the eternal and universal. As such, when the soul perfects itself, it becomes like our intellect.
Ibn Rushd succeeded in providing an explanation of the human soul and intellect that did not involve an immediate transcendent agent. This opposed the explanations found among the Neoplatonists, allowing a further argument for rejecting of Neoplatonic emanation theories.
Ibn Rushd is most famous for his translations and commentaries of Aristotle's works, which had been mostly forgotten in the West. Before 1150, only a few translated works of Aristotle existed in Latin Europe, and they were not studied much or given much credence by monastic scholars. It was through the Latin translations of Ibn Rushd's work beginning in the 12th century that the legacy of Aristotle became more widely known in the medieval West.
In medieval Europe, Ibn Rushd's school of philosophy, known as Averroism, exerted a strong influence on Christian philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Jewish philosophers such as Gersonides and Maimonides (Ibn Maymun). Despite negative reactions from Jewish Talmudists and the Christian clergy, Ibn Rushd's writings were taught at the University of Paris and other medieval universities, and Averroism remained the dominant school of thought in Europe through to the 16th century.
Ibn Rushd's argument in The Decisive Treatise provided a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology. Accordingly, Averroism has been regarded as a precursor to modern secularism, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) has been described as one of the founding fathers of secular thought in Western Europe.
Ibn Rushd's work on Aristotle spans almost three decades, and he wrote commentaries on almost all of Aristotle's work except for Aristotle's Politics, to which he did not have access. Ibn Rushd greatly influenced philosophy in the Islamic world. His death coincides with a change in the culture of Al-Andalus. In his work Fasl al-Maqāl (translated as The Decisive Treatise), he stresses the importance of analytical thinking as a prerequisite to interpret the Qur'an. This is in contrast to orthodox Ash'ari theology, where the emphasis is less on analytical thinking but on extensive knowledge of sources other than the Qur'an, i.e. the hadith.
Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy, in particular Gersonides, who wrote supercommentaries on many of the works. In the Christian world, his ideas were assimilated by Siger of Brabant and Thomas Aquinas and others (especially in the University of Paris) within the Christian scholastic tradition which valued Aristotelian logic. Famous scholastics such as Aquinas believed Ibn Rushd to be so important they did not refer to him by name, simply calling him "The Commentator" and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher." Averroes's treatise on Plato's Republic has played a major role in both the transmission and the adaptation of the Platonic tradition in the West. It has been a primary source in medieval political philosophy. On the other hand Ibn Rushd was feared by many Christian theologians who accused him of advocating a "double truth" and denying orthodox doctrines such as individual immortality, and an underground mythology grew up stigmatising Ibn Rushd as the ultimate unbeliever. However, these accusations were largely based on misunderstandings of his work.
The asteroid "8318 Averroes" was named in his honor.
Abu'l-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abu'l-Walid Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abul-Waleed Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Averroes see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd see Ibn Rushd, Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad
Ibn Rusta
Ibn Rusta (Ibn Rustah) (Ahmad ebn Roste Esfahani) (d. 912). Historian and geographer from Isfahan. The one volume which is left of what must have been a very voluminous work may be defined as a short encyclopedia of historical and geographical knowledge.
Ibn Rustah was a 10th century Persian explorer and geographer born in Rosta district, Isfahan, Persia. He wrote a geographical compendium. The information on his home town of Isfahan is especially extensive and valuable. Ibn Rustah states that, while for other lands he had to depend on second-hand reports, often acquired with great difficulty and with no means of checking their veracity, for Isfahan he could use his own experience and observations or statements from others known to be reliable. Thus we have a description of the twenty districts (rostaqs) of Isfahan containing details not found in other geographers' works. Concerning the town itself, it is described as being perfectly circular in shape, with a circumference of half a farsang, walls defended by a hundred towers, and four gates.
Ibn Rustah's information on the non-Islamic peoples of Europe and Inner Asia makes him a useful source for these obscure regions and for the prehistory of the Turks and other steppe peoples. He was even aware of the existence of the British Isles and of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon England.
Ibn Rustah travelled to Novgorod with the Rus', and compiled books relating his own travels, as well as second-hand knowledge of the Khazars, Magyars, Slavs, Bulgars, and other peoples.
Ibn Rustah see Ibn Rusta
Ahmad ebn Roste Esfahani see Ibn Rusta
Ibn Rusta (Ibn Rustah) (Ahmad ebn Roste Esfahani) (d. 912). Historian and geographer from Isfahan. The one volume which is left of what must have been a very voluminous work may be defined as a short encyclopedia of historical and geographical knowledge.
Ibn Rustah was a 10th century Persian explorer and geographer born in Rosta district, Isfahan, Persia. He wrote a geographical compendium. The information on his home town of Isfahan is especially extensive and valuable. Ibn Rustah states that, while for other lands he had to depend on second-hand reports, often acquired with great difficulty and with no means of checking their veracity, for Isfahan he could use his own experience and observations or statements from others known to be reliable. Thus we have a description of the twenty districts (rostaqs) of Isfahan containing details not found in other geographers' works. Concerning the town itself, it is described as being perfectly circular in shape, with a circumference of half a farsang, walls defended by a hundred towers, and four gates.
Ibn Rustah's information on the non-Islamic peoples of Europe and Inner Asia makes him a useful source for these obscure regions and for the prehistory of the Turks and other steppe peoples. He was even aware of the existence of the British Isles and of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon England.
Ibn Rustah travelled to Novgorod with the Rus', and compiled books relating his own travels, as well as second-hand knowledge of the Khazars, Magyars, Slavs, Bulgars, and other peoples.
Ibn Rustah see Ibn Rusta
Ahmad ebn Roste Esfahani see Ibn Rusta
Ibn Sab‘in
Ibn Sab‘in (Ibn Dara) (Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin) (1217-1269). Philosopher and Sufi of Murcia, Spain. His life consisted of controversies, quarrels and persecutions.
Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin was a Sufi philosopher. He was born in 1217 in Spain and lived in Ceuta. He was known for his replies to questions sent to him by Frederick II, ruler of Sicily. He died in 1269 in Mecca. He was also known for his knowledge of religions (Judaism, Christianity and even Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) and the "hidden sciences."
Ibn Dara see Ibn Sab‘in
Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin see Ibn Sab‘in
Ibn Sab‘in (Ibn Dara) (Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin) (1217-1269). Philosopher and Sufi of Murcia, Spain. His life consisted of controversies, quarrels and persecutions.
Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin was a Sufi philosopher. He was born in 1217 in Spain and lived in Ceuta. He was known for his replies to questions sent to him by Frederick II, ruler of Sicily. He died in 1269 in Mecca. He was also known for his knowledge of religions (Judaism, Christianity and even Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) and the "hidden sciences."
Ibn Dara see Ibn Sab‘in
Abu Mohammed Abd el-Hakh Ibn Sabin see Ibn Sab‘in
Ibn Sa‘d
Ibn Sa‘d (Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi) (Katib ul-Waqidi - "the scribe of Waqidi") (784-845). Traditionist of Basra. The fame of this secretary to al-Waqidi is based on his Book of the Classes, which provides information on some 4,250 persons who, from the beginning of Islam down to the author’s time, had played a role as transmitters of traditions about the Prophet’s sayings and doings.
Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi or Ibn Sa'd, often called Katib ul-Waqidi, the scribe of Waqidi was born in the year 784. He was a Sunni Muslim scholar of Islam and an Arabian biographer. He received his training in the tradition from Al-Waqidi and other celebrated teachers. He lived for the most part in Baghdad, and had the reputation of being both trustworthy and accurate in his writings, which, in consequence, were much used by later writers.
Ibn Sa`d was from Basra, Iraq, then lived in Baghdad in the 9th century. He is said to have died in Baghdad and was buried in the cemetery of the Syrian gate.
Ibn Sa'd's book The Major Classes (Arabic: Kitab Tabaqat Al-Kubra) is a compendium of biographical information about famous Islamic personalities. It is eight volumes long. This work contains the lives of Muhammad, his Companions and Helpers, including those who fought at the Battle of Badr as a special class, and of the following generation, the Followers, who received their traditions from the Companions. Ibn Sa'd's authorship of this work is attested in a postscript to the book added by a later writer. In this notice he is described as a "client of al-Husayn ibn `Abdullah of the `Abbasid family".
The contents of The Major Classes consists of the following:
* Books 1 and 2 contain a sirat of Muhammad.
* Books 3 and 4 contain biographical profiles of companions of the Muhammed.
* Books 5, 6 and 7 contain biographical profiles of later Islamic scholars.
* Book 8 contains biographical profiles of Islamic women.
Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi see Ibn Sa‘d
Katib ul-Waqidi see Ibn Sa‘d
The Scribe of Waqidi see Ibn Sa‘d
Ibn Sa‘d (Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi) (Katib ul-Waqidi - "the scribe of Waqidi") (784-845). Traditionist of Basra. The fame of this secretary to al-Waqidi is based on his Book of the Classes, which provides information on some 4,250 persons who, from the beginning of Islam down to the author’s time, had played a role as transmitters of traditions about the Prophet’s sayings and doings.
Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi or Ibn Sa'd, often called Katib ul-Waqidi, the scribe of Waqidi was born in the year 784. He was a Sunni Muslim scholar of Islam and an Arabian biographer. He received his training in the tradition from Al-Waqidi and other celebrated teachers. He lived for the most part in Baghdad, and had the reputation of being both trustworthy and accurate in his writings, which, in consequence, were much used by later writers.
Ibn Sa`d was from Basra, Iraq, then lived in Baghdad in the 9th century. He is said to have died in Baghdad and was buried in the cemetery of the Syrian gate.
Ibn Sa'd's book The Major Classes (Arabic: Kitab Tabaqat Al-Kubra) is a compendium of biographical information about famous Islamic personalities. It is eight volumes long. This work contains the lives of Muhammad, his Companions and Helpers, including those who fought at the Battle of Badr as a special class, and of the following generation, the Followers, who received their traditions from the Companions. Ibn Sa'd's authorship of this work is attested in a postscript to the book added by a later writer. In this notice he is described as a "client of al-Husayn ibn `Abdullah of the `Abbasid family".
The contents of The Major Classes consists of the following:
* Books 1 and 2 contain a sirat of Muhammad.
* Books 3 and 4 contain biographical profiles of companions of the Muhammed.
* Books 5, 6 and 7 contain biographical profiles of later Islamic scholars.
* Book 8 contains biographical profiles of Islamic women.
Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi see Ibn Sa‘d
Katib ul-Waqidi see Ibn Sa‘d
The Scribe of Waqidi see Ibn Sa‘d
Ibn Sahl al-Isra‘ili
Ibn Sahl al-Isra‘ili (1212-1251). Poet of Seville. The poems of this convert from Judaism to Islam belong to the finest specimens of Andalusian poetry.
Ibn Sahl al-Isra‘ili (1212-1251). Poet of Seville. The poems of this convert from Judaism to Islam belong to the finest specimens of Andalusian poetry.
Ibn Sara
Ibn Sara (d. 1123). Islamic poet.
Ibn Sara (d. 1123). Islamic poet.
Ibn Sarabiyun
Ibn Sarabiyun (Ibn Suhrab). Geographer of Persian origin of the tenth century. In his Book of the Marvels of the Seven Climates, mainly based on Abu Ja‘far al-Khwarazmi’s Configuration of the Earth, he describes in detail the technique of constructing a map on a cylindrical projection.
Ibn Suhrab see Ibn Sarabiyun
Ibn Sarabiyun (Ibn Suhrab). Geographer of Persian origin of the tenth century. In his Book of the Marvels of the Seven Climates, mainly based on Abu Ja‘far al-Khwarazmi’s Configuration of the Earth, he describes in detail the technique of constructing a map on a cylindrical projection.
Ibn Suhrab see Ibn Sarabiyun
Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz
Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz (Abdul Aziz ibn Sa‘ud) (ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Fayṣal ibn Turkī ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad Āl Saʿūd) (1879, in Riyadh, Arabia - November 9, 1953, Al-Ta'if, Saudi Arabia). King of Saudi Arabia (r.1932-1953). A grandson of Faisal (d. 1867), sultan of Najd in central Arabia, Ibn Sa‘ud was leader of the Wahhabis, a fundamentalist Muslim sect.
Ibn Saʿūd was a tribal and Muslim religious leader who formed the modern state of Saudi Arabia and initiated the exploitation of its oil.
The Saʿūds ruled much of Arabia from 1780 to 1880; but, while Ibn Saʿūd was still an infant, his family, driven out by their rivals, the Rashīds, became penniless exiles in Kuwait. In 1901 Ibn Saʿūd, then 21, set out from Kuwait with 40 camelmen in a bold attempt to regain his family’s lands.
Reaching their old family capital, Riyadh, the little group slipped into the town by night (January 1902). The Rashīdī governor slept in the castle but came out every morning after dawn. Ibn Saʿūd lay hidden until the governor emerged. Then, rushing forward with his men, he killed him and seized the castle. This exploit roused the former supporters of his dynasty. They rallied to so magnetic a leader, and in two years of raids and skirmishes Ibn Saʿūd reconquered half of central Arabia.
Ibn Rashīd, however, appealed for help to the Turks, who sent troops; Ibn Saʿūd suffered a defeat at their hands on June 15, 1904. But he was not driven from central Arabia and soon reconstituted his forces, the years 1907 to 1912 being passed in desultory fighting. The Turks eventually left, unable to supply their troops.
Ibn Saʿūd decided, in the years before World War I, to revive his dynasty’s support for Wahhābism, an extremist Muslim puritan sect. Ibn Saʿūd was in fact a devoted puritan Muslim—to him the Qurʾān was literally the word of God, and his life was regulated by it. Yet he was also aware that religious fanaticism could serve his ambition, and he deliberately fostered it, founding a militantly religious tribal organization known as the Ikhwān (Brethren). This fanatical brotherhood encouraged his followers to fight and to massacre their Arab rivals, and it helped him to bring many nomadic tribesmen under more immediate control.
He was able to persuade the religious leaders to declare it a religious duty of all Wahhābīs to abandon nomadism and to build houses at the desert wells. Thus settled, they could more easily be levied into his army. But the scheme was unrealistic: nomads who sold their flocks were often unable to cultivate and were reduced to penury. The destitution of the more fanatical tribes, however, made them more eager to raid, and Ibn Saʿūd was not slow to suggest that they plunder the subjects of Ibn Rashīd.
During World War I, Ibn Saʿūd entered into a treaty with the British (December 1915), accepting protectorate status and agreeing to make war against Ibn Rashīd, who was being supported by the Turks. But despite British arms and a subsidy of £5,000 a month from the British government (which continued until 1924) he was inactive until 1920, arguing that his subsidy was insufficient. During 1920–22, however, he marched against Ibn Rashīd and extinguished Rashīdī rule, doubling his own territory but without significantly increasing his meager revenue.
Ibn Saʿūd now ruled central Arabia except for the Hejaz region along the Red Sea. This was the territory of Sharīf Ḥusayn of Mecca, who had become king of the Hejaz during the war and who declared himself caliph (head of the Muslim community) in 1924. Sharīf Ḥusayn’s son ʿAbd Allāh had become ruler of Transjordan in 1921, and another son, Fayṣal, king of Iraq. Ibn Saʿūd, fearing encirclement by this rival dynasty, decided to invade the Hejaz. He was then at the height of his powers; his strong personality and extraordinary charm had won the devotion of all his subjects. A skillful politician, he worked closely with the religious leaders, who always supported him. Relying on the Ikhwān to eliminate his Arab rivals, he sent them to raid his neighbors, then cabled the British, whose imperial interests were involved, that the raid was against his orders. In 1924, the Ikhwān took Mecca, and the Hejaz was added to his dominions.
At this point, there were no more rivals whom Ibn Saʿūd could conquer, for those remaining had treaties with Britain. But the Ikhwān had been taught that all non-Wahhābī Muslims were infidels. When Ibn Saʿūd forbade further raiding, they charged him with treachery, quoting his own words against him. In 1927 they invaded Iraq against his wishes. They were repulsed by British aircraft, but Ibn Saʿūd’s authority over them had vanished, and on March 29, 1929, the Ikhwān, the fanatics whom he himself had trained, were crushed by Ibn Saʿūd himself at the Battle of Sibilla.
This battle opened a new era; thereafter Ibn Saʿūd’s task was government, not conquest. In 1932 he formally unified his domains into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. An absolute monarch, he had no regular civil service or professional administrators. All decisions were made by him or by those he personally delegated for a particular task. There was little money, and he himself was not interested in finance. In May 1933 Ibn Saʿūd signed his first agreement with an American oil company. Not until March 1938 did the company strike oil, and work virtually ceased during World War II, so that Ibn Saʿūd was again nearly penniless.
Saudi Arabia took no part in the war, but toward its end the exploitation of oil was resumed. By 1950 Ibn Saʿūd had received a total of about $200,000. Three years later, he was getting some $2,500,000 a week. The effect was disastrous on the country and on Ibn Saʿūd. He had no idea of what to do with all the money, and he watched helplessly the triumph of everything he hated. His austere religious views were offended. The secluded, penurious, hard, but idealistic, life of Arabia was vanishing. Such vast sums of money drew half the swindlers in the Middle East to this puritan religious sanctum. Ibn Saʿūd was unable to cope with financial adventurers. His last years were marked by severe physical and emotional deterioration. He died at Al-Ṭāʾif in 1953.
Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud see Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz
ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Fayṣal ibn Turkī ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad Āl Saʿūd see Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz
Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz (Abdul Aziz ibn Sa‘ud) (ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Fayṣal ibn Turkī ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad Āl Saʿūd) (1879, in Riyadh, Arabia - November 9, 1953, Al-Ta'if, Saudi Arabia). King of Saudi Arabia (r.1932-1953). A grandson of Faisal (d. 1867), sultan of Najd in central Arabia, Ibn Sa‘ud was leader of the Wahhabis, a fundamentalist Muslim sect.
Ibn Saʿūd was a tribal and Muslim religious leader who formed the modern state of Saudi Arabia and initiated the exploitation of its oil.
The Saʿūds ruled much of Arabia from 1780 to 1880; but, while Ibn Saʿūd was still an infant, his family, driven out by their rivals, the Rashīds, became penniless exiles in Kuwait. In 1901 Ibn Saʿūd, then 21, set out from Kuwait with 40 camelmen in a bold attempt to regain his family’s lands.
Reaching their old family capital, Riyadh, the little group slipped into the town by night (January 1902). The Rashīdī governor slept in the castle but came out every morning after dawn. Ibn Saʿūd lay hidden until the governor emerged. Then, rushing forward with his men, he killed him and seized the castle. This exploit roused the former supporters of his dynasty. They rallied to so magnetic a leader, and in two years of raids and skirmishes Ibn Saʿūd reconquered half of central Arabia.
Ibn Rashīd, however, appealed for help to the Turks, who sent troops; Ibn Saʿūd suffered a defeat at their hands on June 15, 1904. But he was not driven from central Arabia and soon reconstituted his forces, the years 1907 to 1912 being passed in desultory fighting. The Turks eventually left, unable to supply their troops.
Ibn Saʿūd decided, in the years before World War I, to revive his dynasty’s support for Wahhābism, an extremist Muslim puritan sect. Ibn Saʿūd was in fact a devoted puritan Muslim—to him the Qurʾān was literally the word of God, and his life was regulated by it. Yet he was also aware that religious fanaticism could serve his ambition, and he deliberately fostered it, founding a militantly religious tribal organization known as the Ikhwān (Brethren). This fanatical brotherhood encouraged his followers to fight and to massacre their Arab rivals, and it helped him to bring many nomadic tribesmen under more immediate control.
He was able to persuade the religious leaders to declare it a religious duty of all Wahhābīs to abandon nomadism and to build houses at the desert wells. Thus settled, they could more easily be levied into his army. But the scheme was unrealistic: nomads who sold their flocks were often unable to cultivate and were reduced to penury. The destitution of the more fanatical tribes, however, made them more eager to raid, and Ibn Saʿūd was not slow to suggest that they plunder the subjects of Ibn Rashīd.
During World War I, Ibn Saʿūd entered into a treaty with the British (December 1915), accepting protectorate status and agreeing to make war against Ibn Rashīd, who was being supported by the Turks. But despite British arms and a subsidy of £5,000 a month from the British government (which continued until 1924) he was inactive until 1920, arguing that his subsidy was insufficient. During 1920–22, however, he marched against Ibn Rashīd and extinguished Rashīdī rule, doubling his own territory but without significantly increasing his meager revenue.
Ibn Saʿūd now ruled central Arabia except for the Hejaz region along the Red Sea. This was the territory of Sharīf Ḥusayn of Mecca, who had become king of the Hejaz during the war and who declared himself caliph (head of the Muslim community) in 1924. Sharīf Ḥusayn’s son ʿAbd Allāh had become ruler of Transjordan in 1921, and another son, Fayṣal, king of Iraq. Ibn Saʿūd, fearing encirclement by this rival dynasty, decided to invade the Hejaz. He was then at the height of his powers; his strong personality and extraordinary charm had won the devotion of all his subjects. A skillful politician, he worked closely with the religious leaders, who always supported him. Relying on the Ikhwān to eliminate his Arab rivals, he sent them to raid his neighbors, then cabled the British, whose imperial interests were involved, that the raid was against his orders. In 1924, the Ikhwān took Mecca, and the Hejaz was added to his dominions.
At this point, there were no more rivals whom Ibn Saʿūd could conquer, for those remaining had treaties with Britain. But the Ikhwān had been taught that all non-Wahhābī Muslims were infidels. When Ibn Saʿūd forbade further raiding, they charged him with treachery, quoting his own words against him. In 1927 they invaded Iraq against his wishes. They were repulsed by British aircraft, but Ibn Saʿūd’s authority over them had vanished, and on March 29, 1929, the Ikhwān, the fanatics whom he himself had trained, were crushed by Ibn Saʿūd himself at the Battle of Sibilla.
This battle opened a new era; thereafter Ibn Saʿūd’s task was government, not conquest. In 1932 he formally unified his domains into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. An absolute monarch, he had no regular civil service or professional administrators. All decisions were made by him or by those he personally delegated for a particular task. There was little money, and he himself was not interested in finance. In May 1933 Ibn Saʿūd signed his first agreement with an American oil company. Not until March 1938 did the company strike oil, and work virtually ceased during World War II, so that Ibn Saʿūd was again nearly penniless.
Saudi Arabia took no part in the war, but toward its end the exploitation of oil was resumed. By 1950 Ibn Saʿūd had received a total of about $200,000. Three years later, he was getting some $2,500,000 a week. The effect was disastrous on the country and on Ibn Saʿūd. He had no idea of what to do with all the money, and he watched helplessly the triumph of everything he hated. His austere religious views were offended. The secluded, penurious, hard, but idealistic, life of Arabia was vanishing. Such vast sums of money drew half the swindlers in the Middle East to this puritan religious sanctum. Ibn Saʿūd was unable to cope with financial adventurers. His last years were marked by severe physical and emotional deterioration. He died at Al-Ṭāʾif in 1953.
Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud see Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz
ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Fayṣal ibn Turkī ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad Āl Saʿūd see Ibn Sa‘ud, Abdul Aziz
Ibn Sayyid al-Nas
Ibn Sayyid al-Nas (1273-1334). Biographer of the Prophet. His biography makes use of a number of sources now lost or imperfectly known. However, it was eminently successful in its time.
Ibn Sayyid al-Nas (1273-1334). Biographer of the Prophet. His biography makes use of a number of sources now lost or imperfectly known. However, it was eminently successful in its time.
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