‘Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir (975-1008). Son and successor of Almanzor (al-Mansur bi-'llah). He was the real master of Muslim Spain from 1002 until his death in 1008.
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Abi Amir (975-1008). Son and successor of Almanzor (al-Mansur bi-'llah). He was the real master of Muslim Spain from 1002 until his death in 1008.
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705). Umayyad caliph from 685 to 705 who succeeded in restoring the unity of the Arabs under Syrian leadership by ending the second fitnah. During his tenure, the administration was centralized; Arabic was substituted for Greek and Persian; and Islamic coinage was issued. Also, during his reign, the ‘Uthmanic text of the Qur’an was re-edited with vowel-punctuation; the postal service was reorganized and expanded; the damaged Ka'ba was repaired; the tradition of weaving a silk cover for the Ka'ba began; and the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem.
'Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and a capable ruler, despite the many political problems that impeded his rule. During his reign, all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time a special currency for the Muslim world was minted, which led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by 'Abd al-Malik after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce.
'Abd al-Malik became caliph after the death of his father Marwan I in 685. Within a few years, he dispatched armies, under al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, on a campaign to reassert Umayyad control over the Islamic empire. Hajjaj first defeated the governor of Basra and then led his forces into Hejaz, where Ibn Zubayr was killed -- ending his short claim to the caliphate. The Siege of Mecca in 692 started with Hajjaj at the head of about 2000 Syrians he set out against 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the caliph of Hejaz at Mecca. Hajjaj advanced unopposed as far as his native Taif, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated. However, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in the Holy City. Since the negotiations failed and al-Hajjaj lost patience, he sent a courier to ask 'Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca by force. He received both, and thereupon bombarded Mecca using catapults from the mountain of Abu Qubays. The bombardment continued during the Pilgrimage or Hajj.
After the siege had lasted for seven months and 10,000 men, among them two sons of 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, had gone over to al-Hajjaj, 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with a few loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka'ba (October 692).
Hajjaj's success led 'Abd al-Malik to assign him the role of governor of Iraq and give him free rein in the territories he controlled. Hajjaj arrived when there were many deserters in Basra and Kufa. He promptly and forcefully impelled them to return to combat. Hajjaj, after years of serious fighting, quelled religious disturbances, including the rebellion launched by Salih ibn Musarrih and continued after Salih's death by Shahib. These rebels repeatedly defeated more numerous forces and at their height entered Kufah. However, 'Abd al-Malik's Syrian reinforcements enabled Hajjaj to turn the tide.
Under Hajjaj, Arab armies put down the revolt of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in Iraq from 699 to 701, and also took most of Turkestan. 'Abd al-Rahman rebelled following Hajjaj's repeated orders to push further into the lands of Zundil. After his defeat in Iraq, again achieved through 'Abd al-Malik's dispatch of Syrian reinforcements to Hajjaj, 'Abd al-Rahman returned east. There one city closed its gates to him and in another he was seized. However, Zundil's army arrived and secured his release. Later, 'Abd al-Rahman died and Zundil sent his head to Hajjaj who sent it to 'Abd al-Malik. These victories paved the way for greater expansions under 'Abd al-Malik's son al-Walid.
'Abd al-Malik was effective in increasing the size of the empire. In the Maghreb (western North Africa), in 686, a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais won the Battle of Mamma over Byzantines and Berbers led Kusayla, on the Qairawan plain, and re-took Ifriqiya and its capital Kairouan.
In 695, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived and retook Carthage. However, in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta.
Hasan met trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702, 'Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. With a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated the Zenata in a battle at Tabarka, 85 miles west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replace Hasan. 'Abd al-Malik pacified much of North Africa, although he failed to take Ceuta.
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705). Umayyad caliph from 685 to 705 who succeeded in restoring the unity of the Arabs under Syrian leadership by ending the second fitnah. During his tenure, the administration was centralized; Arabic was substituted for Greek and Persian; and Islamic coinage was issued. Also, during his reign, the ‘Uthmanic text of the Qur’an was re-edited with vowel-punctuation; the postal service was reorganized and expanded; the damaged Ka'ba was repaired; the tradition of weaving a silk cover for the Ka'ba began; and the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem.
'Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and a capable ruler, despite the many political problems that impeded his rule. During his reign, all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time a special currency for the Muslim world was minted, which led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by 'Abd al-Malik after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. Also, many reforms happened in his time as regards agriculture and commerce.
'Abd al-Malik became caliph after the death of his father Marwan I in 685. Within a few years, he dispatched armies, under al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, on a campaign to reassert Umayyad control over the Islamic empire. Hajjaj first defeated the governor of Basra and then led his forces into Hejaz, where Ibn Zubayr was killed -- ending his short claim to the caliphate. The Siege of Mecca in 692 started with Hajjaj at the head of about 2000 Syrians he set out against 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the caliph of Hejaz at Mecca. Hajjaj advanced unopposed as far as his native Taif, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated. However, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in the Holy City. Since the negotiations failed and al-Hajjaj lost patience, he sent a courier to ask 'Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca by force. He received both, and thereupon bombarded Mecca using catapults from the mountain of Abu Qubays. The bombardment continued during the Pilgrimage or Hajj.
After the siege had lasted for seven months and 10,000 men, among them two sons of 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, had gone over to al-Hajjaj, 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with a few loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka'ba (October 692).
Hajjaj's success led 'Abd al-Malik to assign him the role of governor of Iraq and give him free rein in the territories he controlled. Hajjaj arrived when there were many deserters in Basra and Kufa. He promptly and forcefully impelled them to return to combat. Hajjaj, after years of serious fighting, quelled religious disturbances, including the rebellion launched by Salih ibn Musarrih and continued after Salih's death by Shahib. These rebels repeatedly defeated more numerous forces and at their height entered Kufah. However, 'Abd al-Malik's Syrian reinforcements enabled Hajjaj to turn the tide.
Under Hajjaj, Arab armies put down the revolt of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in Iraq from 699 to 701, and also took most of Turkestan. 'Abd al-Rahman rebelled following Hajjaj's repeated orders to push further into the lands of Zundil. After his defeat in Iraq, again achieved through 'Abd al-Malik's dispatch of Syrian reinforcements to Hajjaj, 'Abd al-Rahman returned east. There one city closed its gates to him and in another he was seized. However, Zundil's army arrived and secured his release. Later, 'Abd al-Rahman died and Zundil sent his head to Hajjaj who sent it to 'Abd al-Malik. These victories paved the way for greater expansions under 'Abd al-Malik's son al-Walid.
'Abd al-Malik was effective in increasing the size of the empire. In the Maghreb (western North Africa), in 686, a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais won the Battle of Mamma over Byzantines and Berbers led Kusayla, on the Qairawan plain, and re-took Ifriqiya and its capital Kairouan.
In 695, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived and retook Carthage. However, in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta.
Hasan met trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702, 'Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. With a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated the Zenata in a battle at Tabarka, 85 miles west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replace Hasan. 'Abd al-Malik pacified much of North Africa, although he failed to take Ceuta.
‘Abd al-Mu’min ibn ‘Ali
‘Abd al-Mu’min ibn ‘Ali (1094-1163). Successor of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart in the leadership of the Almohad movement. His tenure lasted from 1133 to 1163. In 1147, he conquered the Almoravid capital of Marrakesh. In Spain, Granada and Seville surrendered to him.
'Abd al-Mu'min was a member of a group of Kumia, a Berber tribe living in the area of Tlemcen (Algeria). Some time around 1117 he became a follower of Ibn Tumart, a religious leader of renowned piety who had founded the Almohads as a religious order with the goal of restoring purity in Islam. When Ibn Tumart died in 1130 al-Mu'min became the leader of the movement. He subsequently forged it into a powerful military force and under him the Almohads swept down from the mountains destroying the power of the faltering Almoravids by 1147. When 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in 1151, he gave the Jews and Christians there the option of conversion to Islam or death.
Establishing his capital at Marrakech, al-Mu'min expanded his empire beyond Morocco eastwards to the border of Egypt. He also was a prodigious builder of monuments and palaces. One of the monuments he caused to be erected was a substantial fortress at Chellah to prepare the site as a base for attacks against Iberia. The last years of his life were spent campaigning in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) first conquering the Muslim kingdoms and then campaigning inconclusively against the Christian states.
‘Abd al-Mu’min ibn ‘Ali (1094-1163). Successor of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart in the leadership of the Almohad movement. His tenure lasted from 1133 to 1163. In 1147, he conquered the Almoravid capital of Marrakesh. In Spain, Granada and Seville surrendered to him.
'Abd al-Mu'min was a member of a group of Kumia, a Berber tribe living in the area of Tlemcen (Algeria). Some time around 1117 he became a follower of Ibn Tumart, a religious leader of renowned piety who had founded the Almohads as a religious order with the goal of restoring purity in Islam. When Ibn Tumart died in 1130 al-Mu'min became the leader of the movement. He subsequently forged it into a powerful military force and under him the Almohads swept down from the mountains destroying the power of the faltering Almoravids by 1147. When 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in 1151, he gave the Jews and Christians there the option of conversion to Islam or death.
Establishing his capital at Marrakech, al-Mu'min expanded his empire beyond Morocco eastwards to the border of Egypt. He also was a prodigious builder of monuments and palaces. One of the monuments he caused to be erected was a substantial fortress at Chellah to prepare the site as a base for attacks against Iberia. The last years of his life were spent campaigning in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) first conquering the Muslim kingdoms and then campaigning inconclusively against the Christian states.
‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim (Shaiba ibn Hashim) ('Abdul Muttalib) ('Abd al-Muttalib) (c.497-578). Paternal grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad and the Caliph 'Ali. He negotiated with Abraha, the leader of an Abyssinian army invading Mecca. He traded with Syria and Yemen and is credited with having dug the Zamzam well at the Ka‘ba. Upon the death of the Prophet’s mother, Amina, ‘Abd al-Muttalib took the then six year old Muhammad into his home.
The father of 'Abd al-Muttalib was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf and his mother was Salma bint Amr from the tribe of an-Najjar in Yathrib. On his father's side he belonged to the distinguished Banu Hashim clan, a subgroup of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca which traced their genealogy to Isma'il and Ibrahim. In 497, the father of 'Abd al-Muttalib died while on business in Gaza, Palestine. 'Abd al-Muttalib was born posthumously.
'Abd al-Muttalib was given the name "Shaiba", meaning "old man" in Arabic, because he was born with a few white hairs. After his father's death, he was raised in Yathrib with his mother and her family until about the age of eight, when his uncle Muttalib ibn Abd al-Manaf came to take him to Mecca. Upon first arriving in Mecca, the people assumed the unknown child was Muttalib's slave, giving him the name "Abd al-Muttalib" -- "slave of Muttalib". When Muttalib died, 'Abd al-Muttalib succeeded him as the chief of the Banu Hashim clan. It is not possible to give the whole history of 'Abd al-Muttalib, but two important events would be included. The recovery of Zamzam and the attempted attack on the Ka'ba by Abraha, the governor of Ethiopia in Yemen.
Hundreds of years before its time, the well of Zamzam in Mecca was filled up and nobody knew its location. One day, 'Abd al-Muttalib had a series of four dreams directing him to Zamzam's location. 'Abd al-Muttalib, with his eldest son, Harith ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, dug the location where Zamzam is today, finding wather after four days of effort. At this success, the Quraysh argued that since the well was the property of Isma'il, it belonged to the whole tribe. 'Abd al-Muttalib rejected their claim, saying that it was given to him by Allah.
They agreed to present their case to a wise woman of the tribe of Sa'd in Syria. During the trip, 'Abd al-Muttalib's water reserves were depleted and his group suffering from thirst. The leaders of the other parties refused to give them water and 'Abd al-Muttalib advised his group to dig graves, so that when someone died others could bury him.
The next day, 'Abd al-Muttalib exhorted his companions that it was cowardice to succumb to death. He mounted his camel and its foot hit the earth producing a stream of water. The other caravans saw this as a sign that Allah had indeed given Zamzam to 'Abd al-Muttalib.
According to Muslim tradition, the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram, envied the Ka'ba's reverence among the Arabs and, being a Christian, he constructed a cathedral in Sanaa and ordered pilgrimage be made there. The order was ignored and someone desecrated the cathedral. Abraha decided to avenge this act by demolishing the Ka'ba. Abraha advanced with an army towards Mecca.
There were many elephants in Abraha's army and the year came to be known as 'Am al-Fil -- "Year of the Elephant." When news of the advance of Abraha's army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Banu Kinanah, Banu Khuza'a and Banu Hudhayl united in defense of the Ka'ba. A man from the Himyar tribe was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'ba and if they resisted, they would be crushed. 'Abd al-Muttalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he with some leading members of the Quraysh, remained within the precincts of the Ka'ba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting 'Abd al-Muttalib to meet with him and to discuss matters. When 'Abd al-Muttalib left the meeting, he was heard saying, "The Ownere of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."
It is recorded that when the Abraha's forces neared the Ka'ba, Allah commanded small birds which destroyed Abraha's army with raining pebbles from their beaks. Abraha was seriously wounded and he retreated towards Yemen but died while on the way.
The Year of the Elephant is also the year in which Muhammad was born.
'Abd al-Muttalib was married to five women: Sumra bint Jandab, Lubna bint Hajira, Fatimah bint Amr, Halah bint Wahab-Zuhriya, and Natila bint Khabab-Khizriji. To his union with Fatimah bint Amr, two sons were born: Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the father of 'Ali and 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the father of Muhammad.
'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib of the Banu Hashim and Aminah bint Wahab of the Banu Zuhra were the parents of the Prophet Muhammad. 'Abd Allah died four months before Muhammad's birth and Aminah was subsequently taken in by her husband's father, 'Abd al-Muttalib. Aminah also died six years later and 'Abd al-Muttalib died in 578 when Muhammad was eight. He was taken care of by his uncle Abu Talib (the father of 'Ali), a prominent Quraysh chief and custodian of the Ka'ba.
Shaiba ibn Hashim see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
'Abdul Muttalib see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
'Abd al-Muttalib see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim (Shaiba ibn Hashim) ('Abdul Muttalib) ('Abd al-Muttalib) (c.497-578). Paternal grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad and the Caliph 'Ali. He negotiated with Abraha, the leader of an Abyssinian army invading Mecca. He traded with Syria and Yemen and is credited with having dug the Zamzam well at the Ka‘ba. Upon the death of the Prophet’s mother, Amina, ‘Abd al-Muttalib took the then six year old Muhammad into his home.
The father of 'Abd al-Muttalib was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf and his mother was Salma bint Amr from the tribe of an-Najjar in Yathrib. On his father's side he belonged to the distinguished Banu Hashim clan, a subgroup of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca which traced their genealogy to Isma'il and Ibrahim. In 497, the father of 'Abd al-Muttalib died while on business in Gaza, Palestine. 'Abd al-Muttalib was born posthumously.
'Abd al-Muttalib was given the name "Shaiba", meaning "old man" in Arabic, because he was born with a few white hairs. After his father's death, he was raised in Yathrib with his mother and her family until about the age of eight, when his uncle Muttalib ibn Abd al-Manaf came to take him to Mecca. Upon first arriving in Mecca, the people assumed the unknown child was Muttalib's slave, giving him the name "Abd al-Muttalib" -- "slave of Muttalib". When Muttalib died, 'Abd al-Muttalib succeeded him as the chief of the Banu Hashim clan. It is not possible to give the whole history of 'Abd al-Muttalib, but two important events would be included. The recovery of Zamzam and the attempted attack on the Ka'ba by Abraha, the governor of Ethiopia in Yemen.
Hundreds of years before its time, the well of Zamzam in Mecca was filled up and nobody knew its location. One day, 'Abd al-Muttalib had a series of four dreams directing him to Zamzam's location. 'Abd al-Muttalib, with his eldest son, Harith ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, dug the location where Zamzam is today, finding wather after four days of effort. At this success, the Quraysh argued that since the well was the property of Isma'il, it belonged to the whole tribe. 'Abd al-Muttalib rejected their claim, saying that it was given to him by Allah.
They agreed to present their case to a wise woman of the tribe of Sa'd in Syria. During the trip, 'Abd al-Muttalib's water reserves were depleted and his group suffering from thirst. The leaders of the other parties refused to give them water and 'Abd al-Muttalib advised his group to dig graves, so that when someone died others could bury him.
The next day, 'Abd al-Muttalib exhorted his companions that it was cowardice to succumb to death. He mounted his camel and its foot hit the earth producing a stream of water. The other caravans saw this as a sign that Allah had indeed given Zamzam to 'Abd al-Muttalib.
According to Muslim tradition, the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram, envied the Ka'ba's reverence among the Arabs and, being a Christian, he constructed a cathedral in Sanaa and ordered pilgrimage be made there. The order was ignored and someone desecrated the cathedral. Abraha decided to avenge this act by demolishing the Ka'ba. Abraha advanced with an army towards Mecca.
There were many elephants in Abraha's army and the year came to be known as 'Am al-Fil -- "Year of the Elephant." When news of the advance of Abraha's army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Banu Kinanah, Banu Khuza'a and Banu Hudhayl united in defense of the Ka'ba. A man from the Himyar tribe was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'ba and if they resisted, they would be crushed. 'Abd al-Muttalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he with some leading members of the Quraysh, remained within the precincts of the Ka'ba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting 'Abd al-Muttalib to meet with him and to discuss matters. When 'Abd al-Muttalib left the meeting, he was heard saying, "The Ownere of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."
It is recorded that when the Abraha's forces neared the Ka'ba, Allah commanded small birds which destroyed Abraha's army with raining pebbles from their beaks. Abraha was seriously wounded and he retreated towards Yemen but died while on the way.
The Year of the Elephant is also the year in which Muhammad was born.
'Abd al-Muttalib was married to five women: Sumra bint Jandab, Lubna bint Hajira, Fatimah bint Amr, Halah bint Wahab-Zuhriya, and Natila bint Khabab-Khizriji. To his union with Fatimah bint Amr, two sons were born: Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the father of 'Ali and 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the father of Muhammad.
'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib of the Banu Hashim and Aminah bint Wahab of the Banu Zuhra were the parents of the Prophet Muhammad. 'Abd Allah died four months before Muhammad's birth and Aminah was subsequently taken in by her husband's father, 'Abd al-Muttalib. Aminah also died six years later and 'Abd al-Muttalib died in 578 when Muhammad was eight. He was taken care of by his uncle Abu Talib (the father of 'Ali), a prominent Quraysh chief and custodian of the Ka'ba.
Shaiba ibn Hashim see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
'Abdul Muttalib see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
'Abd al-Muttalib see ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim
‘Abd al-Qadir
‘Abd al-Qadir (‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din) ('Abd el-Kader) ('Abdul Qadir) (September 6, 1808-May 26, 1883). Algerian independence leader, Sufi mystic, and poet. Born at Wadi al-Hammam, some 20 kilometers west of Mascara in Algeria, into a family of northern Moroccan origin which claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad, 'Abd al-Qadir's father, Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani, was a shaykh in the Qadiri Sufi order of Islam. In his childhood, he learned to memorize the Qur'an and was well trained in horsemanship, theological and linguistic studies, having an education far better than that of his peers. In 1825, 'Abd al-Qadir set out for the Muslim pilgrimage -- the hajj -- with his father. While in Mecca, he met Imam Shamil, the future leader of the anti-Russian resistance during the Caucasian War (1834-1859). The two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of noted Muslims, such as Shaykh Ibn Arabi and Sidi Abd-el Kader El Jalili. This experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, he was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French.
‘Abd al-Qadir entered history after the French occupation of Algiers on July 5, 1830. This invasion led ‘Abd al-Qadir’s father, Sidi Muhyi al-Din, to proclaim a jihad against European colonization in the region of Oran. Ill health forced Sidi in November 1832 to hand over control of the anti-colonial resistance to his son, who was proclaimed “Sultan of the Arabs” by the tribes of Hashim, Banu ‘Amir, and Ghrarabah. Despite mixed results on the battlefield, this tactic prevented the “pacification” of Algeria and led the French to enter into negotiations with ‘Abd al-Qadir on February 28, 1834. Now officially recognized as “commander of the faithful” (amir al-mu‘minin), Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir was able to extend his authority to the gates of Algiers itself by the middle of 1835.
The amir’s continued agitation for Algerian autonomy led to a resumption of hostilities. After an Algerian victory at Macta (June 28, 1835), the French generals Clauzel and Bugeaud counterattacked, burning Mascara, occupying Tlemcen, and scoring a victory against ‘Abd al-Qadir’s army at Wadi Sikkak (July 6, 1836). Although abandoned by his troops three times, the Amir successfully regrouped his tribal forces and continued to inflict heavy losses on the French. The desire to protect their western flank while pursuing the conquest of Constantine led the government of King Louis-Philippe to negotiate once again. The resulting Treaty of Tafna (May 30, 1837) divided western Algeria into two spheres of influence; the urban areas remained in French hands, while the interior portions of the province of Oran, the beylik of Titteri, and part of the province of Algiers were given over to ‘Abd al-Qadir. Disputes over secret codicils to the treaty -- as well as the “Iron Gates” expedition in which the Duke of Orleans opened a corridor between Constantine and Algiers -- led to the resumption of hostilities and the Amir’s invasion of the Mitidja in November 1839.
In the face of ‘Abd al-Qadir’s threat, Bugeaud was appointed governor-general of Algeria on December 29, 1840. By sending mobile columns into the Algerian hinterland, he succeeded in occupying the major towns of Orania and Tlemcen (1841-1843). The capture of the Amir’s “traveling capital” (smalah) on May 16, 1843, caused the Arab tribes to surrender to the French and forced ‘Abd al-Qadir to flee to Morocco. Although French attacks on the Moroccan cities of Tangier and Mogador (1844) compelled the Moroccan sultan, Mawlay ‘Abd al-Rahman, to declare the Amir an outlaw, he appeared again in Algeria in 1846 at the head of numerous clandestinely organized uprisings. Despite a major victory at Sidi Brahim (September 23, 1846), the French counterattack crushed this revolt and forced him back across the Moroccan border. ‘Abd al-Qadir surrendered to the French on December 21, 1847. Two days later, his surrender was made official to the French Governor General of Algeria, Henri d'Orleans, duc d'Aumale.
'Abd al-Qadir was exiled to France, in violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or Acre, on the faith of which he had surrendered. 'Abd al-Qadir and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There he remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria.
After pledging not to resist the French in Algeria, 'Abd al-Qadir was released from prison in 1852 and given a pension by Napoleon III. Choosing exile in the Muslim-ruled Ottoman Empire, he settled first in Brusa (1853), and finally in Damascus (1855). In Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent, Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse.
While in Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir befriended Lady Jane Digby (Jane Digby el-Mezrab), the British socialite who married a Syrian shaykh, and Isabel and Richard Burton, the famous explorer and translator of the Kama Sutra and The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (popularly known as The Arabian Nights).
'Abd al-Qadir's final beau geste came in July 1860, when he personally protected the French consul in Damascus and several thousand Christians from massacre by Druze rebels. In July 1860, conflict between the Druze and Maronites of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus, and local Druze attacked the Christian quarter, killing over 3,000 persons. 'Abd al-Qadir and his personal guard saved large numbers of Christians, bringing them to safety in his house and in the citadel. For this action, the French government, which granted the Amir a pension of 4000 Louis, bestowed on him the Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur. He was also honored by Abraham Lincoln for this gesture towards Christians with several guns that are now on display in the Algiers museum.
In 1864, 'Abd al-Qadir became a Freemason being initiated at the Lodge of Pyramids as a courtesy for the Lodge Henri IV, in Paris.
After his death on the night of May 25-26, 1883. His body was interred next to the tomb of the great Andalusian mystic Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 1240).
Although initiated into the Qadiriyah Sufi order by his father, Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir joined the Naqshbandiyah in Damascus. He also remained associated with the unofficial Akbariyah tradition throughout his life, a link which led to the amir’s burial next to his father’s intellectual eponym, Muhyi al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi. His penultimate “opening” (fath) into Sufism was at the hands of a master of the Akbariyah, Muhammad al-Fasi al-Shadhili, whom he met in Mecca in 1863. ‘Abd al-Qadir’s major Sufi works are Kitab al-mawaqif (“Book of Stages”), an extended discourse on the doctrines of Ibn ‘Arabi, and a Diwan or collection of mystical poems.
Today 'Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence. Not without cause, his green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation movement during the War of Independence and became the national flag of independent Algeria. He was buried in Damascus in the same mausoleum as Ibn Arabi, until the Algerian government brought his remains back to Algeria to be interred with much ceremony on July 5, 1966, the fourth anniversary of independence and the 136th anniversary of the French conquest. The Emir Abdel Kader University and the mosque bearing his name have been constructed as a national shrine in Constantine, Algeria, and the town of Elkader, Iowa, in the United States is named after him.
‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din see ‘Abd al-Qadir
'Abd el-Kader see ‘Abd al-Qadir
National Hero of Algeria see ‘Abd al-Qadir
Sultan of the Arabs see ‘Abd al-Qadir
'Abdul Qadir see ‘Abd al-Qadir
Founder of the Algerian State see ‘Abd al-Qadir
‘Abd al-Qadir (‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din) ('Abd el-Kader) ('Abdul Qadir) (September 6, 1808-May 26, 1883). Algerian independence leader, Sufi mystic, and poet. Born at Wadi al-Hammam, some 20 kilometers west of Mascara in Algeria, into a family of northern Moroccan origin which claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad, 'Abd al-Qadir's father, Muhyi al-Din al-Hasani, was a shaykh in the Qadiri Sufi order of Islam. In his childhood, he learned to memorize the Qur'an and was well trained in horsemanship, theological and linguistic studies, having an education far better than that of his peers. In 1825, 'Abd al-Qadir set out for the Muslim pilgrimage -- the hajj -- with his father. While in Mecca, he met Imam Shamil, the future leader of the anti-Russian resistance during the Caucasian War (1834-1859). The two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of noted Muslims, such as Shaykh Ibn Arabi and Sidi Abd-el Kader El Jalili. This experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, he was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French.
‘Abd al-Qadir entered history after the French occupation of Algiers on July 5, 1830. This invasion led ‘Abd al-Qadir’s father, Sidi Muhyi al-Din, to proclaim a jihad against European colonization in the region of Oran. Ill health forced Sidi in November 1832 to hand over control of the anti-colonial resistance to his son, who was proclaimed “Sultan of the Arabs” by the tribes of Hashim, Banu ‘Amir, and Ghrarabah. Despite mixed results on the battlefield, this tactic prevented the “pacification” of Algeria and led the French to enter into negotiations with ‘Abd al-Qadir on February 28, 1834. Now officially recognized as “commander of the faithful” (amir al-mu‘minin), Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir was able to extend his authority to the gates of Algiers itself by the middle of 1835.
The amir’s continued agitation for Algerian autonomy led to a resumption of hostilities. After an Algerian victory at Macta (June 28, 1835), the French generals Clauzel and Bugeaud counterattacked, burning Mascara, occupying Tlemcen, and scoring a victory against ‘Abd al-Qadir’s army at Wadi Sikkak (July 6, 1836). Although abandoned by his troops three times, the Amir successfully regrouped his tribal forces and continued to inflict heavy losses on the French. The desire to protect their western flank while pursuing the conquest of Constantine led the government of King Louis-Philippe to negotiate once again. The resulting Treaty of Tafna (May 30, 1837) divided western Algeria into two spheres of influence; the urban areas remained in French hands, while the interior portions of the province of Oran, the beylik of Titteri, and part of the province of Algiers were given over to ‘Abd al-Qadir. Disputes over secret codicils to the treaty -- as well as the “Iron Gates” expedition in which the Duke of Orleans opened a corridor between Constantine and Algiers -- led to the resumption of hostilities and the Amir’s invasion of the Mitidja in November 1839.
In the face of ‘Abd al-Qadir’s threat, Bugeaud was appointed governor-general of Algeria on December 29, 1840. By sending mobile columns into the Algerian hinterland, he succeeded in occupying the major towns of Orania and Tlemcen (1841-1843). The capture of the Amir’s “traveling capital” (smalah) on May 16, 1843, caused the Arab tribes to surrender to the French and forced ‘Abd al-Qadir to flee to Morocco. Although French attacks on the Moroccan cities of Tangier and Mogador (1844) compelled the Moroccan sultan, Mawlay ‘Abd al-Rahman, to declare the Amir an outlaw, he appeared again in Algeria in 1846 at the head of numerous clandestinely organized uprisings. Despite a major victory at Sidi Brahim (September 23, 1846), the French counterattack crushed this revolt and forced him back across the Moroccan border. ‘Abd al-Qadir surrendered to the French on December 21, 1847. Two days later, his surrender was made official to the French Governor General of Algeria, Henri d'Orleans, duc d'Aumale.
'Abd al-Qadir was exiled to France, in violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or Acre, on the faith of which he had surrendered. 'Abd al-Qadir and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There he remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria.
After pledging not to resist the French in Algeria, 'Abd al-Qadir was released from prison in 1852 and given a pension by Napoleon III. Choosing exile in the Muslim-ruled Ottoman Empire, he settled first in Brusa (1853), and finally in Damascus (1855). In Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent, Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse.
While in Damascus, 'Abd al-Qadir befriended Lady Jane Digby (Jane Digby el-Mezrab), the British socialite who married a Syrian shaykh, and Isabel and Richard Burton, the famous explorer and translator of the Kama Sutra and The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (popularly known as The Arabian Nights).
'Abd al-Qadir's final beau geste came in July 1860, when he personally protected the French consul in Damascus and several thousand Christians from massacre by Druze rebels. In July 1860, conflict between the Druze and Maronites of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus, and local Druze attacked the Christian quarter, killing over 3,000 persons. 'Abd al-Qadir and his personal guard saved large numbers of Christians, bringing them to safety in his house and in the citadel. For this action, the French government, which granted the Amir a pension of 4000 Louis, bestowed on him the Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur. He was also honored by Abraham Lincoln for this gesture towards Christians with several guns that are now on display in the Algiers museum.
In 1864, 'Abd al-Qadir became a Freemason being initiated at the Lodge of Pyramids as a courtesy for the Lodge Henri IV, in Paris.
After his death on the night of May 25-26, 1883. His body was interred next to the tomb of the great Andalusian mystic Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 1240).
Although initiated into the Qadiriyah Sufi order by his father, Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir joined the Naqshbandiyah in Damascus. He also remained associated with the unofficial Akbariyah tradition throughout his life, a link which led to the amir’s burial next to his father’s intellectual eponym, Muhyi al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi. His penultimate “opening” (fath) into Sufism was at the hands of a master of the Akbariyah, Muhammad al-Fasi al-Shadhili, whom he met in Mecca in 1863. ‘Abd al-Qadir’s major Sufi works are Kitab al-mawaqif (“Book of Stages”), an extended discourse on the doctrines of Ibn ‘Arabi, and a Diwan or collection of mystical poems.
Today 'Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence. Not without cause, his green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation movement during the War of Independence and became the national flag of independent Algeria. He was buried in Damascus in the same mausoleum as Ibn Arabi, until the Algerian government brought his remains back to Algeria to be interred with much ceremony on July 5, 1966, the fourth anniversary of independence and the 136th anniversary of the French conquest. The Emir Abdel Kader University and the mosque bearing his name have been constructed as a national shrine in Constantine, Algeria, and the town of Elkader, Iowa, in the United States is named after him.
‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din see ‘Abd al-Qadir
'Abd el-Kader see ‘Abd al-Qadir
National Hero of Algeria see ‘Abd al-Qadir
Sultan of the Arabs see ‘Abd al-Qadir
'Abdul Qadir see ‘Abd al-Qadir
Founder of the Algerian State see ‘Abd al-Qadir
‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani (al-Jili) (Abdul-Qadir al-Kilani) (al-Gauth al Azam -- "The Supreme Helper") (1077-1166). Hanbalite theologian, preacher, and a Sufi mystic of legendary fame. Born in Jilan, Iraq, al-Jilani was raised by his mother and grandfather after his father's passing. Al-Jilani was descended from Hasan while his mother was descended from Husayn. At the age of eighteen, he went to Baghdad where he trained in Hanbalite law.
Around 1100, a Sufi teacher (Shaikh Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas) inspired al-Jilani to pursue the mystical path. Al-Jilani abandoned Baghdad and wandered in the desert regions of Iraq. After twenty-five years as a desert recluse, al-Jilani reappeared in Baghdad in 1127 to become one of the most popular preachers and teachers that Islam has ever known. In the morning, he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon held discourse on mysticism and the virtues of the Qur'an.
Al-Jilani established a school and inspired an order that eventually set up branches in every Muslim country. The order came to bear his name of Qadiriyya. His tomb in Baghdad has remained one of the most frequented sanctuaries of Islam.
Jili, al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Jilani, 'Abd al-Qadir al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Abdul-Qadir al-Kilani see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Kilani, Abdul-Qadir al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Gauth al Azam, al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
"The Supreme Helper" see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani (al-Jili) (Abdul-Qadir al-Kilani) (al-Gauth al Azam -- "The Supreme Helper") (1077-1166). Hanbalite theologian, preacher, and a Sufi mystic of legendary fame. Born in Jilan, Iraq, al-Jilani was raised by his mother and grandfather after his father's passing. Al-Jilani was descended from Hasan while his mother was descended from Husayn. At the age of eighteen, he went to Baghdad where he trained in Hanbalite law.
Around 1100, a Sufi teacher (Shaikh Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas) inspired al-Jilani to pursue the mystical path. Al-Jilani abandoned Baghdad and wandered in the desert regions of Iraq. After twenty-five years as a desert recluse, al-Jilani reappeared in Baghdad in 1127 to become one of the most popular preachers and teachers that Islam has ever known. In the morning, he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon held discourse on mysticism and the virtues of the Qur'an.
Al-Jilani established a school and inspired an order that eventually set up branches in every Muslim country. The order came to bear his name of Qadiriyya. His tomb in Baghdad has remained one of the most frequented sanctuaries of Islam.
Jili, al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Jilani, 'Abd al-Qadir al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Abdul-Qadir al-Kilani see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Kilani, Abdul-Qadir al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
Gauth al Azam, al- see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
"The Supreme Helper" see ‘Abd-al-Qadir al-Jilani
‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil (Abdul-Qader Bedil) (1644-1721). Indo-Persian poet, comparable in output and influence to Rumi. Born in Azimabad (present day Patna, Bihar, India), his family was from Badakhshan (present day Afghanistan). According to some other sources, he was born in Khwaja Rawash, an area of Kabul province in today's Afghanistan.
Bedil was educated in traditional Islamic studies before coming to Delhi in 1665. In Delhi, he met an ecstatic Sufi saint who changed the course of his life. After disconsolate wanderings, Bedil married and returned to Delhi. In Delhi, he began to write the verse for which he became famous throughout central Asia.
Bedil mostly wrote ghazal and rubayee (quatrain) in Persian. He is considered as one of the prominent poets of the Indian School of Poetry in Persian literature, and owns his unique Style in it. Both Mirza Ghalib and Iqbal-e Lahori were influenced by him. His books include Telesm-e Hairat, Toor e Ma'refat, Chahar Unsur, and Ruqa'at. Possibly as a result of being bought up in such a mixed religious environment, Bedil had considerably more tolerant views than his poetic contemporaries. He preferred free thought to accepting the established beliefs of his time, siding with the common people and rejecting the clergy who he often saw as corrupt. Bedil evolved a new, highly obtuse style of poetry, at once mystical and rational, beguiling and yet not fully comprehensible.
Upon his emergence as a poet, Bedil gained recognition throughout the Iranian cultural continent. However, since the late 18th century, his poetry gradually lost its position among Iranians, while it was much welcomed in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. Bedil only came back to prominence in Iran in the 1980s.
Bedil, 'Abd-al-Qadir see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Abdul-Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Abul Ma'ani Mirza Abdul-Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Mawlana Abul Ma'ani Abdul Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Bidel Dehlavi see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil (Abdul-Qader Bedil) (1644-1721). Indo-Persian poet, comparable in output and influence to Rumi. Born in Azimabad (present day Patna, Bihar, India), his family was from Badakhshan (present day Afghanistan). According to some other sources, he was born in Khwaja Rawash, an area of Kabul province in today's Afghanistan.
Bedil was educated in traditional Islamic studies before coming to Delhi in 1665. In Delhi, he met an ecstatic Sufi saint who changed the course of his life. After disconsolate wanderings, Bedil married and returned to Delhi. In Delhi, he began to write the verse for which he became famous throughout central Asia.
Bedil mostly wrote ghazal and rubayee (quatrain) in Persian. He is considered as one of the prominent poets of the Indian School of Poetry in Persian literature, and owns his unique Style in it. Both Mirza Ghalib and Iqbal-e Lahori were influenced by him. His books include Telesm-e Hairat, Toor e Ma'refat, Chahar Unsur, and Ruqa'at. Possibly as a result of being bought up in such a mixed religious environment, Bedil had considerably more tolerant views than his poetic contemporaries. He preferred free thought to accepting the established beliefs of his time, siding with the common people and rejecting the clergy who he often saw as corrupt. Bedil evolved a new, highly obtuse style of poetry, at once mystical and rational, beguiling and yet not fully comprehensible.
Upon his emergence as a poet, Bedil gained recognition throughout the Iranian cultural continent. However, since the late 18th century, his poetry gradually lost its position among Iranians, while it was much welcomed in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. Bedil only came back to prominence in Iran in the 1980s.
Bedil, 'Abd-al-Qadir see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Abdul-Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Abul Ma'ani Mirza Abdul-Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Mawlana Abul Ma'ani Abdul Qader Bedil see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
Bidel Dehlavi see ‘Abd-al-Qadir Bedil
‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Ghaybi
‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Ghaybi (c.1350-1435). One of the greatest of the Persian writers on music. His works are of great importance in the history of Persian, Arabian and Turkish music.
‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Ghaybi (c.1350-1435). One of the greatest of the Persian writers on music. His works are of great importance in the history of Persian, Arabian and Turkish music.
‘Abd al-Qays
‘Abd al-Qays (‘Abd Qays). Old Arabian tribe in Eastern Arabia, which gave a cordial reception to the Prophet’s envoys. During the period of apostasy (in Arabic, ridda) under Caliph Abu Bakr, part of the ‘Abd al-Qays proclaimed a Lakhmid as their ruler.
‘Abd Qays see ‘Abd al-Qays
Qays, 'Abd al- see ‘Abd al-Qays
‘Abd al-Qays (‘Abd Qays). Old Arabian tribe in Eastern Arabia, which gave a cordial reception to the Prophet’s envoys. During the period of apostasy (in Arabic, ridda) under Caliph Abu Bakr, part of the ‘Abd al-Qays proclaimed a Lakhmid as their ruler.
‘Abd Qays see ‘Abd al-Qays
Qays, 'Abd al- see ‘Abd al-Qays
‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
‘Abd al-Rahim Khan (Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana) (Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana) (1556-1627). General, statesman, scholar and poet in Mughal India. Also known as Rahim, he was a poet in the times of Mughal emperor Akbar, and one of Akbar's main ministers. He translated Babur’s autobiography into Persian and was a patron of the arts and letters. He is best known for his Hindi couplets and his books on astrology.
Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the son of Akbar's trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan who had Turk ancestry. His mother was the daughter of Jamal Khan of Mewat. Abdul Rahim was born in Lahore. After Bairam Khan was murdered, his wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana his stepson. Later he became one of Akbar's nine prominent ministers -- the Navaratnas or "the nine gems."
Although a Muslim by birth, Rahim was a devotee of Krishna and wrote poetry dedicated to Krishna. He was also an avid astrologer, and the writer of two important works in astrology Khei Kautukam and Dwawishd Yogavali.
Rahim's two sons were killed by Akbar's son Jehangir and their bodies left to rot at the Khooni Darwaza because Rahim was not in favor of Jehangir's accession to the throne at Akbar's death.
The tomb of 'Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana is located ahead of Humayun's tomb in New Delhi.
Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Khan-e-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Rahim see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
‘Abd al-Rahim Khan (Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana) (Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana) (1556-1627). General, statesman, scholar and poet in Mughal India. Also known as Rahim, he was a poet in the times of Mughal emperor Akbar, and one of Akbar's main ministers. He translated Babur’s autobiography into Persian and was a patron of the arts and letters. He is best known for his Hindi couplets and his books on astrology.
Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the son of Akbar's trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan who had Turk ancestry. His mother was the daughter of Jamal Khan of Mewat. Abdul Rahim was born in Lahore. After Bairam Khan was murdered, his wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana his stepson. Later he became one of Akbar's nine prominent ministers -- the Navaratnas or "the nine gems."
Although a Muslim by birth, Rahim was a devotee of Krishna and wrote poetry dedicated to Krishna. He was also an avid astrologer, and the writer of two important works in astrology Khei Kautukam and Dwawishd Yogavali.
Rahim's two sons were killed by Akbar's son Jehangir and their bodies left to rot at the Khooni Darwaza because Rahim was not in favor of Jehangir's accession to the throne at Akbar's death.
The tomb of 'Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana is located ahead of Humayun's tomb in New Delhi.
Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Khan-e-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Rahim see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana see ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan
‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
'A'ishah ‘Abd al-Rahman (b. November 18, 1913, Damietta, Domyat, Khedivate of Egypt - d. December 1, 1998, Cairo, Egypt) was an Egyptian writer and professor of Arabic language and literature and Qur’anic studies. Under the pseudonym Bint al-Shati’ ("Daughter of the Riverbank"), ‘Abd al-Rahman was the author of more than sixty books on Arabic literature, Qur’anic interpretation, the lives of women of the early Muslim community (especially members of the Prophet’s family), contemporary social issues, and fiction.
Raised in the Delta port city of Dumyat (Damietta), she was taught the Qur’an and classical Arabic literature by her father, an al-Azhar educated teacher at a mosque-based religious institute. Although he educated her in the traditional style at home, mosque, and Qur’anic school (kuttab), he objected to her attendance at public schools. With the assistance of her mother and maternal great-grandfather, she managed to get a secular education (at El Mansurah) despite her father’s objections.
'A'ishah ‘Abd al-Rahman (b. November 18, 1913, Damietta, Domyat, Khedivate of Egypt - d. December 1, 1998, Cairo, Egypt) was an Egyptian writer and professor of Arabic language and literature and Qur’anic studies. Under the pseudonym Bint al-Shati’ ("Daughter of the Riverbank"), ‘Abd al-Rahman was the author of more than sixty books on Arabic literature, Qur’anic interpretation, the lives of women of the early Muslim community (especially members of the Prophet’s family), contemporary social issues, and fiction.
Raised in the Delta port city of Dumyat (Damietta), she was taught the Qur’an and classical Arabic literature by her father, an al-Azhar educated teacher at a mosque-based religious institute. Although he educated her in the traditional style at home, mosque, and Qur’anic school (kuttab), he objected to her attendance at public schools. With the assistance of her mother and maternal great-grandfather, she managed to get a secular education (at El Mansurah) despite her father’s objections.
'A'ishah studied Arabic at Cairo University earning her undergraduate degree in 1939, and a master's degree in 1941, In 1942, she began work as an inspector for teaching of Arabic literature for the Egyptian Ministry of Education. She earned her PhD with distinction in 1950 and was appointed Professor of Arabic Literature at the University College for Women of the Ayn Shams University.
‘Abd al-Rahman began her literary career by writing poems and essays for Al-nahdah, a women’s magazine, and became a literary critic for the semi-official newspaper Al-ahram in 1936, the same year she entered the Faculty of Letters at Fu’ad I University. At this time, she assumed the pen-name Bint al-Shati’ (“Daughter of the Shore”) in order to conceal her identity from her father. Her first articles Al-ahram focused on conditions in the Egyptian countryside, but she is best known for her later works on religious and literary topics. She received her doctorate in 1950 for a thesis on the poet Abu al-‘Ala’ al-Ma‘arri (d. 1058).
In 1951, ‘Abd al-Rahman became professor of Arabic language and literature at ‘Ayn Shams University in Cairo. Throughout the 1960s, she participated in international literary conferences, served on several government sponsored committees on literature and education, and was a visiting professor at the Islamic University in Ummdurman (Sudan), the University of Khartoum, and the University of Algiers. After retiring from her position at ‘Ayn Shams University, she became professor of higher Qur’anic studies at al-Qarawiyin University in Fez, Morocco. Her regular articles for Al-ahram, her biographies of the women of the Prophet’s household, and especially her exegesis of the Qur’an have brought her recognition and distinction in Egypt and throughout the Arab world.
‘Abd al-Rahman’s pursuit of public education offered her little challenge after her early education at the hands of her father, until she met Professor Amin al-Khuli when she was a student at Fu’ad I University (later Cairo University). He introduced her to the literary analysis of the Qur’an that became her trademark. In ‘Ala al-jisr, ‘Abd al-Rahman decribes her entire life as a path to this encounter with Amin al-Khuli, whom she married in 1945. Her work is seen as the best exemplification of his method, and she has been much more prolific than her teacher, who died in 1966.
‘Abd al-Rahman’s rhetorical exegesis of the Qur’an makes a plea for removing the Qur’an from the exclusive domain of traditional exegesis (commentary) and placing it within literary studies. Whereas some earlier exegetes allowed for a multiplicity of interpretations of any single Qur’anic verse, seeing in this multiplicity a demonstration of the richness of the Qur’an, ‘Abd al-Rahman argues that every word of the Qur’an allows for only a single interpretation, which should be elicited from the context of the Qur’an as a whole. She rejects extraneous sources, particularly information derived from the Bible or Jewish sources (Isra’iliyat), the inclusion of which in traditional Qur’anic exegesis she sees as part of a continuing Jewish conspiracy to subvert Islam and dominate the world. She also argues that no word is a true synonym for any other in the Qur’an, so no word can be replaced by another. Whereas many scholars believe certain phrases in the Qur’an were inserted to provide the text with its characteristic rhythm and assonance, ‘Abd al-Rahman insisted that every word of the Qur’an is there solely for the meaning it gives.
‘Abd al-Rahman was both deeply religious and very conservative, despite her active public life. On the subject of women’s liberation, she affirmed the principle of male guardianship over women but firmly rejected male responsibility for the behavior of women. She insisted that a proper understanding of women’s liberation does not abandon traditional Islamic values. She was consistently supported and honored by successive Egyptian regimes and, in 1985, a statue was built in her honor in Cairo.
'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman died of a heart attack following a stroke in Cairo on December 1, 1998. She donated all her library to research purposes. The author of more than 40 books, 'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman's literary legacy includes the following:
In 1951, ‘Abd al-Rahman became professor of Arabic language and literature at ‘Ayn Shams University in Cairo. Throughout the 1960s, she participated in international literary conferences, served on several government sponsored committees on literature and education, and was a visiting professor at the Islamic University in Ummdurman (Sudan), the University of Khartoum, and the University of Algiers. After retiring from her position at ‘Ayn Shams University, she became professor of higher Qur’anic studies at al-Qarawiyin University in Fez, Morocco. Her regular articles for Al-ahram, her biographies of the women of the Prophet’s household, and especially her exegesis of the Qur’an have brought her recognition and distinction in Egypt and throughout the Arab world.
‘Abd al-Rahman’s pursuit of public education offered her little challenge after her early education at the hands of her father, until she met Professor Amin al-Khuli when she was a student at Fu’ad I University (later Cairo University). He introduced her to the literary analysis of the Qur’an that became her trademark. In ‘Ala al-jisr, ‘Abd al-Rahman decribes her entire life as a path to this encounter with Amin al-Khuli, whom she married in 1945. Her work is seen as the best exemplification of his method, and she has been much more prolific than her teacher, who died in 1966.
‘Abd al-Rahman’s rhetorical exegesis of the Qur’an makes a plea for removing the Qur’an from the exclusive domain of traditional exegesis (commentary) and placing it within literary studies. Whereas some earlier exegetes allowed for a multiplicity of interpretations of any single Qur’anic verse, seeing in this multiplicity a demonstration of the richness of the Qur’an, ‘Abd al-Rahman argues that every word of the Qur’an allows for only a single interpretation, which should be elicited from the context of the Qur’an as a whole. She rejects extraneous sources, particularly information derived from the Bible or Jewish sources (Isra’iliyat), the inclusion of which in traditional Qur’anic exegesis she sees as part of a continuing Jewish conspiracy to subvert Islam and dominate the world. She also argues that no word is a true synonym for any other in the Qur’an, so no word can be replaced by another. Whereas many scholars believe certain phrases in the Qur’an were inserted to provide the text with its characteristic rhythm and assonance, ‘Abd al-Rahman insisted that every word of the Qur’an is there solely for the meaning it gives.
‘Abd al-Rahman was both deeply religious and very conservative, despite her active public life. On the subject of women’s liberation, she affirmed the principle of male guardianship over women but firmly rejected male responsibility for the behavior of women. She insisted that a proper understanding of women’s liberation does not abandon traditional Islamic values. She was consistently supported and honored by successive Egyptian regimes and, in 1985, a statue was built in her honor in Cairo.
'Abd al-Rahman was married to Sheik Amin el-Khouli, her teacher at Cairo University during her undergraduate years.
'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman died of a heart attack following a stroke in Cairo on December 1, 1998. She donated all her library to research purposes. The author of more than 40 books, 'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman's literary legacy includes the following:
- The Egyptian Countryside (1936)
- The Problem of the Peasant (1938)
- Secret of the Beach and Master of the Estate: The Story of a Sinful Woman (1942)
- New Values in Arabic Literature (1961)
- Contemporary Arab Women Poets (1963)
Bint al-Shati’ see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
Daughter of the Shore see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
Daughter of the Riverbank see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
Daughter of the Shore see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
'A'ishah 'Abd al-Rahman see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
Daughter of the Riverbank see ‘Abd al-Rahman, ‘A’ishah
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir (Sanchuelo) (d.1009). Son of Almanzor. He is known as Sanchuelo, “the little Sancho”, for being a grandson of King Sancho of Navarre. He succeeded his elder brother ‘Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar as the “major domo” -- the chief minister -- of Hisham II, Caliph of Cordoba. In 1008, Sanchuelo obtained from the Spanish Umayyad Hisham II his designation as heir presumptive to the throne, but the population of Cordoba rose up against him. Led by Muhammad II al-Mahdi, Sanchuelo was executed shortly afterwards.
Sanchuelo see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir
The Little Sancho see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir (Sanchuelo) (d.1009). Son of Almanzor. He is known as Sanchuelo, “the little Sancho”, for being a grandson of King Sancho of Navarre. He succeeded his elder brother ‘Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar as the “major domo” -- the chief minister -- of Hisham II, Caliph of Cordoba. In 1008, Sanchuelo obtained from the Spanish Umayyad Hisham II his designation as heir presumptive to the throne, but the population of Cordoba rose up against him. Led by Muhammad II al-Mahdi, Sanchuelo was executed shortly afterwards.
Sanchuelo see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir
The Little Sancho see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi ‘Amir
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf (Abdur Rahman bin Awf) (Abdur Rahman ibn Awf) (d.652). An early Muslim convert and a companion of the Prophet. Upon the death of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, he was one of the counsel of six who had to choose the new caliph.
'Abd al-Rahman was born with the name Abdu Amr ibn Awf into the tribe of Banu Zuhrah. He married 'Uthman ibn Affan's half-sister, the daughter of 'Uthman's mother, Urwa bint Kariz, by her second husband. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was his first cousin.
'Abd al-Rahman was one of the first eight persons to accept Islam, doing so two days after Abu Bakr. On this occasion he adopted the name 'Abd al-Rahman, meaning "Slave of (God) the Beneficient."
In 634, the dying Caliph Abu Bakr called in 'Abd al-Rahman (along with 'Uthman) and informed him of his designation of Umar ibn al-Khattab as successor.
In 644, the dying Umar nominated a board of six members who were required to elect one of themselves as the next caliph. The group consisted of Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib and 'Uthman ibn Affan. 'Uthman was chosen as the third caliph.
Sunnis regard 'Abd al-Rahman as one of the Ten Promised Paradise.
Abdur Rahman bin Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
Abdur Rahman ibn Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
Abdu Amr ibn Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
One of the Ten Promised Paradise see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf (Abdur Rahman bin Awf) (Abdur Rahman ibn Awf) (d.652). An early Muslim convert and a companion of the Prophet. Upon the death of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, he was one of the counsel of six who had to choose the new caliph.
'Abd al-Rahman was born with the name Abdu Amr ibn Awf into the tribe of Banu Zuhrah. He married 'Uthman ibn Affan's half-sister, the daughter of 'Uthman's mother, Urwa bint Kariz, by her second husband. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was his first cousin.
'Abd al-Rahman was one of the first eight persons to accept Islam, doing so two days after Abu Bakr. On this occasion he adopted the name 'Abd al-Rahman, meaning "Slave of (God) the Beneficient."
In 634, the dying Caliph Abu Bakr called in 'Abd al-Rahman (along with 'Uthman) and informed him of his designation of Umar ibn al-Khattab as successor.
In 644, the dying Umar nominated a board of six members who were required to elect one of themselves as the next caliph. The group consisted of Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib and 'Uthman ibn Affan. 'Uthman was chosen as the third caliph.
Sunnis regard 'Abd al-Rahman as one of the Ten Promised Paradise.
Abdur Rahman bin Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
Abdur Rahman ibn Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
Abdu Amr ibn Awf see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
One of the Ten Promised Paradise see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham ('Abd ar-Rahman ibn Hisham) (1789-1859). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1822-1859). He had to repress several tribal revolts. During his reign, a number of European powers renewed, or completed, their commercial treaties with Morocco, but Morocco ultimately lost its international standing and suffered economic decline and social and political unrest.
The major problem confronted by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham was how to respond to the invasion of Algeria by France in 1830. 'Abd al-Rahman first tacitly supported Algerian resistance forces, then sought to avoid a confrontation. In August 1844, this policy failed when a Moroccan army was beaten at Isly by General Thomas-Robert Bugeaud de la Piconnerie and Moroccan ports were bombarded by the French navy. Morocco's defeat opened the door to increased European political and economic intervention.
The economic policies pursued by 'Abd al-Rahman became disastrous as well. The signing of an Anglo-Moroccan commercial agreement in 1856 gave most favored nation status to Great Britain, and its provisions were soon extended to other European powers. Finally, a major conflict with Spain erupted into war in August 1859.
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham ('Abd ar-Rahman ibn Hisham) (1789-1859). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1822-1859). He had to repress several tribal revolts. During his reign, a number of European powers renewed, or completed, their commercial treaties with Morocco, but Morocco ultimately lost its international standing and suffered economic decline and social and political unrest.
The major problem confronted by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham was how to respond to the invasion of Algeria by France in 1830. 'Abd al-Rahman first tacitly supported Algerian resistance forces, then sought to avoid a confrontation. In August 1844, this policy failed when a Moroccan army was beaten at Isly by General Thomas-Robert Bugeaud de la Piconnerie and Moroccan ports were bombarded by the French navy. Morocco's defeat opened the door to increased European political and economic intervention.
The economic policies pursued by 'Abd al-Rahman became disastrous as well. The signing of an Anglo-Moroccan commercial agreement in 1856 gave most favored nation status to Great Britain, and its provisions were soon extended to other European powers. Finally, a major conflict with Spain erupted into war in August 1859.
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi ('Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi) ('Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn) ('Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi) (Azophi) (December 7, 903 - May 25, 986). Persian astronomer at the court of the Buyids whose best known work is a description of the fixed stars.
Al-Sufi published his famous Book of Fixed Stars in 964, describing much of his work, both in textual descriptions and pictures. The lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet (12621) Al-Sufi are named after him.
Al-Sufi lived at the court of Emir Adud ad-Daula in Isfahan, Persia, and worked on translating and expanding Greek astronomical works, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. He contributed several corrections to Ptolemy's star list and did his own brightness and magnitude estimates which frequently deviated from those in Ptolemy's work.
He was a major translator into Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy that had been centered in Alexandria, the first to attempt to relate the Greek with the traditional Arabic star names and constellations, which were completely unrelated and overlapped in complicated ways.
Al-Sufi identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is visible from Yemen, but not from Isfahan. The Large Magellanic Cloud was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century. He also made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy in 964, describing it as a "small cloud."
Al-Sufi observed that the ecliptic plane is inclined with respect to the celestial equator and more accurately calculated the length of the tropical year. He observed and described the stars, their positions, their magnitudes, and their color, setting out his results constellation by constellation. For each constellation, al-Sufi provided two drawings, one from the outside of a celestial globe, and the other from the inside (as seen from the earth). Al-Sufi also wrote about the astrolabe, finding numerous additional uses for it.
Al-Sufi also first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, and Salah prayer.
'Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
'Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
Azophi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi ('Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi) ('Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn) ('Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi) (Azophi) (December 7, 903 - May 25, 986). Persian astronomer at the court of the Buyids whose best known work is a description of the fixed stars.
Al-Sufi published his famous Book of Fixed Stars in 964, describing much of his work, both in textual descriptions and pictures. The lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet (12621) Al-Sufi are named after him.
Al-Sufi lived at the court of Emir Adud ad-Daula in Isfahan, Persia, and worked on translating and expanding Greek astronomical works, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. He contributed several corrections to Ptolemy's star list and did his own brightness and magnitude estimates which frequently deviated from those in Ptolemy's work.
He was a major translator into Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy that had been centered in Alexandria, the first to attempt to relate the Greek with the traditional Arabic star names and constellations, which were completely unrelated and overlapped in complicated ways.
Al-Sufi identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is visible from Yemen, but not from Isfahan. The Large Magellanic Cloud was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century. He also made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy in 964, describing it as a "small cloud."
Al-Sufi observed that the ecliptic plane is inclined with respect to the celestial equator and more accurately calculated the length of the tropical year. He observed and described the stars, their positions, their magnitudes, and their color, setting out his results constellation by constellation. For each constellation, al-Sufi provided two drawings, one from the outside of a celestial globe, and the other from the inside (as seen from the earth). Al-Sufi also wrote about the astrolabe, finding numerous additional uses for it.
Al-Sufi also first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, and Salah prayer.
'Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
'Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
Azophi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi see ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar al-Sufi
‘Abd al-Rahman Khan
‘Abd al-Rahman Khan ('Abd al-Rahman) (Abdur Rahman Khan) (1844 - October 1, 1901). Emir (Amir) of Afghanistan (r.1880-1901). During his reign, Afghanistan became a buffer state between Great Britain and Russia whose boundaries were demarcated where possible. He was the third son of Afzul Khan, and grandson of son of Dost Mohammed Khan, who had established the Barakzai dynasty in Afghanistan. 'Abd al-Rahman was considered a strong ruler who re-established the writ of the Afghan government in Kabul.
Before his death at Herat, on June 9, 1863, Dost Mohammed had nominated as his successor Shir Ali, his third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and Azim Khan. At first, the new amir was quietly recognized. However, after a few months, Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Oxus River, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce contest for power between Dost Mohammed's sons, which lasted for five years.
In this war, 'Abd al-Rahman became distinguished for ability and daring energy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shir Ali, the son's behavior in the northern province soon excited the amir's suspicion, and 'Abd al-Rahman, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shir Ali threw Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.
The amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when 'Abd al-Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The amir Shir Ali marched up against them from Kandahar. However, in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on May 10, he was deserted by a large body of his troops. After Shir Ali's defeat 'Abd al-Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir.
Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, 'Abd al-Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Shir Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzul Khan died at the end of the year, Azim Khan became the new ruler, with 'Abd al-Rahman as his governor in the northern province. However, towards the end of 1868, Shir Ali's return, and a general rising in his favor, resulted in the defeat of 'Abd al-Rahman and Azim Khan at Tinah Khan on January 3, 1869. Both 'Abd al-Rahman and Azim Khan sought refuge in Persia, where 'Abd al-Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azim Khan died in Persia in October 1869.
'Abd al-Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, for eleven years, until the 1879 death of Shir Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the British armies entered Afghanistan. The Russian governor-general at Tashkent sent for 'Abd al-Rahman, and pressed him to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880, a report reached India that 'Abd al-Rahman was in northern Afghanistan and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize 'Abd al-Rahman as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it.
At the durbar on July 22, 1880, 'Abd al-Rahman was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new amir.
However, Ayub Khan, one of Shir Ali's sons, marched on Kandahar from Herat, defeated 'Abd al-Rahman's troops, and occupied Kandahar in July. This serious defeat aroused 'Abd al-Rahman. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub Khan's army near Kandahar, and won a resounding victory, forcing Ayub Khan to flee to Persia. From this time onward, 'Abd al-Rahman occupied the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai tribe revolted against the severity of his measures, but they were crushed by the end of 1887. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia. In 1888, the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against him in the north. However, these two enterprises came to nothing.
‘Abd al-Rahman was the last ruler of Afghanistan to have died peacefully while still in power. His reign (1880-1901), however, was far from peaceful. He overcame his challengers in four civil wars and weathered one hundred rebellions. The character of ‘Abd al-Rahman was molded by experiences of both power and exile. The only son of Dost Mohammed’s (Dust Muhammad's) eldest son, he was appointed sub-governor of the Tashkurgan District in northern Afghanistan at the age of thirteen. Upon the death of his grandfather, he actively took part in a five year war of succession, twice winning the throne for his father and an uncle before being defeated by yet another uncle, Shir 'Ali (Barakzay Shir 'Ali). Forced into eleven years of exile in the Asiatic colonies of Russia, he returned when a British invasion ended Shir 'Ali’s reign. He took over the throne in July 1880, having won Britain’s recognition in return for agreeing to British control over Afghanistan’s foreign relations.
Once in power, he pursued a rigorous policy of centralization. He imposed taxation, conscription, and adjudication on the defeated clans and aristocrats. He incorporated the religious establishment within the machinery of the state, ending many of its privileges. He spent the bulk of his enhanced revenues on an army that he continuously kept in the field, forcefully carrying out his policies.
‘Abd al-Rahman was able to concentrate on consolidating his rule at home because of Britain’s and Russia’s desire to avoid direct confrontation with each other. Afghanistan became a buffer state between the two empires. They imposed its present boundaries. Playing on their rivalry, ‘Abd al-Rahman refused to allow European railways, which were touching on his eastern, southern, and northern borders, to expand within Afghanistan, and he resisted British attempts to station European representatives in the country. Toward the end of his reign, he felt secure enough to inform the viceroy of India that treaty obligations did not allow British representatives even to comment on his internal affairs.
He died in October 1901, and his son and heir apparent, Habibullah (Habib Allah) (r. 1901-1919), succeeded him uncontested.
'Abd al-Rahman see ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan
Abdur Rahman Khan see ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan
‘Abd al-Rahman Khan ('Abd al-Rahman) (Abdur Rahman Khan) (1844 - October 1, 1901). Emir (Amir) of Afghanistan (r.1880-1901). During his reign, Afghanistan became a buffer state between Great Britain and Russia whose boundaries were demarcated where possible. He was the third son of Afzul Khan, and grandson of son of Dost Mohammed Khan, who had established the Barakzai dynasty in Afghanistan. 'Abd al-Rahman was considered a strong ruler who re-established the writ of the Afghan government in Kabul.
Before his death at Herat, on June 9, 1863, Dost Mohammed had nominated as his successor Shir Ali, his third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and Azim Khan. At first, the new amir was quietly recognized. However, after a few months, Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Oxus River, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce contest for power between Dost Mohammed's sons, which lasted for five years.
In this war, 'Abd al-Rahman became distinguished for ability and daring energy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shir Ali, the son's behavior in the northern province soon excited the amir's suspicion, and 'Abd al-Rahman, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shir Ali threw Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.
The amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when 'Abd al-Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The amir Shir Ali marched up against them from Kandahar. However, in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on May 10, he was deserted by a large body of his troops. After Shir Ali's defeat 'Abd al-Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir.
Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, 'Abd al-Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Shir Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzul Khan died at the end of the year, Azim Khan became the new ruler, with 'Abd al-Rahman as his governor in the northern province. However, towards the end of 1868, Shir Ali's return, and a general rising in his favor, resulted in the defeat of 'Abd al-Rahman and Azim Khan at Tinah Khan on January 3, 1869. Both 'Abd al-Rahman and Azim Khan sought refuge in Persia, where 'Abd al-Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azim Khan died in Persia in October 1869.
'Abd al-Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, for eleven years, until the 1879 death of Shir Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the British armies entered Afghanistan. The Russian governor-general at Tashkent sent for 'Abd al-Rahman, and pressed him to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880, a report reached India that 'Abd al-Rahman was in northern Afghanistan and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize 'Abd al-Rahman as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it.
At the durbar on July 22, 1880, 'Abd al-Rahman was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new amir.
However, Ayub Khan, one of Shir Ali's sons, marched on Kandahar from Herat, defeated 'Abd al-Rahman's troops, and occupied Kandahar in July. This serious defeat aroused 'Abd al-Rahman. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub Khan's army near Kandahar, and won a resounding victory, forcing Ayub Khan to flee to Persia. From this time onward, 'Abd al-Rahman occupied the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai tribe revolted against the severity of his measures, but they were crushed by the end of 1887. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia. In 1888, the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against him in the north. However, these two enterprises came to nothing.
‘Abd al-Rahman was the last ruler of Afghanistan to have died peacefully while still in power. His reign (1880-1901), however, was far from peaceful. He overcame his challengers in four civil wars and weathered one hundred rebellions. The character of ‘Abd al-Rahman was molded by experiences of both power and exile. The only son of Dost Mohammed’s (Dust Muhammad's) eldest son, he was appointed sub-governor of the Tashkurgan District in northern Afghanistan at the age of thirteen. Upon the death of his grandfather, he actively took part in a five year war of succession, twice winning the throne for his father and an uncle before being defeated by yet another uncle, Shir 'Ali (Barakzay Shir 'Ali). Forced into eleven years of exile in the Asiatic colonies of Russia, he returned when a British invasion ended Shir 'Ali’s reign. He took over the throne in July 1880, having won Britain’s recognition in return for agreeing to British control over Afghanistan’s foreign relations.
Once in power, he pursued a rigorous policy of centralization. He imposed taxation, conscription, and adjudication on the defeated clans and aristocrats. He incorporated the religious establishment within the machinery of the state, ending many of its privileges. He spent the bulk of his enhanced revenues on an army that he continuously kept in the field, forcefully carrying out his policies.
‘Abd al-Rahman was able to concentrate on consolidating his rule at home because of Britain’s and Russia’s desire to avoid direct confrontation with each other. Afghanistan became a buffer state between the two empires. They imposed its present boundaries. Playing on their rivalry, ‘Abd al-Rahman refused to allow European railways, which were touching on his eastern, southern, and northern borders, to expand within Afghanistan, and he resisted British attempts to station European representatives in the country. Toward the end of his reign, he felt secure enough to inform the viceroy of India that treaty obligations did not allow British representatives even to comment on his internal affairs.
He died in October 1901, and his son and heir apparent, Habibullah (Habib Allah) (r. 1901-1919), succeeded him uncontested.
'Abd al-Rahman see ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan
Abdur Rahman Khan see ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan
‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Fansuri al-Sinkili
‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Fansuri al-Sinkili. Religious leader in Sumatra from circa 1620 to circa 1693. He wrote directions for recitation (in Arabic, dhikr) as practised by the Shattariyya (Shattariyah) order, into which he had been initiated in Arabia. He also translated the Qur’an into Malay.
Sinkili, 'Abd al-Ra'uf al-Fansuri al- see ‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Fansuri al-Sinkili.
‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Fansuri al-Sinkili. Religious leader in Sumatra from circa 1620 to circa 1693. He wrote directions for recitation (in Arabic, dhikr) as practised by the Shattariyya (Shattariyah) order, into which he had been initiated in Arabia. He also translated the Qur’an into Malay.
Sinkili, 'Abd al-Ra'uf al-Fansuri al- see ‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Fansuri al-Sinkili.
‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali
‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali (Ali Abdel Raziq) (1888-1966). Egyptian shari‘a (law) judge, intellectual, and the author of Al-Islam wa-usul al-hukm: Ba‘th fi al-khilafah wa-al-hukumah fi al-Islam (“Islam and the Bases of Political Authority: A Study of the Caliphate and Government in Islam”). Published in Cairo in 1925, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book challenged the notion that Islam legislated a specific type of political authority or, for that matter, that it legitimated any form of government at all. In addition to creating a constitutional crisis in Egypt, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s ideas generated violent controversy throughout the Muslim world. The Egyptian Higher Council of ‘Ulama’ brought ‘Abd al-Raziq to trial and expelled him from both their ranks and his position as a shari‘a judge.
‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq was a member of a famous and powerful landowning family from the village of Abu Girg (Jiri) in al-Minya Province. A graduate of al-Azhar and Oxford universities, he rose to the position of judge in the al-Mansura shari‘a court. In addition to writing Islam and the Bases of Political Authority, ‘Abd al-Raziq edited a study of the life and work of his brother, a rector of al-Azhar, entitled Min athar Mustafa ‘Abd al-Raziq (“From the Legacy of Mustafa ‘Abd al-Raziq,” Cairo, 1957) and Al-ijma‘ fi al-shari‘a al-Islamiyah (“Consensus in Islamic Law,” Cairo, 1947).
Along with Taha Husayn’s 1926 volume, Fi al-shi‘r al-jahili (“On Jahiliyah Poetry”), ‘Abd al-Raziq’s work was seen by the ‘ulama’ and many Muslims as presenting a fundamental challenge to Islam’s legitimacy as a religion. The specific event that precipitated ‘Abd al-Raziq’s study and gave it such significance was the abolition of the caliphate by the Turkish government of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1924. Following World War I, many Muslims felt particularly vulnerable to increased colonial penetration by Western powers, such as Great Britain and France, with the fall of the Ottoman Empire. In their minds, the abolition of the caliphate was a prominent symbol that underlined their political weakness.
What angered many Muslims was ‘Abd al-Raziq’s assertion that the prophet Muhammad was sent by God only to preach a spiritual message and not to exercise political authority. Although Muhammad did establish al-umma al-islamiyah (an Islamic community), he never mentioned or promulgated a specific form of government. For ‘Abd al-Raziq, the unity of the Islamic community did not constitute a unitary Islamic state. For him, the Prophet’s leadership was religious and came as a result of his Message and nothing else. For 'Abd al-Raziq, the Prophet's Message ended with his death as did his leadership role.
‘Abd al-Raziq’s thesis that the Islamic umma is purely spiritual and bears no relation to politics or forms of government effectively separated religion and politics in Islam. Furthermore, it denied that the caliphate was an integral and necessary part of Islam or that it maintained any special religious status. Rather than being a part of Islamic law, the caliphate was to ‘Abd al-Raziq simply a matter of custom.
To many Muslim thinkers, these arguments were anathemas, as they seemed to undermine the very essence of Islam. Since such thinkers viewed a key part of Muhammad’s prophetic mission as implementing a system of laws, Islam was political by definition. In denying the Prophet’s political role, ‘Abd al-Raziq implicitly called for a re-definition of Muhammad’s prophetic mission and, by extension, the very nature of Islam.
From one perspective, Islam and the Bases of Political Authority (Islam and the Foundations of Governance -- Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm) can be seen as part of the Islamic reform movement that began in Egypt during the nineteenth century. Most strongly influenced by Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905), this movement sought to revitalize Islam by emphasizing the role of human reason and by seeking to reconcile Islamic and Western notions of science and social organizations. For many reformers and disciples of ‘Abduh, such as ‘Abd al-Raziq, reason, not revelation, determined the form of government that rules a particular community.
The overt dispute over ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book was cast in theological terms, but political considerations also motivated its publication. As were many other native-born landowning families, the ‘Abd al-Raziq family was closely associated with the Hizb Ahrar al-Dusturiyin (Liberal Constitutional Party), which, in turn, was the successor to the secularly oriented and anti-monarchical Hizb al-Umma (People’s Party) founded in 1907. With Turkey’s abolition of the caliphate, a number of Arab leaders, including King Fu’ad of Egypt, indicated a desire to wrest the title for themselves. Many Liberal Constitutionalists opposed such a move.
A number of factors point to the political dimensions of Islam and the Bases of Political Authority. Certainly ‘Abd al-Raziq himself was aware that even many of his supporters believed that he had exaggerated his arguments. This raised the distinct possibility that he purposely overstated his case for political reasons. Some scholars assert that it seems highly doubtful that the Misr Printing Company, a Bank Misr company under the tight control of Muhammad Tal ‘at Harb, a devout Muslim, would have published a text consciously intended to undermine Islam. Without denying the sincerity of his arguments, it seems highly plausible that ‘Abd al-Raziq’s treatise was intended less as a major contribution to Islamic thought than as an effort to deny King Fu’ad the ability to appropriate the title of caliph.
Without detracting from its intellectual stature, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book should also be seen as part of a patchwork of efforts by reformist elements within an increasingly assertive native-born Egyptian bourgeoisie to bring about significant changes in Egypt’s political and cultural identity. This stratum sought to assert its power against the monarchy and its supporters among the ‘ulama’. ‘Abd al-Raziq’s treatise, however, did not represent an overt conspiracy among the Liberal Constitutionalists and their wealthy supporters, as many within the party opposed it. Rather, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s work was one of many thrusts and parries by members of the indigenous bourgeoisie intended to circumscribe the powers of the king. The Egyptian bourgeoisie sought to hasten the transformation of Egypt’s cultural identity from one that had been dominated by a Turco-Egyptian elite and an emphasis on Pan-Islamism to one that was dominated by an Egyptian- and, to a lesser extent, Arab–centered nationalism.
On yet another level, the fierce opposition to ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book reflected the pervasive fear among many social strata of further fragmentation of both the Muslim world and Egyptian society. For many Muslims, the book represented another effort by the West (in this instance at the hands of a westernized Muslim) to fragment the Muslim world, so as to facilitate its subjugation to colonialism, by undermining Islam’s traditional value structure from within. The fact that Islam and the Bases of Political Authority continues to stimulate debate indicates the extent to which the issues that ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq raised in 1925 still dominate Islamic discourse today.
'Ali 'Abd al-Raziq see ‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali
Ali Abdel Raziq see ‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali
‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali (Ali Abdel Raziq) (1888-1966). Egyptian shari‘a (law) judge, intellectual, and the author of Al-Islam wa-usul al-hukm: Ba‘th fi al-khilafah wa-al-hukumah fi al-Islam (“Islam and the Bases of Political Authority: A Study of the Caliphate and Government in Islam”). Published in Cairo in 1925, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book challenged the notion that Islam legislated a specific type of political authority or, for that matter, that it legitimated any form of government at all. In addition to creating a constitutional crisis in Egypt, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s ideas generated violent controversy throughout the Muslim world. The Egyptian Higher Council of ‘Ulama’ brought ‘Abd al-Raziq to trial and expelled him from both their ranks and his position as a shari‘a judge.
‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq was a member of a famous and powerful landowning family from the village of Abu Girg (Jiri) in al-Minya Province. A graduate of al-Azhar and Oxford universities, he rose to the position of judge in the al-Mansura shari‘a court. In addition to writing Islam and the Bases of Political Authority, ‘Abd al-Raziq edited a study of the life and work of his brother, a rector of al-Azhar, entitled Min athar Mustafa ‘Abd al-Raziq (“From the Legacy of Mustafa ‘Abd al-Raziq,” Cairo, 1957) and Al-ijma‘ fi al-shari‘a al-Islamiyah (“Consensus in Islamic Law,” Cairo, 1947).
Along with Taha Husayn’s 1926 volume, Fi al-shi‘r al-jahili (“On Jahiliyah Poetry”), ‘Abd al-Raziq’s work was seen by the ‘ulama’ and many Muslims as presenting a fundamental challenge to Islam’s legitimacy as a religion. The specific event that precipitated ‘Abd al-Raziq’s study and gave it such significance was the abolition of the caliphate by the Turkish government of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1924. Following World War I, many Muslims felt particularly vulnerable to increased colonial penetration by Western powers, such as Great Britain and France, with the fall of the Ottoman Empire. In their minds, the abolition of the caliphate was a prominent symbol that underlined their political weakness.
What angered many Muslims was ‘Abd al-Raziq’s assertion that the prophet Muhammad was sent by God only to preach a spiritual message and not to exercise political authority. Although Muhammad did establish al-umma al-islamiyah (an Islamic community), he never mentioned or promulgated a specific form of government. For ‘Abd al-Raziq, the unity of the Islamic community did not constitute a unitary Islamic state. For him, the Prophet’s leadership was religious and came as a result of his Message and nothing else. For 'Abd al-Raziq, the Prophet's Message ended with his death as did his leadership role.
‘Abd al-Raziq’s thesis that the Islamic umma is purely spiritual and bears no relation to politics or forms of government effectively separated religion and politics in Islam. Furthermore, it denied that the caliphate was an integral and necessary part of Islam or that it maintained any special religious status. Rather than being a part of Islamic law, the caliphate was to ‘Abd al-Raziq simply a matter of custom.
To many Muslim thinkers, these arguments were anathemas, as they seemed to undermine the very essence of Islam. Since such thinkers viewed a key part of Muhammad’s prophetic mission as implementing a system of laws, Islam was political by definition. In denying the Prophet’s political role, ‘Abd al-Raziq implicitly called for a re-definition of Muhammad’s prophetic mission and, by extension, the very nature of Islam.
From one perspective, Islam and the Bases of Political Authority (Islam and the Foundations of Governance -- Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm) can be seen as part of the Islamic reform movement that began in Egypt during the nineteenth century. Most strongly influenced by Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905), this movement sought to revitalize Islam by emphasizing the role of human reason and by seeking to reconcile Islamic and Western notions of science and social organizations. For many reformers and disciples of ‘Abduh, such as ‘Abd al-Raziq, reason, not revelation, determined the form of government that rules a particular community.
The overt dispute over ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book was cast in theological terms, but political considerations also motivated its publication. As were many other native-born landowning families, the ‘Abd al-Raziq family was closely associated with the Hizb Ahrar al-Dusturiyin (Liberal Constitutional Party), which, in turn, was the successor to the secularly oriented and anti-monarchical Hizb al-Umma (People’s Party) founded in 1907. With Turkey’s abolition of the caliphate, a number of Arab leaders, including King Fu’ad of Egypt, indicated a desire to wrest the title for themselves. Many Liberal Constitutionalists opposed such a move.
A number of factors point to the political dimensions of Islam and the Bases of Political Authority. Certainly ‘Abd al-Raziq himself was aware that even many of his supporters believed that he had exaggerated his arguments. This raised the distinct possibility that he purposely overstated his case for political reasons. Some scholars assert that it seems highly doubtful that the Misr Printing Company, a Bank Misr company under the tight control of Muhammad Tal ‘at Harb, a devout Muslim, would have published a text consciously intended to undermine Islam. Without denying the sincerity of his arguments, it seems highly plausible that ‘Abd al-Raziq’s treatise was intended less as a major contribution to Islamic thought than as an effort to deny King Fu’ad the ability to appropriate the title of caliph.
Without detracting from its intellectual stature, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book should also be seen as part of a patchwork of efforts by reformist elements within an increasingly assertive native-born Egyptian bourgeoisie to bring about significant changes in Egypt’s political and cultural identity. This stratum sought to assert its power against the monarchy and its supporters among the ‘ulama’. ‘Abd al-Raziq’s treatise, however, did not represent an overt conspiracy among the Liberal Constitutionalists and their wealthy supporters, as many within the party opposed it. Rather, ‘Abd al-Raziq’s work was one of many thrusts and parries by members of the indigenous bourgeoisie intended to circumscribe the powers of the king. The Egyptian bourgeoisie sought to hasten the transformation of Egypt’s cultural identity from one that had been dominated by a Turco-Egyptian elite and an emphasis on Pan-Islamism to one that was dominated by an Egyptian- and, to a lesser extent, Arab–centered nationalism.
On yet another level, the fierce opposition to ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book reflected the pervasive fear among many social strata of further fragmentation of both the Muslim world and Egyptian society. For many Muslims, the book represented another effort by the West (in this instance at the hands of a westernized Muslim) to fragment the Muslim world, so as to facilitate its subjugation to colonialism, by undermining Islam’s traditional value structure from within. The fact that Islam and the Bases of Political Authority continues to stimulate debate indicates the extent to which the issues that ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq raised in 1925 still dominate Islamic discourse today.
'Ali 'Abd al-Raziq see ‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali
Ali Abdel Raziq see ‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani (d. 1329). Sufi author in Persia who followed the school of Ibn al-‘Arabi.
Qashani, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani (d. 1329). Sufi author in Persia who followed the school of Ibn al-‘Arabi.
Qashani, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi (1413-1482). Persian historian who served several Timurid rulers in Samarkand and left a historical work which is an important source of information.
Samarqandi, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi (1413-1482). Persian historian who served several Timurid rulers in Samarkand and left a historical work which is an important source of information.
Samarqandi, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Samarqandi
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri ('Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri) (Abdel-Rezzak el-Sanhuri) (1895-1971). Egyptian jurist, legal scholar, and architect of civil codes in several Arab countries. The academic and professional life of Sanhuri is a reflection of the time during which the need for legal reform arose. For some Muslim countries, this meant the codification and modernization of the shari‘a, and for others the replacement of imported legislation by national and Islamic laws. Sanhuri drafted the modern civil codes of various Arab countries and attempted to reinvigorate the shari‘a in light of contemporary legal developments and to incorporate it in the study of comparative jurisprudence.
Born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1895, Sanhuri received a modern education and graduated from the Khedevial School of Law in Cairo in 1917. He was appointed assistant prosecuting attorney and by 1920 had joined the School of Shari‘a Judges as a lecturer. The following year, he went to France for postgraduate studies. He wrote two theses, Les restrictions contractuelle a la liberte individuelle de travail dans la jurisprudence anglaise and Le Califat, obtaining dual doctorates in law and political science from the University of Lyon. He was also awarded a diploma from the Institut des Hautes Etudes Internationales in Paris.
In 1926, Sanhuri returned to Egypt and began teaching civil law at the Law School, where he became dean a decade later. His involvement in politics led to his dismissal in 1936. He then served as dean of the Law College in Baghdad and began drafting the Iraqi civil code. Sanhuri went back to Egypt in 1937 and served in various cabinet posts, becoming president of the Council of State in 1949.
Sanhuri supported the movement of the Free Officers in 1952, and in his capacity as president of the Council, he provided the legal advisory opinion that gave a constitutional basis for the Revolutionary Command Council’s (RCC) exercise of power. Following a falling out among RCC members, Sanhuri was forcibly ousted from the Council of State in 1954 and was later deprived of his political rights. He devoted the rest of his life to teaching, research, and writing.
Sanhuri articulated his theoretical approach of legal reform in Le Califat: Son evolution vers une societe des nations orientale (Paris, 1926). Unlike ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq, who claimed that political authority was not an integral part of Islam, Sanhuri considered the restoration of the caliphate a necessity, signifying the unity of Muslims and the preservation of the law. To reflect prevailing conditions, he made a distinction between an irregular (temporary) and a regular caliphate. He proposed that the caliphate develop into an Eastern League of Nations, with the caliph presiding over a body exercising only religious authority until a similar body with executive functions could be established. The exercise of executive and legislative authority would be the prerogative of individual governments and heads of state.
The restoration of the regular caliphate, Sanhuri maintained, must be preceded by an evolution of Islamic law. Despite his genuine belief in the relevance and significance of the shari‘a to the judicial and social institutions of the Muslim world, he was more concerned with maintaining the stability of legal practices and relationships. In an effort to make legal reforms acceptable to all citizens, he differentiated the immutable and temporal parts of the shari‘a and claimed that only the variable rules of the temporal portion were subject to change. His proposed modernization of Islamic law would pass through two phases. The first would be that of scientific research, during which the shari‘a would be thoroughly studied in light of modern comparative law. The second, the legislative phase, would include the gradual revision of existing codes. These new legislative reforms would take into account the historical, social and legal experiences of each country.
Sanhuri put these ideas into practice in the revisions of the Egyptian and Iraqi codes, enacted in 1949 and 1951 respectively. He selected provisions – Islamic or Western – according to their merit, but he often concluded that the shari‘a was more effective. In Egypt, where the existing code was based on foreign laws, he added provisions that made it more Islamic. In Iraq, however, the code was based largely on the Mecelle, and he introduced Western provisions that made it more modern. His final objective was a modern comparative legal system that would gradually come to emphasize Islamic rather than Western values and thus would become the basis for a unified Arab code.
Sanhuri was responsible for laying the foundation for modern legislation in the Arab world. The codes he drafted for Egypt and Iraq have become models for other countries. Sanhuri's codes were adopted with minor modifications by Syria, Libya, and Jordan. His voluminous work on civil codes and Islamic law (Al-Wasi fi shar al-qanun al-madani al-jadid -- "Medium commentary on the new Civil Code") remains the main reference for Islamic scholarship in comparative law and codification to this day.
Sanhuri, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri
‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri ('Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri) (Abdel-Rezzak el-Sanhuri) (1895-1971). Egyptian jurist, legal scholar, and architect of civil codes in several Arab countries. The academic and professional life of Sanhuri is a reflection of the time during which the need for legal reform arose. For some Muslim countries, this meant the codification and modernization of the shari‘a, and for others the replacement of imported legislation by national and Islamic laws. Sanhuri drafted the modern civil codes of various Arab countries and attempted to reinvigorate the shari‘a in light of contemporary legal developments and to incorporate it in the study of comparative jurisprudence.
Born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1895, Sanhuri received a modern education and graduated from the Khedevial School of Law in Cairo in 1917. He was appointed assistant prosecuting attorney and by 1920 had joined the School of Shari‘a Judges as a lecturer. The following year, he went to France for postgraduate studies. He wrote two theses, Les restrictions contractuelle a la liberte individuelle de travail dans la jurisprudence anglaise and Le Califat, obtaining dual doctorates in law and political science from the University of Lyon. He was also awarded a diploma from the Institut des Hautes Etudes Internationales in Paris.
In 1926, Sanhuri returned to Egypt and began teaching civil law at the Law School, where he became dean a decade later. His involvement in politics led to his dismissal in 1936. He then served as dean of the Law College in Baghdad and began drafting the Iraqi civil code. Sanhuri went back to Egypt in 1937 and served in various cabinet posts, becoming president of the Council of State in 1949.
Sanhuri supported the movement of the Free Officers in 1952, and in his capacity as president of the Council, he provided the legal advisory opinion that gave a constitutional basis for the Revolutionary Command Council’s (RCC) exercise of power. Following a falling out among RCC members, Sanhuri was forcibly ousted from the Council of State in 1954 and was later deprived of his political rights. He devoted the rest of his life to teaching, research, and writing.
Sanhuri articulated his theoretical approach of legal reform in Le Califat: Son evolution vers une societe des nations orientale (Paris, 1926). Unlike ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq, who claimed that political authority was not an integral part of Islam, Sanhuri considered the restoration of the caliphate a necessity, signifying the unity of Muslims and the preservation of the law. To reflect prevailing conditions, he made a distinction between an irregular (temporary) and a regular caliphate. He proposed that the caliphate develop into an Eastern League of Nations, with the caliph presiding over a body exercising only religious authority until a similar body with executive functions could be established. The exercise of executive and legislative authority would be the prerogative of individual governments and heads of state.
The restoration of the regular caliphate, Sanhuri maintained, must be preceded by an evolution of Islamic law. Despite his genuine belief in the relevance and significance of the shari‘a to the judicial and social institutions of the Muslim world, he was more concerned with maintaining the stability of legal practices and relationships. In an effort to make legal reforms acceptable to all citizens, he differentiated the immutable and temporal parts of the shari‘a and claimed that only the variable rules of the temporal portion were subject to change. His proposed modernization of Islamic law would pass through two phases. The first would be that of scientific research, during which the shari‘a would be thoroughly studied in light of modern comparative law. The second, the legislative phase, would include the gradual revision of existing codes. These new legislative reforms would take into account the historical, social and legal experiences of each country.
Sanhuri put these ideas into practice in the revisions of the Egyptian and Iraqi codes, enacted in 1949 and 1951 respectively. He selected provisions – Islamic or Western – according to their merit, but he often concluded that the shari‘a was more effective. In Egypt, where the existing code was based on foreign laws, he added provisions that made it more Islamic. In Iraq, however, the code was based largely on the Mecelle, and he introduced Western provisions that made it more modern. His final objective was a modern comparative legal system that would gradually come to emphasize Islamic rather than Western values and thus would become the basis for a unified Arab code.
Sanhuri was responsible for laying the foundation for modern legislation in the Arab world. The codes he drafted for Egypt and Iraq have become models for other countries. Sanhuri's codes were adopted with minor modifications by Syria, Libya, and Jordan. His voluminous work on civil codes and Islamic law (Al-Wasi fi shar al-qanun al-madani al-jadid -- "Medium commentary on the new Civil Code") remains the main reference for Islamic scholarship in comparative law and codification to this day.
Sanhuri, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- see ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri
‘Abd al-Salam 'Arif
‘Abd al-Salam 'Arif (1921-1966). Arab nationalist leader of Iraq in 1958, and President of Iraq from 1963 to1966. 'Abd al-Salam 'Arif was born in al-Karkh, Baghdad, to a poor Sunni Arab rug merchant. His family had strong tribal connections in the Ramadi province (west of Baghdad). From 1938 to 1941, he attended military college. While he was too junior to be held responsible for the Rashid Ali al-Kaylani pro-Axis revolt of 1941, 'Abd al-Salam strongly sympathized with the revolutionaries. He first met 'Abd al-Karim Qasim in 1942. In 1948, 'Abd al-Salam participated in the Iraqi Expeditionary Force that fought in the first Arab-Israel war.
Because of Qasim's insistence, 'Abd al-Salam was incorporated into the central organization of the Free Officers in 1957. Until the 1958, revolution, he was regarded as Qasim's protege. On the eve of the revolution (July 14), 'Abd al-Salam's brigade was ordered to move to Jordan through Baghdad, but in coordination with Qasim, he entered the city and took it during the early morning hours. In the revolutionary government, he became deputy prime minister of the interior, and deputy supreme commander of the armed forces. By September 1958, he was relieved of his posts, since he supported Iraq's unification with the United Arab Republic. In November, he was arrested and sentenced to death for attempting to kill Qasim. However, he was released in early 1961, to be made figurehead president by the Ba'th regime that toppled Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution of February 8, 1963. Later that year, he ousted the Ba'th from power and became sole leader. His power base was the loyalty of the Pan-Arabian army officers, most of who came from his family's region, Ramadi.
In 1964, 'Abd al-Salam signed a unification agreement with Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser and introduced social and economic changes designed to create a similar system to that of Egypt. These included the establishment of a Nasserite political party and wide-ranging nationalizations. However, actual unification with Egypt never materialized.
'Abd al-Salam's social policy caused an economic decline, and his attempt to crush the Kurdish revolt failed. 'Abd al-Salam was killed in a helicopter crash on April 13, 1966. Despite his many failures, his charisma and devotion to Islam were highly regarded by many Sunni Arabs in Iraq. The Shi'a feared him, but his religiosity and tolerance for their educational autonomy enabled the two Islamic sects to co-exist. He was succeeded by his older brother 'Abd al-Rahman Arif.
Arif, 'Abd al-Salam see ‘Abd al-Salam 'Arif
‘Abd al-Salam 'Arif (1921-1966). Arab nationalist leader of Iraq in 1958, and President of Iraq from 1963 to1966. 'Abd al-Salam 'Arif was born in al-Karkh, Baghdad, to a poor Sunni Arab rug merchant. His family had strong tribal connections in the Ramadi province (west of Baghdad). From 1938 to 1941, he attended military college. While he was too junior to be held responsible for the Rashid Ali al-Kaylani pro-Axis revolt of 1941, 'Abd al-Salam strongly sympathized with the revolutionaries. He first met 'Abd al-Karim Qasim in 1942. In 1948, 'Abd al-Salam participated in the Iraqi Expeditionary Force that fought in the first Arab-Israel war.
Because of Qasim's insistence, 'Abd al-Salam was incorporated into the central organization of the Free Officers in 1957. Until the 1958, revolution, he was regarded as Qasim's protege. On the eve of the revolution (July 14), 'Abd al-Salam's brigade was ordered to move to Jordan through Baghdad, but in coordination with Qasim, he entered the city and took it during the early morning hours. In the revolutionary government, he became deputy prime minister of the interior, and deputy supreme commander of the armed forces. By September 1958, he was relieved of his posts, since he supported Iraq's unification with the United Arab Republic. In November, he was arrested and sentenced to death for attempting to kill Qasim. However, he was released in early 1961, to be made figurehead president by the Ba'th regime that toppled Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution of February 8, 1963. Later that year, he ousted the Ba'th from power and became sole leader. His power base was the loyalty of the Pan-Arabian army officers, most of who came from his family's region, Ramadi.
In 1964, 'Abd al-Salam signed a unification agreement with Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser and introduced social and economic changes designed to create a similar system to that of Egypt. These included the establishment of a Nasserite political party and wide-ranging nationalizations. However, actual unification with Egypt never materialized.
'Abd al-Salam's social policy caused an economic decline, and his attempt to crush the Kurdish revolt failed. 'Abd al-Salam was killed in a helicopter crash on April 13, 1966. Despite his many failures, his charisma and devotion to Islam were highly regarded by many Sunni Arabs in Iraq. The Shi'a feared him, but his religiosity and tolerance for their educational autonomy enabled the two Islamic sects to co-exist. He was succeeded by his older brother 'Abd al-Rahman Arif.
Arif, 'Abd al-Salam see ‘Abd al-Salam 'Arif
‘Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish
‘Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish (d. 1227). Popular mystic in Morocco who posthumously became famous in the northern part of Morocco in the fifteenth century of the Christian calendar.
‘Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish (d. 1227). Popular mystic in Morocco who posthumously became famous in the northern part of Morocco in the fifteenth century of the Christian calendar.
‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib. See Abu Lahab.
‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib. See Abu Lahab.
‘Abd al-Wadids
‘Abd al-Wadids (Zayyanids) (Zayanids). Berber dynasty in western Algeria (the central Maghrib) (r.1236-1554). Their main capital was Tlemcen. From the Banu 'Abd al-Wad, also known as the Banu Zayad, which belonged to the Zanata tribal group on the northern edge of the Sahara that migrated to northern Algeria in the eleventh century, the 'Abd al-Wadids were clients of the Almohads, who assigned to them the governorship of Tlemcen. When the Almohads fell from power, Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan (1236-1283) gained independence and established a rigid state structure. Under Yaghmurasan, and his successors, Tlemcen grew into a cultural and trading center. They pursued a tricky seesaw policy between the stronger Merinids (Marinids of Morocco) and the Hafsids (eastern Algeria/ Tunisia), who drove them out several times during the 13th and 14th centuries. Finally, they fell under the sovereignty of the Merinids, but then experienced a public restoration and cultural heyday under the learned Abu Hammu II Musa (1359-1389), before succumbing to the authority of the Hafsids. As a result of the military incursions of Spain from 1510 onwards, the 'Abd al-Wadids’ placed themselves under the protection of the Ottomans. In 1516/17, Algiers and Tlemcen were captured by the Ottoman corsair 'Aruj Barbarossa. In 1552-1554, the Ottomans finally occupied western Algeria and overthrew the last 'Abd al-Wadid ruler.
For more than 300 years, until the region came under Ottoman suzerainty in the sixteenth century, the Zayyanids kept a tenuous hold in the central Maghrib. The regime, which depended on the administrative skills of the Andalusians, was plagued by frequent rebellions but learned to survive as the vassal of the Marinids or Hafsids or later as an ally of Spain. Many coastal cities defied the ruling dynasties and asserted their autonomy as municipal republics. They were governend by their merchant oligarchies, by tribal chieftains from the surrounding countryside, or by the privateers who operated out of their ports.
Tlemcen prospered as a commercial center and was called the "pearl of the Maghrib." Situated at the head of the Imperial Road through the strategic Taza Gap to Marrakech, the city controlled the caravan route to Sijilmasa, gateway for the gold and slave trade with the western Sudan. Aragon came to control commerce between Tlemcen's port, Oran, and Europe beginning about 1250. An outbreak of privateering out of Aragon, however, severely disrupted this trade after about 1420.
Zayyanids see ‘Abd al-Wadids
Zayanids see ‘Abd al-Wadids
‘Abd al-Wadids (Zayyanids) (Zayanids). Berber dynasty in western Algeria (the central Maghrib) (r.1236-1554). Their main capital was Tlemcen. From the Banu 'Abd al-Wad, also known as the Banu Zayad, which belonged to the Zanata tribal group on the northern edge of the Sahara that migrated to northern Algeria in the eleventh century, the 'Abd al-Wadids were clients of the Almohads, who assigned to them the governorship of Tlemcen. When the Almohads fell from power, Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan (1236-1283) gained independence and established a rigid state structure. Under Yaghmurasan, and his successors, Tlemcen grew into a cultural and trading center. They pursued a tricky seesaw policy between the stronger Merinids (Marinids of Morocco) and the Hafsids (eastern Algeria/ Tunisia), who drove them out several times during the 13th and 14th centuries. Finally, they fell under the sovereignty of the Merinids, but then experienced a public restoration and cultural heyday under the learned Abu Hammu II Musa (1359-1389), before succumbing to the authority of the Hafsids. As a result of the military incursions of Spain from 1510 onwards, the 'Abd al-Wadids’ placed themselves under the protection of the Ottomans. In 1516/17, Algiers and Tlemcen were captured by the Ottoman corsair 'Aruj Barbarossa. In 1552-1554, the Ottomans finally occupied western Algeria and overthrew the last 'Abd al-Wadid ruler.
For more than 300 years, until the region came under Ottoman suzerainty in the sixteenth century, the Zayyanids kept a tenuous hold in the central Maghrib. The regime, which depended on the administrative skills of the Andalusians, was plagued by frequent rebellions but learned to survive as the vassal of the Marinids or Hafsids or later as an ally of Spain. Many coastal cities defied the ruling dynasties and asserted their autonomy as municipal republics. They were governend by their merchant oligarchies, by tribal chieftains from the surrounding countryside, or by the privateers who operated out of their ports.
Tlemcen prospered as a commercial center and was called the "pearl of the Maghrib." Situated at the head of the Imperial Road through the strategic Taza Gap to Marrakech, the city controlled the caravan route to Sijilmasa, gateway for the gold and slave trade with the western Sudan. Aragon came to control commerce between Tlemcen's port, Oran, and Europe beginning about 1250. An outbreak of privateering out of Aragon, however, severely disrupted this trade after about 1420.
Zayyanids see ‘Abd al-Wadids
Zayanids see ‘Abd al-Wadids
‘Abd al-Wahhab
‘Abd al-Wahhab (Hasan ‘Abd al-Wahhab) (1884-1968). Polymath and scholar of Tunisia who occupied a number of administrative posts and became a historian of Tunisia, writing in Arabic and in French.
Hasan ‘Abd al-Wahhab see ‘Abd al-Wahhab
Wahhab, 'Abd al- see ‘Abd al-Wahhab
‘Abd al-Wahhab (Hasan ‘Abd al-Wahhab) (1884-1968). Polymath and scholar of Tunisia who occupied a number of administrative posts and became a historian of Tunisia, writing in Arabic and in French.
Hasan ‘Abd al-Wahhab see ‘Abd al-Wahhab
Wahhab, 'Abd al- see ‘Abd al-Wahhab
‘Abdan
‘Abdan (d.899). Brother-in-law and lieutenant of Hamdan Qarmat. He soon became the leading spirit of the Carmathian movement and conducted the propaganda quite independently. He was killed at the instigation of Zikrawayh ibn Mihrawayh for having fallen away from the policy of the Isma‘ili headquarters in Salamiyya.
‘Abdan (d.899). Brother-in-law and lieutenant of Hamdan Qarmat. He soon became the leading spirit of the Carmathian movement and conducted the propaganda quite independently. He was killed at the instigation of Zikrawayh ibn Mihrawayh for having fallen away from the policy of the Isma‘ili headquarters in Salamiyya.
‘Abdari, al-
‘Abdari, al- (Muhammad ibn al-Hajj) (1258-1336). North African author of the thirteenth century (of the Christian calendar) who wrote a travelogue which is of interest for its description of the state of Muslim scholarship in the period.
The title al-'Abdari suggests that the lineage of al-'Abdari can be traced back to the Arabian tribe 'Abduddar. This means that his family originally migrated from Arabia to North Africa, or that his ancestors might have settled there after North Africa came under Islamic rule.
The time when al-'Abdari lived was one of the darkest periods in Islamic history. The Crusades had swept through Syria and Palestine to establish the Crusaders' presence in the Levant. The Crusaders even subjugated Jerusalem to their rule for nearly a whole century. The Crusade aggression was for sometime on the decline, particularly after the victories achieved by Saladin and his liberation of Jerusalem at the Battle of Hittin in 1187.
Nevertheless, the threat from the Crusaders continued until Najmuddin Ayyub was able to inflict a heavy defeat on the last of the Crusader kings, Louis IX of France, taking him captive at the Battle of Varscour in 1250. At the time of the battle, Ayyub was on his deathbed, yet he achieved a great victory that signaled the end of the Crusader's threat.
However, as soon as the Crusader threat was extinguish another threat arose. The Muslim world soon faced another danger which would prove to be much more destructive, coming from the east. The new threat was the Tatar invasion which swept through the eastern parts of the Muslim state with mass slaughter of the population of several cities. This culminated in their conquest of Baghdad and the collapse of the Abbasid rule in 1258.
The Tatars continued their march eastward and took over Syria and marched into Palestine until they suffered a very heavy defeat at the Battle of 'Ayn Jalut. At 'Ayn Jalut, the Tatars met the Egyptian army led by Qutz, who was a highly religious ruler, working in close collaboration with one of the most famous scholars, al-Izz ibn Abdussalam. Some scholars note that both the Crusade and the Tatar invasions were stopped by Egyptian armies led by pious kings (Saladin and Qutz).
The Crusades and the Tatar invasion involved many battles and mass killings along with the destruction of towns and cities. This turmoil led to a fundamental change in the map of learning centers in the Muslim world. Scholarship had to find safer seats. This meant a move west, leading to the ultimate great flourish of seats of learning in Egypt, particularly in Cairo, Alexandria and Fayoum. Indeed, the Mameluke reign encouraged travel and migration by scholars, so as to make Egypt very attractive to them as a place where they could settle in peace.
Al-'Abdari studied under many scholars in various cities and provinces. One of his books documents the scholarly status of many places and cities, as he witnessed it. He started a trip early in his life, beginning at his place on the coast of the Atlantic in Morocco. He started his trip in January 1289, on his way to pilgrimage. He stayed in many cities, meeting scholars and reading under them, particularly in Tunis, Al-Qairawan, Alexandria, Cairo, in addition to Medina and Mecca. While his ultimate aim was to do the pilgrimage, he was also keen to acquire as much learning as possible. Moreover, he wanted to study the situation of the Muslim population in those areas, after the threat of invasion had been removed.
Al-'Abdari recorded what he saw on his trip in a book of immense value. His record is that of a critic with scholarly insight. Some forty (40) years later, al-'Abdari wrote another book, largely drawing on his trip. The book is known as Madkhal ash-Shara ash-Shareef Ala al-Mathahib, or Introduction to Islamic Jurisprudence According to Schools of Thought. This book has an unusual approach. The author points out questions of innovation or deviation from Islamic teachings which he saw or encountered on his trip, and outlines the proper Islamic approach in each one of them. Thus, it is a book that aims at correcting erroneous practices that may take a person away from proper Islamic guidance. Hence, it serves a great purpose. That explains the fact that the book became widely known.
Al-'Abdari died in Cairo in 1336.
Muhammad ibn al-Hajj see ‘Abdari, al-
‘Abdari, al- (Muhammad ibn al-Hajj) (1258-1336). North African author of the thirteenth century (of the Christian calendar) who wrote a travelogue which is of interest for its description of the state of Muslim scholarship in the period.
The title al-'Abdari suggests that the lineage of al-'Abdari can be traced back to the Arabian tribe 'Abduddar. This means that his family originally migrated from Arabia to North Africa, or that his ancestors might have settled there after North Africa came under Islamic rule.
The time when al-'Abdari lived was one of the darkest periods in Islamic history. The Crusades had swept through Syria and Palestine to establish the Crusaders' presence in the Levant. The Crusaders even subjugated Jerusalem to their rule for nearly a whole century. The Crusade aggression was for sometime on the decline, particularly after the victories achieved by Saladin and his liberation of Jerusalem at the Battle of Hittin in 1187.
Nevertheless, the threat from the Crusaders continued until Najmuddin Ayyub was able to inflict a heavy defeat on the last of the Crusader kings, Louis IX of France, taking him captive at the Battle of Varscour in 1250. At the time of the battle, Ayyub was on his deathbed, yet he achieved a great victory that signaled the end of the Crusader's threat.
However, as soon as the Crusader threat was extinguish another threat arose. The Muslim world soon faced another danger which would prove to be much more destructive, coming from the east. The new threat was the Tatar invasion which swept through the eastern parts of the Muslim state with mass slaughter of the population of several cities. This culminated in their conquest of Baghdad and the collapse of the Abbasid rule in 1258.
The Tatars continued their march eastward and took over Syria and marched into Palestine until they suffered a very heavy defeat at the Battle of 'Ayn Jalut. At 'Ayn Jalut, the Tatars met the Egyptian army led by Qutz, who was a highly religious ruler, working in close collaboration with one of the most famous scholars, al-Izz ibn Abdussalam. Some scholars note that both the Crusade and the Tatar invasions were stopped by Egyptian armies led by pious kings (Saladin and Qutz).
The Crusades and the Tatar invasion involved many battles and mass killings along with the destruction of towns and cities. This turmoil led to a fundamental change in the map of learning centers in the Muslim world. Scholarship had to find safer seats. This meant a move west, leading to the ultimate great flourish of seats of learning in Egypt, particularly in Cairo, Alexandria and Fayoum. Indeed, the Mameluke reign encouraged travel and migration by scholars, so as to make Egypt very attractive to them as a place where they could settle in peace.
Al-'Abdari studied under many scholars in various cities and provinces. One of his books documents the scholarly status of many places and cities, as he witnessed it. He started a trip early in his life, beginning at his place on the coast of the Atlantic in Morocco. He started his trip in January 1289, on his way to pilgrimage. He stayed in many cities, meeting scholars and reading under them, particularly in Tunis, Al-Qairawan, Alexandria, Cairo, in addition to Medina and Mecca. While his ultimate aim was to do the pilgrimage, he was also keen to acquire as much learning as possible. Moreover, he wanted to study the situation of the Muslim population in those areas, after the threat of invasion had been removed.
Al-'Abdari recorded what he saw on his trip in a book of immense value. His record is that of a critic with scholarly insight. Some forty (40) years later, al-'Abdari wrote another book, largely drawing on his trip. The book is known as Madkhal ash-Shara ash-Shareef Ala al-Mathahib, or Introduction to Islamic Jurisprudence According to Schools of Thought. This book has an unusual approach. The author points out questions of innovation or deviation from Islamic teachings which he saw or encountered on his trip, and outlines the proper Islamic approach in each one of them. Thus, it is a book that aims at correcting erroneous practices that may take a person away from proper Islamic guidance. Hence, it serves a great purpose. That explains the fact that the book became widely known.
Al-'Abdari died in Cairo in 1336.
Muhammad ibn al-Hajj see ‘Abdari, al-
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