'Abdul Hamid
'Abdul Hamid (1886-1963). Born in the Sylhet District (which was then in Assam), 'Abdul was a member of the Assam Legislative Council from 1924 to 1937, and served in various ministerial positions from 1929 to 1937. He was deputy leader of the Muslim League in the Assam Legislative Assembly from 1937 to partition and strongly supported the Pakistani position in the plebiscite that resulted in the transfer of most of the Sylhet District to East Bengal. Abdul Hamid was minister of education of the Muslim League East Bengal government until its fall in the 1954 provincial election.
Hamid, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hamid
'Abdul Hamid (1886-1963). Born in the Sylhet District (which was then in Assam), 'Abdul was a member of the Assam Legislative Council from 1924 to 1937, and served in various ministerial positions from 1929 to 1937. He was deputy leader of the Muslim League in the Assam Legislative Assembly from 1937 to partition and strongly supported the Pakistani position in the plebiscite that resulted in the transfer of most of the Sylhet District to East Bengal. Abdul Hamid was minister of education of the Muslim League East Bengal government until its fall in the 1954 provincial election.
Hamid, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hamid
Abdulhamid I
Abdulhamid I (Abdul Hamid I) (March 20, 1725 - April 7, 1789). Ottoman sultan (r. 1774-1789) who was forced to sign the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja with Russia, a treaty which was dictated by the Russians. Despite his benevolent nature and love of peace, Abdulhamid’s reign was marked by war with Persia, with Russia (mainly over the Crimea), and with Austria.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730) and succeeded his brother Mustafa III (1757-1774) on January 21, 1774. Abdulhamid was imprisoned for most of the first forty-three years of his life by his cousins Mahmud I and Osman III, and his brother Mustafa III, as was the custom. He received his early education from his mother Rabia Sem Sultana, from whom he studied history and learned calligraphy. His imprisonment made him aloof in regards to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissaries. War was, however, forced on him and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Kozluja led to the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja (Treaty of Kucuk Kainarji) on July 21, 1774.
In spite of his failures, Abdulhamid was regarded as the most gracious Sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people for his religious manner, so much so that he was called a "Veli" -- a saint. He also initiated a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen.
When Abdulhamid came to the throne, the army asked for gratuities and the sultan claimed that: "There are, no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn." He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the Janissary corps and the naval forces. Abdulhamid established a new artillery troop and conducted a census of the Janissary corps.
Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea which Russia greatly coveted. War was once more declared against Russia in 1787 and in the following year Russians were joined by Austria. The Swedes and Prussians joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans but provided no assistance. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict -- and even "won" the Battle of Karansebes without firing a single shot -- they ultimately lost with Ochakov falling in 1788 to the Russians (all of its inhabitants being massacred).
Abdulhamid died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had constructed for himself.
The wives of Abdulhamid were Ayse Sine-perver haseki sultan, Nakshedil Haseki Sultan (Aimee de Buc de Rivery -- the cousin of Josephine Beauharnais, the wife of Napoleon), Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Bimaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Fatma Sheb-SafaNevres, and Mihriban. His concubines were Nukhet-seza Hanimefendi (First Concubine) and Ayse Hammefendi (Second Concubine).
The sons of Abdulhamid were Mustafa IV (his son by Ayse Sine-perver and Ottoman Sultan 1807-1808), Mahmud II (his son by Nakshedil and Ottoman Sultan 1808-1839), Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, and Suleyman. His daughters were Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah and Zekiye.
Abdulhamid I (Abdul Hamid I) (March 20, 1725 - April 7, 1789). Ottoman sultan (r. 1774-1789) who was forced to sign the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja with Russia, a treaty which was dictated by the Russians. Despite his benevolent nature and love of peace, Abdulhamid’s reign was marked by war with Persia, with Russia (mainly over the Crimea), and with Austria.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730) and succeeded his brother Mustafa III (1757-1774) on January 21, 1774. Abdulhamid was imprisoned for most of the first forty-three years of his life by his cousins Mahmud I and Osman III, and his brother Mustafa III, as was the custom. He received his early education from his mother Rabia Sem Sultana, from whom he studied history and learned calligraphy. His imprisonment made him aloof in regards to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissaries. War was, however, forced on him and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Kozluja led to the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja (Treaty of Kucuk Kainarji) on July 21, 1774.
In spite of his failures, Abdulhamid was regarded as the most gracious Sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people for his religious manner, so much so that he was called a "Veli" -- a saint. He also initiated a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen.
When Abdulhamid came to the throne, the army asked for gratuities and the sultan claimed that: "There are, no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn." He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the Janissary corps and the naval forces. Abdulhamid established a new artillery troop and conducted a census of the Janissary corps.
Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea which Russia greatly coveted. War was once more declared against Russia in 1787 and in the following year Russians were joined by Austria. The Swedes and Prussians joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans but provided no assistance. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict -- and even "won" the Battle of Karansebes without firing a single shot -- they ultimately lost with Ochakov falling in 1788 to the Russians (all of its inhabitants being massacred).
Abdulhamid died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had constructed for himself.
The wives of Abdulhamid were Ayse Sine-perver haseki sultan, Nakshedil Haseki Sultan (Aimee de Buc de Rivery -- the cousin of Josephine Beauharnais, the wife of Napoleon), Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Bimaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Fatma Sheb-SafaNevres, and Mihriban. His concubines were Nukhet-seza Hanimefendi (First Concubine) and Ayse Hammefendi (Second Concubine).
The sons of Abdulhamid were Mustafa IV (his son by Ayse Sine-perver and Ottoman Sultan 1807-1808), Mahmud II (his son by Nakshedil and Ottoman Sultan 1808-1839), Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, and Suleyman. His daughters were Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah and Zekiye.
Abdulhamid II
Abdulhamid II (Abdul Hamid II) (Ulu Hakan) (The Great Khan) (The Red Sultan) (Abdul the Damned) (The Great Assassin) (September 21, 1842 - February 10, 1918). Ottoman sultan (r. August 31, 1876 - April 27, 1909). In order to put a stop to the intervention of European powers, Abdulhamid initiated an international conference in Istanbul and promulgated the first Constitution, which introduced a two-Chamber parliamentary system. The parliament, however, was prorogued -- suspended -- in 1878 until 1918. Wars were waged with Russia in 1877 and with Greece in 1897. The Macedonian imbroglio led to interventions by the European powers which precipitated the Young Turk revolution. The sultan was deposed by the National Assembly in 1909. The reign of Abdulhamid II was marked by absolutism which, in its turn, led to fear and suspicion, and by Pan-Islamism. Abdulhamid was noted for his advocacy of pan-Islamic ideas and for his opposition to constitutional government. This Pan-Islamism prompted the sultan to construct the Hijaz Railway connecting Turkey to the Holy Cities of Islam.
Known to some as the Ulu Hakan -- the Great Khan, Abdulhamid II is better known in the West as "The Red Sultan", "Abdul the Damned", or "The Great Assassin" for the massacres of Ottoman Armenians which occurred throughout his tenure. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid and one of his many wives, the Circassian Tirimujgan (Virjin) Sultana. Abdulhamid II was a carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yildiz Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. Abdulhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mizika-i Humayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yildiz Palace.
Abdulhamid II was the thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan. A profound political and economic crisis brought Abdulhamid II to the throne. Dating from 1839, the open-door policy of the Ottoman government, the commercial and legal privileges granted to European powers, and the westernizing reform attempts – the Tanzimat – had ruptured the Ottoman social fabric. Trade and budget deficits soared. Heavy government borrowing abroad and at home delayed the inevitable financial crisis, but in 1875 the Treasury declared insolvency. European creditors protested. Unrest mounted everywhere, fanning nationalist revolts among Christians in the Balkans and anti-Tanzimat movements among Muslims.
The government in Istanbul lost control of events. After the death of the last powerful Tanzimat minister, Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha, in 1871, senior statesmen engaged in a struggle to control the government. In 1876, a group of ministers led by Midhat Pasha provoked the armed forces to stage a coup d’etat and deposed the reigning sultan Abdulaziz. His successor Murad V suffered a mental collapse and was deposed within three months. On August 31, 1876, Abdulhamid II succeeded Murad V on the throne.
Meanwhile, nationalist uprisings in the Balkans turned into bloody ethnic and religious confrontations. The European powers put pressure on the Ottoman government to grant autonomy to the Christian population. Midhat responded by promulgating a constitution (on December 23, 1876) that assured basic civil liberties, including the equality of all subjects before law, and provided for a parliament.
Forestalling foreign intervention was only one objective of the constitution, and in this it failed. A disastrous war with Russia nearly brought the end of the Ottoman state in 1877. In a series of difficult negotiations that lasted until 1882, the Ottomans surrendered large tracts of territory not only to the Balkan states and Russia but also to other major powers.
The constitution was also intended as a solution to the crisis of authority afflicting the Ottoman state. As such, it reflected a consensus and set certain limits on executive authority but left the sultan with great powers vis-à-vis both the cabinet and the parliament. Indeed, Abdulhamid dismissed and exiled Midhat in February 1877 and suspended the parliament in February 1878 on the basis of his constitutional prerogatives. He did not meet any opposition, for the most influential Ottoman elite viewed him as a sensible sovereign capable of providing the leadership necessary to deal with the grave problems facing the government. In 1878, he began to establish an authoritarian regime that eventually breached the spirit of the constitution and brought his downfall.
The reason for the Sultan's actions was war with Russia, declared April 24, 1877. Military successes by the Slavic states and losses in the Caucasus caused the Ottomans to bow to the Russian presence at Yesilkoy (San Stefano) only ten miles from Istanbul. The settlement of San Stefano in March 1878 was harsh for Turkey because it provided for Bosnian-Herzegovinian autonomy, the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, establishment of "Greater Bulgaria," and an indemnity and cession of territory to the czar. The terms were ameliorated by a revision announced in Berlin on July 13, 1878.
Domestically, German influence was on the rise (British support had helped Midhat Pasha). Germans reorganized the army and the country's tangled finances. Foreign control over finances was confirmed by a decree issued December 1881 consolidating the public debt and creating the Ottoman Public Debt Administration. Its function was to collect assigned revenues, such as those from monopolies on tobacco and salt and assorted excise taxes and to use these funds to reduce the indebtedness owed European bondholders.
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration proved a spirited agency for economic betterment. Tax collection techiniques improved and revenues increased; technological innovations were introduced in industries supervised by the agency; Turkish public administration training began here; improvements were made in transportation with railroad mileage increasing notably; and the credit of the empire improved to a point where foreign economic investments resumed.
However, the state of Ottoman finances was a major problem during the reign of Abdulhamid. Around thirty percent of the government revenue went directly into the coffers of the foreign-controlled Public Debt Administration, and an additional forty percent was devoured by military expenditures. Given the consequent dearth of funds, the government awarded many of the planned projects and important mines to European concerns as monopolistic concessions. To a certain extent, Abdulhamid was able to use European vested interests to perpetuate his own policies. However, the commercial and legal capitulations enjoyed by the European powers, backed by threats of force, left him with little room to maneuver.
The Ottoman regime looked increasingly helpless in defending local interests at a time when limited but real achievements aroused expectations, and nationalistic sentiments therefore gained momentum even among Muslims, undermining Abdulhamid’s appeal to Islamic solidarity. There also developed a Muslim religious opposition to the sultan, not least because of his emphasis on modern secular schools at the expense of traditional religious ones. It was, however, among the graduates of the modern schools that the most formidable opposition to Abdulhamid’s regime took form. Demanding a more institutionalized and participatory regime, a large group of Ottoman officials, officers, and intellectuals organized the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the indigenous organization of the Young Turks.
Abdulhamid was anxious to appear as a religious champion against Christian encroachment. He encouraged the building of the Mecca railroad to make Islam's holy places more accessible. He subsidized the pan-Islamic policy of Jamal-ud Din al-Afghani, whom Abdulhamid invited to Istanbul but virtually imprisoned there, and encouraged widespread support for himself as the head of the caliphate.
Neither pan-Islamic nationalism nor efforts at economic development could quiet internal unrest, however. Revolts broke out in various parts of the empire. Yemen, Mesopotamia, and Crete were particularly troubled. In Armenia, whose inhabitants wanted the changes promised at Berlin, a series of revolts occurred between 1892 and 1894, culminating in persecutions and massacres of an estimated 100,000 Armenians. For these persecutions, Abdulhamid became known as "Abdul the Damned" and the "Red Sultan."
The government engaged increasingly in espionage and mass arrests. By 1907, both military and civilian protests were widespread.
In 1908, sporadic mutinies broke out among the army corps in Rumelia and Macedonia and rapidly evolved into a popular movement that forced Abdulhamid to call for elections and to agree to serve as a parliamentary-constitutionalist monarch. Supporters of the CUP (Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem'iyetti) won the majority in the parliament. But as the parliament and the cabinet became bogged down in a struggle over their respective rights, and as the separatist movements in the Balkans intensified, the political situation remained tense.
Leadership of the protest movement fell to a Salonika-based liberal reform group, the Committee of Union and Progress. In the summer of 1908, dogged by police, the leaders fled to the hills. However, when the III Army Corps threatened to march on Istanbul unless the constitution was restored, Abdulhamid complied. He also called for elections and appointed a liberal grand vizier.
On April 13, 1909, Abdulhamid, unreformed as ever, supported a military-religious counter coup which ousted the liberal Young Turk government. Again the III Army Corps intervened, Istanbul was occupied, and on April 27, 1909, the committee deposed the Sultan in favor of his brother, Mehmed (Muhammad) V. Abdulhamid was confined in Salonika until that city fell to the Greeks in 1912. He died at Magnesia on February 10, 1918.
During the reign of Abdulhamid, the Ottoman Empire saw respectable accomplishments in the construction of highways, waterways, railroads, the telegraph, and other infrastructural public works. Judicial and public security services improved and expanded significantly. Institutions were formed to supply credit and technical advice to agricultural products. General public education and literacy improved. Many specialized schools were established and the old ones expanded with the specific purpose of training a corps of technical government personnel and better public administrators and jurists.
Abdulhamid made an effort to concentrate government investments and reforms in the predominantly Muslim parts of the empire. He emphasized Islam as a basis of internal social and political solidarity. Pan-Islamists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani viewed him as the symbol or focus of Islamic solidarity. Recent territorial losses and the immigration of large numbers of Muslims from the Balkans and Russia had rendered the Ottoman population overwhelmingly Muslim and had raised religious sentiments. Abdulhamid responded to this situation. He did not breach the principle of legal equality, because he believed in it, and he did not want to create pretexts for foreign intervention. He staunchly resisted, however, any attempt or pressure to obtain additional concessions and autonomy for the Christian population. He maintained that European protection had already put the Christians in an unduly advantageous position over the Muslims, who were in his mind the truly loyal subjects of the Ottoman state.
Abdulhamid’s resistance to intervention in favor of Christians, particularly in eastern Anatolia and Macedonia, remained a sensitive issue in the government’s relations with European powers. In this and other international problems, Abdulhamid tried to hold his ground by taking advantage of the rivalries among the powers and by resorting to delaying tactics. He hoped to gain time until the Ottoman government attained a stronger position to defend its interests, relying on a better educated and unified population and a more prosperous economy.
His hopes were in vain.
Abdul Hamid II see Abdulhamid II
Ulu Hakan see Abdulhamid II
The Great Khan see Abdulhamid II
The Red Sultan see Abdulhamid II
Abdul the Damned see Abdulhamid II
The Great Assassin see Abdulhamid II
Abdulhamid II (Abdul Hamid II) (Ulu Hakan) (The Great Khan) (The Red Sultan) (Abdul the Damned) (The Great Assassin) (September 21, 1842 - February 10, 1918). Ottoman sultan (r. August 31, 1876 - April 27, 1909). In order to put a stop to the intervention of European powers, Abdulhamid initiated an international conference in Istanbul and promulgated the first Constitution, which introduced a two-Chamber parliamentary system. The parliament, however, was prorogued -- suspended -- in 1878 until 1918. Wars were waged with Russia in 1877 and with Greece in 1897. The Macedonian imbroglio led to interventions by the European powers which precipitated the Young Turk revolution. The sultan was deposed by the National Assembly in 1909. The reign of Abdulhamid II was marked by absolutism which, in its turn, led to fear and suspicion, and by Pan-Islamism. Abdulhamid was noted for his advocacy of pan-Islamic ideas and for his opposition to constitutional government. This Pan-Islamism prompted the sultan to construct the Hijaz Railway connecting Turkey to the Holy Cities of Islam.
Known to some as the Ulu Hakan -- the Great Khan, Abdulhamid II is better known in the West as "The Red Sultan", "Abdul the Damned", or "The Great Assassin" for the massacres of Ottoman Armenians which occurred throughout his tenure. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid and one of his many wives, the Circassian Tirimujgan (Virjin) Sultana. Abdulhamid II was a carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yildiz Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. Abdulhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mizika-i Humayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yildiz Palace.
Abdulhamid II was the thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan. A profound political and economic crisis brought Abdulhamid II to the throne. Dating from 1839, the open-door policy of the Ottoman government, the commercial and legal privileges granted to European powers, and the westernizing reform attempts – the Tanzimat – had ruptured the Ottoman social fabric. Trade and budget deficits soared. Heavy government borrowing abroad and at home delayed the inevitable financial crisis, but in 1875 the Treasury declared insolvency. European creditors protested. Unrest mounted everywhere, fanning nationalist revolts among Christians in the Balkans and anti-Tanzimat movements among Muslims.
The government in Istanbul lost control of events. After the death of the last powerful Tanzimat minister, Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha, in 1871, senior statesmen engaged in a struggle to control the government. In 1876, a group of ministers led by Midhat Pasha provoked the armed forces to stage a coup d’etat and deposed the reigning sultan Abdulaziz. His successor Murad V suffered a mental collapse and was deposed within three months. On August 31, 1876, Abdulhamid II succeeded Murad V on the throne.
Meanwhile, nationalist uprisings in the Balkans turned into bloody ethnic and religious confrontations. The European powers put pressure on the Ottoman government to grant autonomy to the Christian population. Midhat responded by promulgating a constitution (on December 23, 1876) that assured basic civil liberties, including the equality of all subjects before law, and provided for a parliament.
Forestalling foreign intervention was only one objective of the constitution, and in this it failed. A disastrous war with Russia nearly brought the end of the Ottoman state in 1877. In a series of difficult negotiations that lasted until 1882, the Ottomans surrendered large tracts of territory not only to the Balkan states and Russia but also to other major powers.
The constitution was also intended as a solution to the crisis of authority afflicting the Ottoman state. As such, it reflected a consensus and set certain limits on executive authority but left the sultan with great powers vis-à-vis both the cabinet and the parliament. Indeed, Abdulhamid dismissed and exiled Midhat in February 1877 and suspended the parliament in February 1878 on the basis of his constitutional prerogatives. He did not meet any opposition, for the most influential Ottoman elite viewed him as a sensible sovereign capable of providing the leadership necessary to deal with the grave problems facing the government. In 1878, he began to establish an authoritarian regime that eventually breached the spirit of the constitution and brought his downfall.
The reason for the Sultan's actions was war with Russia, declared April 24, 1877. Military successes by the Slavic states and losses in the Caucasus caused the Ottomans to bow to the Russian presence at Yesilkoy (San Stefano) only ten miles from Istanbul. The settlement of San Stefano in March 1878 was harsh for Turkey because it provided for Bosnian-Herzegovinian autonomy, the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, establishment of "Greater Bulgaria," and an indemnity and cession of territory to the czar. The terms were ameliorated by a revision announced in Berlin on July 13, 1878.
Domestically, German influence was on the rise (British support had helped Midhat Pasha). Germans reorganized the army and the country's tangled finances. Foreign control over finances was confirmed by a decree issued December 1881 consolidating the public debt and creating the Ottoman Public Debt Administration. Its function was to collect assigned revenues, such as those from monopolies on tobacco and salt and assorted excise taxes and to use these funds to reduce the indebtedness owed European bondholders.
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration proved a spirited agency for economic betterment. Tax collection techiniques improved and revenues increased; technological innovations were introduced in industries supervised by the agency; Turkish public administration training began here; improvements were made in transportation with railroad mileage increasing notably; and the credit of the empire improved to a point where foreign economic investments resumed.
However, the state of Ottoman finances was a major problem during the reign of Abdulhamid. Around thirty percent of the government revenue went directly into the coffers of the foreign-controlled Public Debt Administration, and an additional forty percent was devoured by military expenditures. Given the consequent dearth of funds, the government awarded many of the planned projects and important mines to European concerns as monopolistic concessions. To a certain extent, Abdulhamid was able to use European vested interests to perpetuate his own policies. However, the commercial and legal capitulations enjoyed by the European powers, backed by threats of force, left him with little room to maneuver.
The Ottoman regime looked increasingly helpless in defending local interests at a time when limited but real achievements aroused expectations, and nationalistic sentiments therefore gained momentum even among Muslims, undermining Abdulhamid’s appeal to Islamic solidarity. There also developed a Muslim religious opposition to the sultan, not least because of his emphasis on modern secular schools at the expense of traditional religious ones. It was, however, among the graduates of the modern schools that the most formidable opposition to Abdulhamid’s regime took form. Demanding a more institutionalized and participatory regime, a large group of Ottoman officials, officers, and intellectuals organized the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the indigenous organization of the Young Turks.
Abdulhamid was anxious to appear as a religious champion against Christian encroachment. He encouraged the building of the Mecca railroad to make Islam's holy places more accessible. He subsidized the pan-Islamic policy of Jamal-ud Din al-Afghani, whom Abdulhamid invited to Istanbul but virtually imprisoned there, and encouraged widespread support for himself as the head of the caliphate.
Neither pan-Islamic nationalism nor efforts at economic development could quiet internal unrest, however. Revolts broke out in various parts of the empire. Yemen, Mesopotamia, and Crete were particularly troubled. In Armenia, whose inhabitants wanted the changes promised at Berlin, a series of revolts occurred between 1892 and 1894, culminating in persecutions and massacres of an estimated 100,000 Armenians. For these persecutions, Abdulhamid became known as "Abdul the Damned" and the "Red Sultan."
The government engaged increasingly in espionage and mass arrests. By 1907, both military and civilian protests were widespread.
In 1908, sporadic mutinies broke out among the army corps in Rumelia and Macedonia and rapidly evolved into a popular movement that forced Abdulhamid to call for elections and to agree to serve as a parliamentary-constitutionalist monarch. Supporters of the CUP (Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem'iyetti) won the majority in the parliament. But as the parliament and the cabinet became bogged down in a struggle over their respective rights, and as the separatist movements in the Balkans intensified, the political situation remained tense.
Leadership of the protest movement fell to a Salonika-based liberal reform group, the Committee of Union and Progress. In the summer of 1908, dogged by police, the leaders fled to the hills. However, when the III Army Corps threatened to march on Istanbul unless the constitution was restored, Abdulhamid complied. He also called for elections and appointed a liberal grand vizier.
On April 13, 1909, Abdulhamid, unreformed as ever, supported a military-religious counter coup which ousted the liberal Young Turk government. Again the III Army Corps intervened, Istanbul was occupied, and on April 27, 1909, the committee deposed the Sultan in favor of his brother, Mehmed (Muhammad) V. Abdulhamid was confined in Salonika until that city fell to the Greeks in 1912. He died at Magnesia on February 10, 1918.
During the reign of Abdulhamid, the Ottoman Empire saw respectable accomplishments in the construction of highways, waterways, railroads, the telegraph, and other infrastructural public works. Judicial and public security services improved and expanded significantly. Institutions were formed to supply credit and technical advice to agricultural products. General public education and literacy improved. Many specialized schools were established and the old ones expanded with the specific purpose of training a corps of technical government personnel and better public administrators and jurists.
Abdulhamid made an effort to concentrate government investments and reforms in the predominantly Muslim parts of the empire. He emphasized Islam as a basis of internal social and political solidarity. Pan-Islamists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani viewed him as the symbol or focus of Islamic solidarity. Recent territorial losses and the immigration of large numbers of Muslims from the Balkans and Russia had rendered the Ottoman population overwhelmingly Muslim and had raised religious sentiments. Abdulhamid responded to this situation. He did not breach the principle of legal equality, because he believed in it, and he did not want to create pretexts for foreign intervention. He staunchly resisted, however, any attempt or pressure to obtain additional concessions and autonomy for the Christian population. He maintained that European protection had already put the Christians in an unduly advantageous position over the Muslims, who were in his mind the truly loyal subjects of the Ottoman state.
Abdulhamid’s resistance to intervention in favor of Christians, particularly in eastern Anatolia and Macedonia, remained a sensitive issue in the government’s relations with European powers. In this and other international problems, Abdulhamid tried to hold his ground by taking advantage of the rivalries among the powers and by resorting to delaying tactics. He hoped to gain time until the Ottoman government attained a stronger position to defend its interests, relying on a better educated and unified population and a more prosperous economy.
His hopes were in vain.
Abdul Hamid II see Abdulhamid II
Ulu Hakan see Abdulhamid II
The Great Khan see Abdulhamid II
The Red Sultan see Abdulhamid II
Abdul the Damned see Abdulhamid II
The Great Assassin see Abdulhamid II
'Abdul Haq
'Abdul Haq ('Abd al-Haqq) (Humayoun Arsala) (April 23, 1958 - October 26, 2001). Mujahedin (Mujahidin) commander affiliated with the Hizb-i Islami (Islamic Party) of Yunus Khales who had been active in the Kabul area. He fought against the Soviets and Afghan communists during the Soviet-Afghan War. He was executed by the Taliban in October 2001 while trying to create a popular uprising in Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
'Abdul Haq was an Ahmadzai Pashtun, was born in Fatehbad (Afghanistan), a small village in Nangahar province, Afghanistan, although he soon moved with his family to Helmand. His father, Mohammed Ana, was an official representative for the Nangarhar construction company in Helmand, and was relatively wealthy by Afghan standards. His family was well connected, part of the Arsala Khel family, which is a part of the Jabar Khel (a sub-tribe of the land-owning Ahmadzai tribe). His paternal great-grandfather, Wazir Arsala Khan, had once been the foreign minister of Afghanistan. A cousin, Hedayat Arsala, was a World Bank director working in Washington, D. C. who later became Vice President of Afghanistan in Hamid Karzai's administration. Haq also had two older brothers: Din Mohammed and Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir was an early backer of Hamid Karzai, who was rewarded with a cabinet position, before he was assassinated in 2002. Din Muhammad is the leader of the Khalis party. From his own account, Haq was an unruly child, who after persuading his father to register him for school at the early age of five, once hit a teacher who was sleeping on the job. A year after that his 51 year old father died of kidney disease, prompting Din Mohammed to assume leadership of the family, and prompting the family to move back to their extended family in Nangarhar.
Back in Fatehbard, Haq began attending Qur'anic school under the tutelage of local mullahs, and once reaching the age of eight, began studying at the Lycee. It was there the he began challenging the Communist ideology of some of his teachers. As a student, he was affiliated with the Islamic Youth (jawanan-i musulman) which opposed the reformist regime of President Muhammad Dawud Khan. He was imprisoned in 1975 and freed in 1978 after the Saur Revolt.
'Abdul first engaged in the fight against the communist domination of Afghanistan in 1978 when he fought in the Gulbuddin Hekmatyar faction of Hezb-i Islami. He later switched to the faction led by Mohammad Yunus Khalis. During the Soviet War in Afghanistan, 'Abdul Haq coordinated mujahideen activities in the province of Kabul. He gained recognition for his tactical skills and bravery, and his reputation as a uniter led to leadership positions throughout Afghanistan. Based in the Shiwaki area, south of Kabul, he was responsible for organizing guerrilla attacks on government posts within Kabul.
In 1987, 'Abdul Haq suffered a crippling injury to his foot that limited his active participation in raids. Indeed, over his career, 'Abdul Haq was injured twelve times, including the loss of part of one leg. Because of his injuries, 'Abdul Haq often fought battles against the Soviets from horse-back.
After the fall of the Marxist regime in April 1992, 'Abdul Haq was appointed chief of police and security as well as commander of the gendarmerie but resigned from his posts at the beginning of the civil war between the mujahedin groups. He and his brother, 'Abdul Qadir who became acting governor of Jalalabad, remained neutral between the Taliban and Jam’iat forces. 'Abdul Haq settled in Dubai, where he became a successful merchant engaged in commerce with Pakistan and the Gulf area.
In 1998, 'Abdul Haq became a United Nations Peace Mediator.
In January 1999, unknown assailants killed 'Abdul Haq's watchman, entered his home, and murdered his wife and son in Hayatabad. Another of Haq's sons survived the raid.
Following the al-Qaeda attacks of September 11, 2001 against the United States, 'Abdul Haq entered Afghanistan from Pakistan in an attempt to build support for resistance to the Taliban. After a spectacular chase reminiscent of a Hollywood scene, he was captured by the Taliban along with nineteen others between the towns of Hisarak and Azro. He was executed on October 26, 2001.
Haq, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Haq
'Abd al-Haqq see 'Abdul Haq
Haqq, 'Abd al- see 'Abdul Haq
Humayoun Arsala see 'Abdul Haq
Arsala, Humayoun see 'Abdul Haq
'Abdul Haq ('Abd al-Haqq) (Humayoun Arsala) (April 23, 1958 - October 26, 2001). Mujahedin (Mujahidin) commander affiliated with the Hizb-i Islami (Islamic Party) of Yunus Khales who had been active in the Kabul area. He fought against the Soviets and Afghan communists during the Soviet-Afghan War. He was executed by the Taliban in October 2001 while trying to create a popular uprising in Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
'Abdul Haq was an Ahmadzai Pashtun, was born in Fatehbad (Afghanistan), a small village in Nangahar province, Afghanistan, although he soon moved with his family to Helmand. His father, Mohammed Ana, was an official representative for the Nangarhar construction company in Helmand, and was relatively wealthy by Afghan standards. His family was well connected, part of the Arsala Khel family, which is a part of the Jabar Khel (a sub-tribe of the land-owning Ahmadzai tribe). His paternal great-grandfather, Wazir Arsala Khan, had once been the foreign minister of Afghanistan. A cousin, Hedayat Arsala, was a World Bank director working in Washington, D. C. who later became Vice President of Afghanistan in Hamid Karzai's administration. Haq also had two older brothers: Din Mohammed and Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir was an early backer of Hamid Karzai, who was rewarded with a cabinet position, before he was assassinated in 2002. Din Muhammad is the leader of the Khalis party. From his own account, Haq was an unruly child, who after persuading his father to register him for school at the early age of five, once hit a teacher who was sleeping on the job. A year after that his 51 year old father died of kidney disease, prompting Din Mohammed to assume leadership of the family, and prompting the family to move back to their extended family in Nangarhar.
Back in Fatehbard, Haq began attending Qur'anic school under the tutelage of local mullahs, and once reaching the age of eight, began studying at the Lycee. It was there the he began challenging the Communist ideology of some of his teachers. As a student, he was affiliated with the Islamic Youth (jawanan-i musulman) which opposed the reformist regime of President Muhammad Dawud Khan. He was imprisoned in 1975 and freed in 1978 after the Saur Revolt.
'Abdul first engaged in the fight against the communist domination of Afghanistan in 1978 when he fought in the Gulbuddin Hekmatyar faction of Hezb-i Islami. He later switched to the faction led by Mohammad Yunus Khalis. During the Soviet War in Afghanistan, 'Abdul Haq coordinated mujahideen activities in the province of Kabul. He gained recognition for his tactical skills and bravery, and his reputation as a uniter led to leadership positions throughout Afghanistan. Based in the Shiwaki area, south of Kabul, he was responsible for organizing guerrilla attacks on government posts within Kabul.
In 1987, 'Abdul Haq suffered a crippling injury to his foot that limited his active participation in raids. Indeed, over his career, 'Abdul Haq was injured twelve times, including the loss of part of one leg. Because of his injuries, 'Abdul Haq often fought battles against the Soviets from horse-back.
After the fall of the Marxist regime in April 1992, 'Abdul Haq was appointed chief of police and security as well as commander of the gendarmerie but resigned from his posts at the beginning of the civil war between the mujahedin groups. He and his brother, 'Abdul Qadir who became acting governor of Jalalabad, remained neutral between the Taliban and Jam’iat forces. 'Abdul Haq settled in Dubai, where he became a successful merchant engaged in commerce with Pakistan and the Gulf area.
In 1998, 'Abdul Haq became a United Nations Peace Mediator.
In January 1999, unknown assailants killed 'Abdul Haq's watchman, entered his home, and murdered his wife and son in Hayatabad. Another of Haq's sons survived the raid.
Following the al-Qaeda attacks of September 11, 2001 against the United States, 'Abdul Haq entered Afghanistan from Pakistan in an attempt to build support for resistance to the Taliban. After a spectacular chase reminiscent of a Hollywood scene, he was captured by the Taliban along with nineteen others between the towns of Hisarak and Azro. He was executed on October 26, 2001.
Haq, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Haq
'Abd al-Haqq see 'Abdul Haq
Haqq, 'Abd al- see 'Abdul Haq
Humayoun Arsala see 'Abdul Haq
Arsala, Humayoun see 'Abdul Haq
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) (Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (b. 1947). African American professional basketball player and author. Originally named Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr., Abdul-Jabbar was born in New York City. He was educated at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), where he led the university’s basketball team to an unprecedented three consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association championships (1967-1969) while being named the Player of the Year in 1967, 1968 and 1969. While a college student, Abdul-Jabbar converted to Islam. He changed his name in 1971. From 1969 to 1975, Abdul Jabbar played center for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was the NBA Rookie of the Year in 1970. He led the Bucks to the NBA championship during the 1970-71 season. In 1975, the 7 ft., 1 3/8 in. player was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. As a Laker, Abdul-Jabbar won five more NBA championships (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987 and 1988). During his career, Abdul-Jabbar was named the NBA’s Most Valuable Player a record six times (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977 and 1980) and was named Sports Illustrated’s Sportsman of the Year in 1985. At his retirement in 1989, Abdul-Jabbar held nine records, including points scored (38,387), seasons played (20), playoff scoring (5,762), MVP awards (6), minutes played (57,446), games played (1,560), field goals made and attempted (15,837 of 28,307), and blocked shots (3,189).
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar is widely considered one of the greatest NBA players of all time. During his 20 years in the NBA from 1969 to 1989, he scored 38,387 points -- the highest total of any player in league history -- in addition to winning a record six Most Valuable Player Awards. He was known for his "Skyhook" shot, which was famously difficult to block because it put his long body between the basket and the ball. Abdul-Jabbar's success began well before his professional career. In college, he played on three national championship teams, and his high school team won 71 consecutive games.
After his retirement from basketball, Abdul-Jabbar became a bestselling author. He also served as a special assistant coach for the Los Angeles Lakers.
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) (Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (b. 1947). African American professional basketball player and author. Originally named Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr., Abdul-Jabbar was born in New York City. He was educated at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), where he led the university’s basketball team to an unprecedented three consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association championships (1967-1969) while being named the Player of the Year in 1967, 1968 and 1969. While a college student, Abdul-Jabbar converted to Islam. He changed his name in 1971. From 1969 to 1975, Abdul Jabbar played center for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was the NBA Rookie of the Year in 1970. He led the Bucks to the NBA championship during the 1970-71 season. In 1975, the 7 ft., 1 3/8 in. player was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. As a Laker, Abdul-Jabbar won five more NBA championships (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987 and 1988). During his career, Abdul-Jabbar was named the NBA’s Most Valuable Player a record six times (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977 and 1980) and was named Sports Illustrated’s Sportsman of the Year in 1985. At his retirement in 1989, Abdul-Jabbar held nine records, including points scored (38,387), seasons played (20), playoff scoring (5,762), MVP awards (6), minutes played (57,446), games played (1,560), field goals made and attempted (15,837 of 28,307), and blocked shots (3,189).
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar is widely considered one of the greatest NBA players of all time. During his 20 years in the NBA from 1969 to 1989, he scored 38,387 points -- the highest total of any player in league history -- in addition to winning a record six Most Valuable Player Awards. He was known for his "Skyhook" shot, which was famously difficult to block because it put his long body between the basket and the ball. Abdul-Jabbar's success began well before his professional career. In college, he played on three national championship teams, and his high school team won 71 consecutive games.
After his retirement from basketball, Abdul-Jabbar became a bestselling author. He also served as a special assistant coach for the Los Angeles Lakers.
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah (d. 1721). Bendahara (chief minister) of the Malay state of Johor from 1697 to 1699. He became sultan in 1699 after the murder of Sultan Mahmud. His right to the Johor throne was challenged in Perak, Palembang, and in some quarters of Johor itself (notably among the Orang Laut) because he was not a direct descendant of the Melaka (Malacca) sultans and therefore did not carry the magical “white blood” of Paramesvara, the founder and first ruler of Melaka. These initial problems were overcome by the energetic rule of his two brothers, but despite efforts to establish Abdul Jalil’s daulat (magical right to rule), mounting difficulties led to a rebellion in 1718 in which Abdul Jalil was deposed. He was murdered in Pahang in 1721. With the help of immigrant Bugis warriors, his son Sulaiman regained the throne in 1722, but Johor remained fragmented, split between Raja Kecil in Siak, the Bugis, and the original Malay forces.
Syah, Abdul Jalil Riayat see Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah (d. 1721). Bendahara (chief minister) of the Malay state of Johor from 1697 to 1699. He became sultan in 1699 after the murder of Sultan Mahmud. His right to the Johor throne was challenged in Perak, Palembang, and in some quarters of Johor itself (notably among the Orang Laut) because he was not a direct descendant of the Melaka (Malacca) sultans and therefore did not carry the magical “white blood” of Paramesvara, the founder and first ruler of Melaka. These initial problems were overcome by the energetic rule of his two brothers, but despite efforts to establish Abdul Jalil’s daulat (magical right to rule), mounting difficulties led to a rebellion in 1718 in which Abdul Jalil was deposed. He was murdered in Pahang in 1721. With the help of immigrant Bugis warriors, his son Sulaiman regained the throne in 1722, but Johor remained fragmented, split between Raja Kecil in Siak, the Bugis, and the original Malay forces.
Syah, Abdul Jalil Riayat see Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Kader
Abdul Kader (c.1723-1804). Ruler of Futa Toro (r. 1776-1804). During his reign, he consolidated the Tukolor state after the Islamic revolution. Abdul Kader was designated the successor of Suleiman Bal, leader of the Islamic revolution, who was killed in 1776. Futa Toro was established as a federation. Lands were distributed among the new clerical aristocracy (torobe), upon whom Abdul Kader called to provide soldiers for jihads (holy wars) against his Wolof neighbors in Walo and Cayor. The lands that Abdul Kader controlled directly were governed along theocratic principles. He built mosques in every village and appointed village religious and administrative officials himself. However, the new aristocracy differed little from the one which it replaced. Abdul Kader was assassinated by a group of nobles in 1804 at the age of eighty-one.
Kader, Abdul see Abdul Kader
Abdul Kader (c.1723-1804). Ruler of Futa Toro (r. 1776-1804). During his reign, he consolidated the Tukolor state after the Islamic revolution. Abdul Kader was designated the successor of Suleiman Bal, leader of the Islamic revolution, who was killed in 1776. Futa Toro was established as a federation. Lands were distributed among the new clerical aristocracy (torobe), upon whom Abdul Kader called to provide soldiers for jihads (holy wars) against his Wolof neighbors in Walo and Cayor. The lands that Abdul Kader controlled directly were governed along theocratic principles. He built mosques in every village and appointed village religious and administrative officials himself. However, the new aristocracy differed little from the one which it replaced. Abdul Kader was assassinated by a group of nobles in 1804 at the age of eighty-one.
Kader, Abdul see Abdul Kader
'Abdul Karim
'Abdul Karim. See ‘Abd el-Krim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abd el-Krim see 'Abdul Karim.
Krim, 'Abd el- see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim. See ‘Abd el-Krim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abd el-Krim see 'Abdul Karim.
Krim, 'Abd el- see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim
'Abdul Karim. Ghilzai mullah in Afghanistan. He was the son of Din Muhammad, the famous Mulla Mushk-i Alam. Amir 'Abdul Rahman gave him the title Khan-i Ulum (“Chief of [religious] Sciences”), but he became disaffected when the amir ended the virtual autonomy enjoyed by the Ghilzai tribes and imposed taxes on hitherto exempt lands. He was one of the leaders of the Ghilzai Rebellion of 1886-1887, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. It was the last of three uprisings of this tribe in the nineteenth century.
Khan-i Ulum see 'Abdul Karim.
Chief of [religious] Sciences see 'Abdul Karim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim. Ghilzai mullah in Afghanistan. He was the son of Din Muhammad, the famous Mulla Mushk-i Alam. Amir 'Abdul Rahman gave him the title Khan-i Ulum (“Chief of [religious] Sciences”), but he became disaffected when the amir ended the virtual autonomy enjoyed by the Ghilzai tribes and imposed taxes on hitherto exempt lands. He was one of the leaders of the Ghilzai Rebellion of 1886-1887, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. It was the last of three uprisings of this tribe in the nineteenth century.
Khan-i Ulum see 'Abdul Karim.
Chief of [religious] Sciences see 'Abdul Karim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
Abdul Karim
Abdul Karim (Maulvi Abdul Karim) (1863-1943). Educator and Muslim League politician. He entered politics after serving in the presidency education department. Abdul Karim was president of the Bengal Muslim League and a member of the Council of State and the Bengal Legislative Council from 1926 to 1937.
Maulvi Abdul Karim see Abdul Karim
Karim, Abdul see Abdul Karim
Karim, Maulvi Abdul see Abdul Karim
Abdul Karim (Maulvi Abdul Karim) (1863-1943). Educator and Muslim League politician. He entered politics after serving in the presidency education department. Abdul Karim was president of the Bengal Muslim League and a member of the Council of State and the Bengal Legislative Council from 1926 to 1937.
Maulvi Abdul Karim see Abdul Karim
Karim, Abdul see Abdul Karim
Karim, Maulvi Abdul see Abdul Karim
Abdul Khaliq
Abdul Khaliq. Son of a Hazara servant of Ghulam Nabi Charkhi (executed by King Nadir). He avenged the killing of his master by assassinating Nadir Shah a year later on November 8, 1933. He was a student at Najat (Amani) High School and attended a graduation ceremony in the palace garden where the assassination took place. He was handed over to the King’s bodyguard for execution. A number of relatives, students, and teachers of Najat and Istiqlal schools were executed in December 1933. This was the last bloodletting in the struggle for power between supporters of King Amanullah and the new royal family.
Abdul Khaliq. Son of a Hazara servant of Ghulam Nabi Charkhi (executed by King Nadir). He avenged the killing of his master by assassinating Nadir Shah a year later on November 8, 1933. He was a student at Najat (Amani) High School and attended a graduation ceremony in the palace garden where the assassination took place. He was handed over to the King’s bodyguard for execution. A number of relatives, students, and teachers of Najat and Istiqlal schools were executed in December 1933. This was the last bloodletting in the struggle for power between supporters of King Amanullah and the new royal family.
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