‘Abduh, Muhammad
‘Abduh, Muhammad (Muhammad 'Abduh) (Muhammed 'Abduh) (1849 - July 11, 1905). Egyptian scholar and reformer who is regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad ‘Abduh coincided with the death of Muhammad ‘Ali, the Albanian adventurer and creator of modern Egypt. ‘Ali’s regime, in political terms, generated the issues of modern change associated in intellectual terms with ‘Abduh’s pioneer leadership as a journalist, theologian, jurist and – in the last six years of his life – grand mufti of Egypt. The initial factors in his career were his traditional studies at al-Azhar University and an early commitment to Sufism with the Shadhili order of mystical discipline and the practice of dhikr and ta‘widh. His university studies ensured not only his grounding in the skills of an ‘alim but also his awareness of the inhibitions of taqlid (adherence to tradition), against which his reforming energies were later directed. Although he intellectually renounced his Sufi background, it continued to impart a quality of piety to his academic concerns for liberation from the harmful effects of taqlid.
The crucial influence in his development was the impact of Jalal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897), a strenuous advocate of a unitary Islam who emphasized the concept of umma (community) against the regionalism that in the twentieth century of the Christian calendar was to break up allegiance to the Ottoman empire into nationalism and the nation state. Pan-Islam was al-Afghani’s response to British rule in Egypt and to European domination in general. ‘Abduh was drawn into the cause and became editor of the journal Al-‘urwah al-wuthqa (“Firm Handhold” or "The Firmest Bond"), which took its title from a Qur’anic phrase (Suras 2:256 and 31:22). Despite the brevity of its publication in the 1880s, the journal kindled the enthusiasm of a generation of writers, including Rashid Rida, ultimately ‘Abduh’s biographer and his chief literary legatee.
‘Abduh was exiled from Egypt between 1882 and 1888, when he made wide contact with kindred minds in Syria and North Africa, with a short sojourn also in France. After his return to Cairo, his thoughts and efforts were drawn increasingly toward education and a renewal of Islamic theology. Given the ambiguities implicit in Arab Ottomanism and the actualities of British power in Egypt, he sensed that political activism had to be accompanied, if not overtaken, by the invigoration of the Muslim mind. Western influences had taken hold ever since Napoleon’s intrusion into the Arab East, but largely in practical forms – arms, trade, travel, and finance. A response to modernity had to be made in the way Islam perceived itself. ‘Abduh’s training in the familiar scholastic patterns of tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis or commentary) and fiqh (jurisprudence) had made him aware of the impediment to critical self-awareness in those habits and attitudes. The zest he had acquired from al-Afghani he now harnessed to intellectual ends. The attitude and training of the ‘ulama’, as he saw them, had entrenched them in the citation of authority, the appeal to sacrosanct exegesis, and a supine satisfaction with static norms. This taqlid, or “hideboundness” (to adopt a harsh translation), had its origins in the bases of Islam’s concept of wahy (“revelation”) in the Qur’an and in the assumption of isnad (“reliance”) on which its handling of tradition had long relied. Once an instinct of loyalty to the past and as such characteristic of Muslim scholarship, taqlid had come to sap the genuine articulation of Islam’s meaning and quality.
To achieve emancipation from the mentality of taqlid and yet retain Islamic authenticity was therefore a formidable task. ‘Abduh shouldered it with admirable tenacity, patience, and resilience, corroborating his scholarly credentials by earning increasing personal stature, despite the toll on his health and resources caused by pressure from reactionary forces. The idea that the shari‘a could be subject to wise discretion and that even theology could be flexible within limits served to enliven theological education, to increase student initiative, and to give scope to existing ideas of istihsan and istislah (considerations of equity through appeal to well-being and good sense).
The main ground of ‘Abduh’s “liberal-loyal” equation was the conviction that revelation and reason, each rightly perceived, were inherently harmonious. In Risalat al-tawhid ("The Theology of Unity" or "On Monotheism"), his most popular work, ‘Abduh expounded his conviction that “every sound speculation led to a belief in God as He is described in the Qur’an.” ‘Abduh held that the premise on which this belief rested was such as to make proof unnecessary. There were things about which it was not permissable to inquire, where curiosity could lead only to “confusion of belief.” Nevertheless, what was given in revelation should be rationally possessed – a task incumbent on every generation. There was no need to raise questions of theodicy, but sound exegesis should avoid crudely reading into the Qur’an anticipations of new discoveries and inventions. The purpose of revelation was essentially religious. What reason as science could achieve on its own, God had left it to do, and faith must respect its methods. ‘Abduh sustained the traditional case for the ‘ijaz (matchlessness) of the Qur’an as conclusive evidence of its divine origin. He identified as a form of shirk (“associationalism,” or more broadly “not letting God be God”) any reluctance to apply rationality to issues of society or to refuse its scientific fruits. Such reluctance would be a disavowal of divine creation. Shari‘a law was to be interpreted by the same principle of divinely created status and human custody in harmony.
At the time of his death, ‘Abduh was in his middle fifties. The bitter opposition he suffered from both academic and legal foes was proof of the measure of his influence and the range of his vision for a renewed Islam. His ideas found some continuing expression through the pages of the influential journal Al-manar (“Lighthouse”), but his disciples lacked his stature, and there is evidence of an adverse reaction to his legacy soon after his demise. From a historical perspective, however, he came to epitomize an incipient modernism, opening up a fresh viewpoint yet leaving many issues unresolved.
He died on July 11, 1905 in Alexandria, Egypt.
Muhammad ‘Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Muhammed 'Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Architect of Islamic Modernism see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
‘Abduh, Muhammad (Muhammad 'Abduh) (Muhammed 'Abduh) (1849 - July 11, 1905). Egyptian scholar and reformer who is regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad ‘Abduh coincided with the death of Muhammad ‘Ali, the Albanian adventurer and creator of modern Egypt. ‘Ali’s regime, in political terms, generated the issues of modern change associated in intellectual terms with ‘Abduh’s pioneer leadership as a journalist, theologian, jurist and – in the last six years of his life – grand mufti of Egypt. The initial factors in his career were his traditional studies at al-Azhar University and an early commitment to Sufism with the Shadhili order of mystical discipline and the practice of dhikr and ta‘widh. His university studies ensured not only his grounding in the skills of an ‘alim but also his awareness of the inhibitions of taqlid (adherence to tradition), against which his reforming energies were later directed. Although he intellectually renounced his Sufi background, it continued to impart a quality of piety to his academic concerns for liberation from the harmful effects of taqlid.
The crucial influence in his development was the impact of Jalal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897), a strenuous advocate of a unitary Islam who emphasized the concept of umma (community) against the regionalism that in the twentieth century of the Christian calendar was to break up allegiance to the Ottoman empire into nationalism and the nation state. Pan-Islam was al-Afghani’s response to British rule in Egypt and to European domination in general. ‘Abduh was drawn into the cause and became editor of the journal Al-‘urwah al-wuthqa (“Firm Handhold” or "The Firmest Bond"), which took its title from a Qur’anic phrase (Suras 2:256 and 31:22). Despite the brevity of its publication in the 1880s, the journal kindled the enthusiasm of a generation of writers, including Rashid Rida, ultimately ‘Abduh’s biographer and his chief literary legatee.
‘Abduh was exiled from Egypt between 1882 and 1888, when he made wide contact with kindred minds in Syria and North Africa, with a short sojourn also in France. After his return to Cairo, his thoughts and efforts were drawn increasingly toward education and a renewal of Islamic theology. Given the ambiguities implicit in Arab Ottomanism and the actualities of British power in Egypt, he sensed that political activism had to be accompanied, if not overtaken, by the invigoration of the Muslim mind. Western influences had taken hold ever since Napoleon’s intrusion into the Arab East, but largely in practical forms – arms, trade, travel, and finance. A response to modernity had to be made in the way Islam perceived itself. ‘Abduh’s training in the familiar scholastic patterns of tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis or commentary) and fiqh (jurisprudence) had made him aware of the impediment to critical self-awareness in those habits and attitudes. The zest he had acquired from al-Afghani he now harnessed to intellectual ends. The attitude and training of the ‘ulama’, as he saw them, had entrenched them in the citation of authority, the appeal to sacrosanct exegesis, and a supine satisfaction with static norms. This taqlid, or “hideboundness” (to adopt a harsh translation), had its origins in the bases of Islam’s concept of wahy (“revelation”) in the Qur’an and in the assumption of isnad (“reliance”) on which its handling of tradition had long relied. Once an instinct of loyalty to the past and as such characteristic of Muslim scholarship, taqlid had come to sap the genuine articulation of Islam’s meaning and quality.
To achieve emancipation from the mentality of taqlid and yet retain Islamic authenticity was therefore a formidable task. ‘Abduh shouldered it with admirable tenacity, patience, and resilience, corroborating his scholarly credentials by earning increasing personal stature, despite the toll on his health and resources caused by pressure from reactionary forces. The idea that the shari‘a could be subject to wise discretion and that even theology could be flexible within limits served to enliven theological education, to increase student initiative, and to give scope to existing ideas of istihsan and istislah (considerations of equity through appeal to well-being and good sense).
The main ground of ‘Abduh’s “liberal-loyal” equation was the conviction that revelation and reason, each rightly perceived, were inherently harmonious. In Risalat al-tawhid ("The Theology of Unity" or "On Monotheism"), his most popular work, ‘Abduh expounded his conviction that “every sound speculation led to a belief in God as He is described in the Qur’an.” ‘Abduh held that the premise on which this belief rested was such as to make proof unnecessary. There were things about which it was not permissable to inquire, where curiosity could lead only to “confusion of belief.” Nevertheless, what was given in revelation should be rationally possessed – a task incumbent on every generation. There was no need to raise questions of theodicy, but sound exegesis should avoid crudely reading into the Qur’an anticipations of new discoveries and inventions. The purpose of revelation was essentially religious. What reason as science could achieve on its own, God had left it to do, and faith must respect its methods. ‘Abduh sustained the traditional case for the ‘ijaz (matchlessness) of the Qur’an as conclusive evidence of its divine origin. He identified as a form of shirk (“associationalism,” or more broadly “not letting God be God”) any reluctance to apply rationality to issues of society or to refuse its scientific fruits. Such reluctance would be a disavowal of divine creation. Shari‘a law was to be interpreted by the same principle of divinely created status and human custody in harmony.
At the time of his death, ‘Abduh was in his middle fifties. The bitter opposition he suffered from both academic and legal foes was proof of the measure of his influence and the range of his vision for a renewed Islam. His ideas found some continuing expression through the pages of the influential journal Al-manar (“Lighthouse”), but his disciples lacked his stature, and there is evidence of an adverse reaction to his legacy soon after his demise. From a historical perspective, however, he came to epitomize an incipient modernism, opening up a fresh viewpoint yet leaving many issues unresolved.
He died on July 11, 1905 in Alexandria, Egypt.
Muhammad ‘Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Muhammed 'Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Architect of Islamic Modernism see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
'Abdulaziz
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abdul Bubakar
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
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