Gibran, Khalil
Jabran Khalil Jabran (Khalil Gibran) (Khalil Jibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran bin Mikhā'īl bin Sa'ad) (January 6, 1883, Bsharri, Lebanon – April 10, 1931, New York City, New York, United States). Lebanese American writer, artist and poet. Having stayed off and on in Boston and Paris, he settled in New York in 1912. He wrote in Arabic and English. His The Prophet is his masterpiece.
Khalil Gibran, Gibran also spelled Jibran, Khalil also spelled Kahlil, Arabic name in full Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān (born Jan. 6, 1883, Bsharrī, Lebanon—died April 10, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Lebanese American philosophical essayist, novelist, poet, and artist.
Having received his primary education in Beirut, Khalil Gibran immigrated with his parents to Boston in 1895. He returned to Lebanon in 1898 and studied in Beirut, where he excelled in the Arabic language. On his return to Boston in 1903, he published his first literary essays; in 1907 he met Mary Haskell, who was to be his benefactor all his life and who made it possible for him to study art in Paris. In 1912 Gibran settled in New York City and devoted himself to writing literary essayGibs and short stories, both in Arabic and in English, and to painting.
Gibran’s literary and artistic output is highly romantic in outlook and was influenced by the Bible, Friedrich Nietzsche, and William Blake. His writings in both languages, which deal with such themes as love, death, nature, and a longing for the homeland, are full of lyrical outpourings and are expressive of Gibran’s deeply religious and mystic nature.
Gibran’s principal works in Arabic are: ʿArāʾ-is al-Murūj (1910; Nymphs of the Valley); Damʿah wa Ibtisāmah (1914; A Tear and a Smile); Al-Arwāḥ al-Mutamarridah (1920; Spirits Rebellious); Al-Ajniḥah al-Mutakassirah (1922; The Broken Wings); Al-Awasif (1923; “The Storms”); and Al-Mawākib (1923; The Procession), poems. His principal works in English are The Madman (1918), The Forerunner (1920), The Prophet (1923), Sand and Foam (1926), and Jesus, the Son of Man (1928).
Jabran Khalil Jabran (Khalil Gibran) (Khalil Jibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran bin Mikhā'īl bin Sa'ad) (January 6, 1883, Bsharri, Lebanon – April 10, 1931, New York City, New York, United States). Lebanese American writer, artist and poet. Having stayed off and on in Boston and Paris, he settled in New York in 1912. He wrote in Arabic and English. His The Prophet is his masterpiece.
Khalil Gibran, Gibran also spelled Jibran, Khalil also spelled Kahlil, Arabic name in full Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān (born Jan. 6, 1883, Bsharrī, Lebanon—died April 10, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Lebanese American philosophical essayist, novelist, poet, and artist.
Having received his primary education in Beirut, Khalil Gibran immigrated with his parents to Boston in 1895. He returned to Lebanon in 1898 and studied in Beirut, where he excelled in the Arabic language. On his return to Boston in 1903, he published his first literary essays; in 1907 he met Mary Haskell, who was to be his benefactor all his life and who made it possible for him to study art in Paris. In 1912 Gibran settled in New York City and devoted himself to writing literary essayGibs and short stories, both in Arabic and in English, and to painting.
Gibran’s literary and artistic output is highly romantic in outlook and was influenced by the Bible, Friedrich Nietzsche, and William Blake. His writings in both languages, which deal with such themes as love, death, nature, and a longing for the homeland, are full of lyrical outpourings and are expressive of Gibran’s deeply religious and mystic nature.
Gibran’s principal works in Arabic are: ʿArāʾ-is al-Murūj (1910; Nymphs of the Valley); Damʿah wa Ibtisāmah (1914; A Tear and a Smile); Al-Arwāḥ al-Mutamarridah (1920; Spirits Rebellious); Al-Ajniḥah al-Mutakassirah (1922; The Broken Wings); Al-Awasif (1923; “The Storms”); and Al-Mawākib (1923; The Procession), poems. His principal works in English are The Madman (1918), The Forerunner (1920), The Prophet (1923), Sand and Foam (1926), and Jesus, the Son of Man (1928).
Gilani, 'Abdul Qadir
ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī, known by admirers as Muḥyī l-Dīn Abū Muḥammad bin Abū Sāliḥ ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Gīlānī al-Ḥasanī wa'l-Ḥusaynī, was a Hanbali Sunni Muslim preacher, ascetic, mystic, jurist, and theologian, known for being the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya tariqa (Sufi order) of Sufism.
He was born on 1 Ramadan 470 AH (March 23, 1078) in the town of Na'if in Gilan, Iran, and died on Monday, February 21, 1166 (11 Rabi' al-Thani 561 AH), in Baghdad. He was a Persian Hanbali Sunni jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. The Qadiriyya tariqa is named after him.
The honorific Muhiyudin denotes his status with many Sufis as a "reviver of religion". Gilani (Arabic al-Jilani) refers to his place of birth, Gilan. However, Gilani also carried the epithet Baghdadi, referring to his residence and burial in Baghdad.
Gilani's father, Abu Saleh Moosah, was from a Sayyid lineage, tracing his descent from Hasan ibn Ali, a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Abu Saleh was respected as a saint by the people of his day. Gilani's mother, Ummul Khair Fatima, was also a Sayyid, having been a descendant of Muhammad al-Jawad, himself descended from Husayn ibn Ali, the younger brother of Hasan.
Gilani spent his early life in Gilan, the province of his birth. In 1095, at the age of eighteen, he went to Baghdad. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law under Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi and Ibn Aqil. He studied hadith with Abu Muhammad Ja'far al-Sarraj. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. (A detailed description of his various teachers and subjects are included below). After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years wandering in the deserts of Iraq.
Al-Gilani belonged to the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools of law. He placed Shafi'i jurisprudence (fiqh) on an equal footing with the Hanbali school (madhhab), and used to give fatwa according to both of them simultaneously.
He established Qadiriyya tariqa order, with its many offshoots, is widespread, various parts of the world, and can also be found in the United Kingdom, Africa, Turkey, Indonesia, Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Balkans, Russia, Palestine, China, and East and West Africa.
The Qadiriyya flourished, surviving the Mongolian conquest of Baghdad in 1258, and remained an influential Sunni institution. After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, the legend of Gilani was further spread by a text entitled The Joy of the Secrets in Abdul-Qadir's Mysterious Deeds (Bahjat al-asrar fi ba'd manaqib 'Abd al-Qadir) attributed to Nur al-Din 'Ali al-Shattanufi, who depicted Gilani as the ultimate channel of divine grace and helped the Qadiri order to spread far beyond the region of Baghdad.
By the end of the fifteenth century, the Qadiriyya had distinct branches and had spread to Morocco, Spain, Turkey, India, Ethiopia, Somalia, and present-day Mali. Established Sufi sheikhs often adopted the Qadiriyya tradition without abandoning leadership of their local communities. During the Safavid dynasty's rule of Baghdad from 1508 to 1534, the sheikh of the Qadiriyya was appointed chief Sufi of Baghdad and the surrounding lands. Shortly after the Ottoman Empire conquered Baghdad in 1534, Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned a dome to be built on the mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, establishing the Qadiriyya as his main allies in Iraq.
In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, al-Mazkhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning, he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Qur'an. He was said to have been a convincing preacher and converted numerous Jews and Christians. He was able to reconcile the mystical nature of Sufism with the sober demands of Islamic Law.
Gilani died on February 21, 1166 (11 Rabi' al-Thani 561 AH) at the age of 87. His body was entombed in a shrine within his madrasa in Babul-Sheikh, Rusafa on the east bank of the Tigirs in Baghdad, Iraq.
During the reign of the Safavid Shah Ismail I, Gilani's shrine was destroyed. However, in 1535, the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had a dome built over the shrine, which still exists.
1 Ramadan is celebrated as Gilani's birthday while his death anniversary is on 11 Rabi' al-Thani, although some scholars give 29 Sha'ban and 17 Rabi' al-Thani as his birth and death days. In the Indian subcontinent, his 'urs, or death anniversary, is called Giwaryee Shareef, or Honoured Day,
Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh (Bilgames). The Epic of Gilgamesh is an important poetic cycle of ancient Sumeria which was later expanded in the Akkadian language of Babylonia. The hero, a half-historical, half-legendary demigod, is identified with the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk (Warka) in Babylonia about 2700 B.C.T. The name Gilgamesh in Sumerian signifies “father, hero” or “the old one, the hero.” In the stories, Gilgamesh has a boon companion, Enkidu, a wild man tamed by a courtesan. Among their adventures together is a journey to subdue the dreaded Huwawa, guardian of the cedar forest.
Ishtar, goddess of love, proposes marriage to Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh spurns her advances. When the two friends destroy the divine bull which Ishtar sends to punish them, the gods avenge themselves by killing Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu. Afterwards Gilgamesh travels to the Babylonian “Noah”, Utnapishtim, survivor of the Great Flood, to learn the secret of immortality. Utnapishtim shows Gilgamesh a magic plant which renews youth, but this is stolen by a serpent as Gilgamesh washes at a well. Finally, Enkidu’s shadow returns to tell Gilgamesh the secrets of the gloomy world of the departed. Elements from these stories have been detected in the Odyssey, the Aeneid, and other epics and sagas of the Classical and the Medieval worlds.
Apart from its Sumerian prototype, the work is preserved in Akkadian in 12 tablets from the library of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (669-630 B.C.T.), and also fragments in Hittite and Hurrian. A fragment dating from about 1400 B.C.T. has been found at Megiddo in Palestine, so it is not surprising to find resemblances between the eleventh tablet of Gilgamesh, which describes the Flood and the Ark, and the Hebrew narrative in Genesis.
Timeless and philosophically profound, the epic of Gilgamesh is impregnated with deep pessimism. The adventures of Gilgamesh and Enkidu transcend the confines of time and space, for they revolve about elemental forces and about human problems common to mankind throughout the ages. Dignified and enigmatic, and yet wonderfully warm and immediate in their appeal, these stories are essential to the understanding of civilized man at an early, critical stage of world history.
Bilgames see Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh (Bilgames). The Epic of Gilgamesh is an important poetic cycle of ancient Sumeria which was later expanded in the Akkadian language of Babylonia. The hero, a half-historical, half-legendary demigod, is identified with the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk (Warka) in Babylonia about 2700 B.C.T. The name Gilgamesh in Sumerian signifies “father, hero” or “the old one, the hero.” In the stories, Gilgamesh has a boon companion, Enkidu, a wild man tamed by a courtesan. Among their adventures together is a journey to subdue the dreaded Huwawa, guardian of the cedar forest.
Ishtar, goddess of love, proposes marriage to Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh spurns her advances. When the two friends destroy the divine bull which Ishtar sends to punish them, the gods avenge themselves by killing Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu. Afterwards Gilgamesh travels to the Babylonian “Noah”, Utnapishtim, survivor of the Great Flood, to learn the secret of immortality. Utnapishtim shows Gilgamesh a magic plant which renews youth, but this is stolen by a serpent as Gilgamesh washes at a well. Finally, Enkidu’s shadow returns to tell Gilgamesh the secrets of the gloomy world of the departed. Elements from these stories have been detected in the Odyssey, the Aeneid, and other epics and sagas of the Classical and the Medieval worlds.
Apart from its Sumerian prototype, the work is preserved in Akkadian in 12 tablets from the library of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (669-630 B.C.T.), and also fragments in Hittite and Hurrian. A fragment dating from about 1400 B.C.T. has been found at Megiddo in Palestine, so it is not surprising to find resemblances between the eleventh tablet of Gilgamesh, which describes the Flood and the Ark, and the Hebrew narrative in Genesis.
Timeless and philosophically profound, the epic of Gilgamesh is impregnated with deep pessimism. The adventures of Gilgamesh and Enkidu transcend the confines of time and space, for they revolve about elemental forces and about human problems common to mankind throughout the ages. Dignified and enigmatic, and yet wonderfully warm and immediate in their appeal, these stories are essential to the understanding of civilized man at an early, critical stage of world history.
Bilgames see Gilgamesh
Gimr
Gimr. A people of Sudan. The Gimr live predominantly on their ancestral land, Dar Gimr, which is situated on the Sudanese side of the international frontier with Chad. The Gimr are bounded on the north by the Zaghawa, on the west by the Tama, on the south by the Erenga and Mileri and on the east by Arab pastoral nomads such as the Darrok and sections of the Mahamid.
Although the Gimr speak only Arabic and claim Arab descent via the Jacaliyyin of the Nile River, they probably constitute an indigenous ethnic group which once formed part of the Tama language group.
Gimr historical traditions are more deeply rooted and better attested and remembered than those of the majority of their neighbors. Before the Gimr were conquered by the Keira sultanate of Dar Fur in the early years of the eighteenth century, the Gimr exercised control over the neighboring Zaghawa, Tama and Mileri. The old capital of this Gimr empire is reputed to be a site of ruins in what is now Dar Tama, in Chad. Many of the administrative titles which were in use at that time have survived in Gimr folklore.
The history of the Gimr during the past century has been extremely checkered. As a minor state situated between the two regional superpowers of the nineteenth century (the sultanates of Wadai and Darfur), Dar Gimr had been a tributary of the latter for most of 150 years, when in 1874 their overlords were conquered by the Turko-Egyptian administration, which had ruled the Nile Valley since 1821. The Gimr paid an annual tribute to their new overlords until 1882, when the Mahdiyya defeated this “foreign” government. For a number of years the Gimr paid tribute to the Mahdists. However, when Mahdist armies made their appearance in the region and threatened the autonomy of the Gimr state, the latter joined other, similarly weak polities, and together they rose into armed struggle.
In contrast to the sultanate of Masalit in the south, which made a clever use of the unstable political situation of the time to consolidate and extend its newly found independence from their Fur overlords, the Gimr suffered heavily at the hands of the armies and raiding parties of the Mahdists, the Masalit, the Fur and the French. Between 1880 and 1910, each of them contributed to laying waste to Dar Gimr and putting its people to flight. The Gimr sultan of that time, who saw all these foreign powers imperil his empire’s sanctity, acquired the nickname of “the one whose saddle is outside,” meaning that he was always prepared to flee.
Dar Gimr became part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan after the conclusion of the border negotiations with the French in 1924. Until his death, the Gimr sultan, Idris (who was convinced that he would outlive the British as he had done all previous aggressors), was given carte blanche to tax and administer Dar Gimr. However, many commoners literally escaped the predations of their countless rulers. Also, poor rains, locust plagues and the introduction of taxes to be paid in cash caused great hardship among the Gimr. This, coupled with their hatred of being administered by “foreigners,” caused a large-scale migration of Gimr either to regions with a better rainfall and better trading perspectives or to the Nile Valley in search of wage labor and spiritual guidance on the cotton plantations of the Jazira, which were owned by the one who might free them from the “Christian unbelievers,” namely, the son of the Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi.
Gimr. A people of Sudan. The Gimr live predominantly on their ancestral land, Dar Gimr, which is situated on the Sudanese side of the international frontier with Chad. The Gimr are bounded on the north by the Zaghawa, on the west by the Tama, on the south by the Erenga and Mileri and on the east by Arab pastoral nomads such as the Darrok and sections of the Mahamid.
Although the Gimr speak only Arabic and claim Arab descent via the Jacaliyyin of the Nile River, they probably constitute an indigenous ethnic group which once formed part of the Tama language group.
Gimr historical traditions are more deeply rooted and better attested and remembered than those of the majority of their neighbors. Before the Gimr were conquered by the Keira sultanate of Dar Fur in the early years of the eighteenth century, the Gimr exercised control over the neighboring Zaghawa, Tama and Mileri. The old capital of this Gimr empire is reputed to be a site of ruins in what is now Dar Tama, in Chad. Many of the administrative titles which were in use at that time have survived in Gimr folklore.
The history of the Gimr during the past century has been extremely checkered. As a minor state situated between the two regional superpowers of the nineteenth century (the sultanates of Wadai and Darfur), Dar Gimr had been a tributary of the latter for most of 150 years, when in 1874 their overlords were conquered by the Turko-Egyptian administration, which had ruled the Nile Valley since 1821. The Gimr paid an annual tribute to their new overlords until 1882, when the Mahdiyya defeated this “foreign” government. For a number of years the Gimr paid tribute to the Mahdists. However, when Mahdist armies made their appearance in the region and threatened the autonomy of the Gimr state, the latter joined other, similarly weak polities, and together they rose into armed struggle.
In contrast to the sultanate of Masalit in the south, which made a clever use of the unstable political situation of the time to consolidate and extend its newly found independence from their Fur overlords, the Gimr suffered heavily at the hands of the armies and raiding parties of the Mahdists, the Masalit, the Fur and the French. Between 1880 and 1910, each of them contributed to laying waste to Dar Gimr and putting its people to flight. The Gimr sultan of that time, who saw all these foreign powers imperil his empire’s sanctity, acquired the nickname of “the one whose saddle is outside,” meaning that he was always prepared to flee.
Dar Gimr became part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan after the conclusion of the border negotiations with the French in 1924. Until his death, the Gimr sultan, Idris (who was convinced that he would outlive the British as he had done all previous aggressors), was given carte blanche to tax and administer Dar Gimr. However, many commoners literally escaped the predations of their countless rulers. Also, poor rains, locust plagues and the introduction of taxes to be paid in cash caused great hardship among the Gimr. This, coupled with their hatred of being administered by “foreigners,” caused a large-scale migration of Gimr either to regions with a better rainfall and better trading perspectives or to the Nile Valley in search of wage labor and spiritual guidance on the cotton plantations of the Jazira, which were owned by the one who might free them from the “Christian unbelievers,” namely, the son of the Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi.
Giray
Giray (Guirey) (Ghirat) (Ghiray) (Geray). Cognomen (surname) borne by the members of the dynasty which ruled in the Crimea from the beginning of the fifteenth century until 1783. The family was descended from a grandson of Jenghiz Khan.
Giray, alternative spellings Guirey, Ghirai, Ghiray, or Geray, is the Genghisid dynasty which reigned in the Khanate of Crimea from its formation in 1427 until its downfall in 1783. The dynasty also supplied several khans of Kazan and Astrakhan between 1521 and 1550. Apart from the royal Girays, there was also a lateral branch, the Choban Girays (Çoban Geraylar). Before reaching the age of majority, young Girays were brought up in one of the Circassian tribes, where they were instructed in the arts of war. The Giray khans were elected by other Crimean Tatar dynasts, called myrzas (mırzalar). They also elected an heir apparent, called the qalgha sultan (qalğa sultan). In later centuries, the Ottoman Sultan obtained the right of installing and deposing the khans at his will.
According to some scholars, the Girays were regarded as the second family of the Ottoman Empire after the House of Ottoman.
During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Giray Khan was second to the Ottoman Emperor, and superior to the Grand Vizier, in the Ottoman protocol. After the rebellion of Semiz Mehmed Giray, the sultan demoted the Crimean Khan to the level of Grand Vizier. The Giray Khans were also sovereigns of their own realm. They could mint coins, make law by decree, and had their own tughras.
After the khanate's annexation by Imperial Russia in 1783, the last khan Şahin Giray remained nominally in power until 1787, when he took refuge in the Ottoman empire, and was executed in Rhodes.
Other dynasts were permitted by the Russian authorities to reside in their Bakhchisaray palace. Selim III's young son, Qattı Giray, was converted by missionaries to Protestantism and married a Scottish heiress.
Since annexation most of the Girays have lived in Turkey. Some of them, however, have lived in other countries. The last Crimean Khan, Şahin Giray's, grandsons and daughters lived in Bursa and Istanbul.
Giray (Guirey) (Ghirat) (Ghiray) (Geray). Cognomen (surname) borne by the members of the dynasty which ruled in the Crimea from the beginning of the fifteenth century until 1783. The family was descended from a grandson of Jenghiz Khan.
Giray, alternative spellings Guirey, Ghirai, Ghiray, or Geray, is the Genghisid dynasty which reigned in the Khanate of Crimea from its formation in 1427 until its downfall in 1783. The dynasty also supplied several khans of Kazan and Astrakhan between 1521 and 1550. Apart from the royal Girays, there was also a lateral branch, the Choban Girays (Çoban Geraylar). Before reaching the age of majority, young Girays were brought up in one of the Circassian tribes, where they were instructed in the arts of war. The Giray khans were elected by other Crimean Tatar dynasts, called myrzas (mırzalar). They also elected an heir apparent, called the qalgha sultan (qalğa sultan). In later centuries, the Ottoman Sultan obtained the right of installing and deposing the khans at his will.
According to some scholars, the Girays were regarded as the second family of the Ottoman Empire after the House of Ottoman.
During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Giray Khan was second to the Ottoman Emperor, and superior to the Grand Vizier, in the Ottoman protocol. After the rebellion of Semiz Mehmed Giray, the sultan demoted the Crimean Khan to the level of Grand Vizier. The Giray Khans were also sovereigns of their own realm. They could mint coins, make law by decree, and had their own tughras.
After the khanate's annexation by Imperial Russia in 1783, the last khan Şahin Giray remained nominally in power until 1787, when he took refuge in the Ottoman empire, and was executed in Rhodes.
Other dynasts were permitted by the Russian authorities to reside in their Bakhchisaray palace. Selim III's young son, Qattı Giray, was converted by missionaries to Protestantism and married a Scottish heiress.
Since annexation most of the Girays have lived in Turkey. Some of them, however, have lived in other countries. The last Crimean Khan, Şahin Giray's, grandsons and daughters lived in Bursa and Istanbul.
Gisu Daraz
Gisu Daraz (Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz) (1321-1422). Celebrated Cishti saint, scholar and author of India. He knew several languages, was a prolific writer and was fully conversant with Hindu folklore and mythology.
In July 1321, about the time Ulugh Khan's army was sent to Warangal to recover the unpaid tribute owed by Pratapa Rudra, an infant son was born in Delhi to a distinguished family of Sayyids (Saiyids) – that is, men who claimed descent from the Prophet. Although he lived most of his life in Delhi, Sayyid (Saiyid) Muhammad Husaini Gisu Daraz would become known mainly for his work in the Deccan, where he died in 1422 at the ripe age of just over a hundred years.
As seen in the extract from Firishta's history quoted above, this figure occupies a very special place in Deccani popular religion: soon after his death his tomb-shrine in Gulbarga became the most important object of Muslim devotion in the Deccan. It remains so today. He also stands out in the Muslim mystical tradition, as he was the first Indian shaikh to put his thoughts directly to writing, as opposed to having disciples record his conversations. But most importantly, Gisu Daraz contributed to the stabilization and indigenization of Indo-Muslim society and polity in the Deccan, as earlier generations of Sufi shaikhs had already done in Tughluq north India. In the broader context of Indo-Muslim thought and practice, his career helped transform the Deccan from what had been an infidel land available for plunder by north Indian dynasts, to a legally inviolable abode of peace.
Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz see Gisu Daraz
Gisu Daraz (Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz) (1321-1422). Celebrated Cishti saint, scholar and author of India. He knew several languages, was a prolific writer and was fully conversant with Hindu folklore and mythology.
In July 1321, about the time Ulugh Khan's army was sent to Warangal to recover the unpaid tribute owed by Pratapa Rudra, an infant son was born in Delhi to a distinguished family of Sayyids (Saiyids) – that is, men who claimed descent from the Prophet. Although he lived most of his life in Delhi, Sayyid (Saiyid) Muhammad Husaini Gisu Daraz would become known mainly for his work in the Deccan, where he died in 1422 at the ripe age of just over a hundred years.
As seen in the extract from Firishta's history quoted above, this figure occupies a very special place in Deccani popular religion: soon after his death his tomb-shrine in Gulbarga became the most important object of Muslim devotion in the Deccan. It remains so today. He also stands out in the Muslim mystical tradition, as he was the first Indian shaikh to put his thoughts directly to writing, as opposed to having disciples record his conversations. But most importantly, Gisu Daraz contributed to the stabilization and indigenization of Indo-Muslim society and polity in the Deccan, as earlier generations of Sufi shaikhs had already done in Tughluq north India. In the broader context of Indo-Muslim thought and practice, his career helped transform the Deccan from what had been an infidel land available for plunder by north Indian dynasts, to a legally inviolable abode of peace.
Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz see Gisu Daraz
Gog and Magog
Gog and Magog (in Arabic, Yajuj wa-Majuj). Two peoples who belong to Muslim eschatology. They are mentioned in the Qur’an at Sura 18:90-95 and Sura 21:95-100.
Gog and Magog appear in the Book of Genesis, the Book of Ezekiel, and in the Book of Revelation and in the Qur'an. They are variously presented as men, supernatural beings (giants or demons), national groups, or lands. Gog and Magog occur widely in mythology and folklore.
The Qur'an (early 7th century C.C.) gives information on Ya'jūj and Ma'jūj (Gog and Magog in Arabic). In sura Al-Kahf ("The Cave"), 18:83–98, a mysterious individual called Dhul-Qarnayn ("The Two-horned One") journeys to a distant land beyond the sunrise where he finds a people who are suffering from the mischief of Gog and Magog. Dhul-Qarnayn then makes an iron wall to keep Gog and Magog out, but warns that it will be removed in the Last Age. In Sura 21, Al-Anbiyā (The Prophets), the wall is mentioned again. There Allah tells his Prophet (Muhammad) that there is a prohibition upon the people of a city which Allah destroyed that they will not ever return until the dam of Gog and Magog has opened. According to Islamic tradition (in Saḥīḥ al-Bukhāri), Gog and Magog are human beings, and the city mentioned in Sura 21 is Jerusalem.
The Qur'anic account of Dhul-Qarnayn follows very closely the "Gates of Alexander" story from the Alexander romance, a thoroughly embellished compilation of Alexander the Great's wars and adventures (see Alexander the Great in the Qur'an). Since the construction of a great iron gate to hold back a hostile northern people was attributed to Alexander many centuries before the time of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and the recording of the Qur'an, most historians consider Dhul-Qarnayn a reference to Alexander (see Alexander the Great in the Qur'an). However, some Muslim scholars reject this attribution, associating Dhul-Qarnayn with some other early ruler, usually Cyrus the Great, but also Darius the Great. Gog and Magog are also mentioned in some of the hadith, or sayings of Muhammad, specifically the Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, revered by Muslims.
Fourteenth century Muslim sojourner Ibn Battuta traveled to China on order of the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq, and encountered a large community of Muslim merchants in the city of Zaitun. He comments in his travel log that "Between it [the city] and the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj is sixty days' travel." The translator of the travel log notes that Ibn Battuta confused the Great Wall of China with that supposedly built by Dhul-Qarnayn.
The Ahmadiyya Community present the view that Gog and Magog represent one or more of the European nations. They associate European imperialism after the Age of Discovery with the reference to Gog and Magog's rule at the "four corners of the world" in the Christian Book of Revelation. The Ahmadiyya founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad linked Gog and Magog to the European nations and Russia. His son and second successor, Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad further expounds the connection between Europe and the accounts of Gog and Magog in the Bible, the Qur'an, and the hadith in his work Tafseer-e-Kabeer. According to this interpretation of Mahmood Ahmad in his commentary on Surah Al-Kahf (Urdu), Gog and Magog were the descendants of Noah who populated eastern and western Europe long ago, the Scythians. According to Ahmadiyya teachings, the period of the Cold War between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet union (identified as Gog and Magog) or the influence of Communism and capitalism, the conflict and rivalry between the two and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union all occurred in accordance with the prophecies concerning Gog and Magog. Ahmadis also cite the folkloric British interpretation of Gog and Magog as giants as support for their view.
Ahmadis point out that the Arabic words for Gog and Magog i.e. Yajuj and Majuj derive from the root word Ajjij (to burn, blaze, hasten) which suggests that Gog and Magog will excel all nations in harnessing fire to their service and shall fight their battles with fire. In his commentary of Surah-Al-Masadd, Mirza Mahmood Ahmad, the Second Ahmadiyya leader has interpreted the two hands of Abu-lahab (the father of flame) as Gog and Magog, the nations opposed to Islam that will ultimately be destroyed by the 'fire' of their own making.
Christian and Muslim writers sometimes associated the Khazars with Gog and Magog. In his 9th century work Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam, the Benedictine monk Christian of Stavelot refers to the Khazars as Hunnic descendants of Gog and Magog, and says they are "circumcized and observing all [the laws of] Judaism". The Khazars were a Central Asian people with a long association with Judaism. The 14th century Sunni scholar Ibn Kathir also identified Gog and Magog with the Khazars who lived between the Black and Caspian Seas in his work Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah (The Beginning and the End). A Georgian tradition, echoed in a chronicle, also identifies the Khazars with Gog and Magog, stating they are "wild men with hideous faces and the manners of wild beasts, eaters of blood". Another author who has identified this connection was the Arab traveller Ahmad ibn Fadlan. In his travelogue regarding his diplomatic mission to Elteber (vassal-king under the Khazars), he noted the beliefs about Gog and Magog being the ancestors of the Khazars.
Magog see Gog and Magog
Yajuj wa-Majuj see Gog and Magog
Majuj see Gog and Magog
Gog and Magog (in Arabic, Yajuj wa-Majuj). Two peoples who belong to Muslim eschatology. They are mentioned in the Qur’an at Sura 18:90-95 and Sura 21:95-100.
Gog and Magog appear in the Book of Genesis, the Book of Ezekiel, and in the Book of Revelation and in the Qur'an. They are variously presented as men, supernatural beings (giants or demons), national groups, or lands. Gog and Magog occur widely in mythology and folklore.
The Qur'an (early 7th century C.C.) gives information on Ya'jūj and Ma'jūj (Gog and Magog in Arabic). In sura Al-Kahf ("The Cave"), 18:83–98, a mysterious individual called Dhul-Qarnayn ("The Two-horned One") journeys to a distant land beyond the sunrise where he finds a people who are suffering from the mischief of Gog and Magog. Dhul-Qarnayn then makes an iron wall to keep Gog and Magog out, but warns that it will be removed in the Last Age. In Sura 21, Al-Anbiyā (The Prophets), the wall is mentioned again. There Allah tells his Prophet (Muhammad) that there is a prohibition upon the people of a city which Allah destroyed that they will not ever return until the dam of Gog and Magog has opened. According to Islamic tradition (in Saḥīḥ al-Bukhāri), Gog and Magog are human beings, and the city mentioned in Sura 21 is Jerusalem.
The Qur'anic account of Dhul-Qarnayn follows very closely the "Gates of Alexander" story from the Alexander romance, a thoroughly embellished compilation of Alexander the Great's wars and adventures (see Alexander the Great in the Qur'an). Since the construction of a great iron gate to hold back a hostile northern people was attributed to Alexander many centuries before the time of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and the recording of the Qur'an, most historians consider Dhul-Qarnayn a reference to Alexander (see Alexander the Great in the Qur'an). However, some Muslim scholars reject this attribution, associating Dhul-Qarnayn with some other early ruler, usually Cyrus the Great, but also Darius the Great. Gog and Magog are also mentioned in some of the hadith, or sayings of Muhammad, specifically the Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, revered by Muslims.
Fourteenth century Muslim sojourner Ibn Battuta traveled to China on order of the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq, and encountered a large community of Muslim merchants in the city of Zaitun. He comments in his travel log that "Between it [the city] and the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj is sixty days' travel." The translator of the travel log notes that Ibn Battuta confused the Great Wall of China with that supposedly built by Dhul-Qarnayn.
The Ahmadiyya Community present the view that Gog and Magog represent one or more of the European nations. They associate European imperialism after the Age of Discovery with the reference to Gog and Magog's rule at the "four corners of the world" in the Christian Book of Revelation. The Ahmadiyya founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad linked Gog and Magog to the European nations and Russia. His son and second successor, Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad further expounds the connection between Europe and the accounts of Gog and Magog in the Bible, the Qur'an, and the hadith in his work Tafseer-e-Kabeer. According to this interpretation of Mahmood Ahmad in his commentary on Surah Al-Kahf (Urdu), Gog and Magog were the descendants of Noah who populated eastern and western Europe long ago, the Scythians. According to Ahmadiyya teachings, the period of the Cold War between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet union (identified as Gog and Magog) or the influence of Communism and capitalism, the conflict and rivalry between the two and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union all occurred in accordance with the prophecies concerning Gog and Magog. Ahmadis also cite the folkloric British interpretation of Gog and Magog as giants as support for their view.
Ahmadis point out that the Arabic words for Gog and Magog i.e. Yajuj and Majuj derive from the root word Ajjij (to burn, blaze, hasten) which suggests that Gog and Magog will excel all nations in harnessing fire to their service and shall fight their battles with fire. In his commentary of Surah-Al-Masadd, Mirza Mahmood Ahmad, the Second Ahmadiyya leader has interpreted the two hands of Abu-lahab (the father of flame) as Gog and Magog, the nations opposed to Islam that will ultimately be destroyed by the 'fire' of their own making.
Christian and Muslim writers sometimes associated the Khazars with Gog and Magog. In his 9th century work Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam, the Benedictine monk Christian of Stavelot refers to the Khazars as Hunnic descendants of Gog and Magog, and says they are "circumcized and observing all [the laws of] Judaism". The Khazars were a Central Asian people with a long association with Judaism. The 14th century Sunni scholar Ibn Kathir also identified Gog and Magog with the Khazars who lived between the Black and Caspian Seas in his work Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah (The Beginning and the End). A Georgian tradition, echoed in a chronicle, also identifies the Khazars with Gog and Magog, stating they are "wild men with hideous faces and the manners of wild beasts, eaters of blood". Another author who has identified this connection was the Arab traveller Ahmad ibn Fadlan. In his travelogue regarding his diplomatic mission to Elteber (vassal-king under the Khazars), he noted the beliefs about Gog and Magog being the ancestors of the Khazars.
Magog see Gog and Magog
Yajuj wa-Majuj see Gog and Magog
Majuj see Gog and Magog
Gokalp
Gokalp (Ziya Gokalp) (Mehmed Ziya’) (Mehmet Ziya) (March 23, 1876, Diyarbakır—October 25, 1924, Constantinople). Turkish sociologist, writer, poet, and political activist. In 1908, after the Young Turk revolution, he adopted the pen name Gökalp ("sky hero"), which he retained for the rest of his life. As a sociologist, Ziya Gökalp was influential in the overhaul of religious perceptions and evolving of Turkish nationalism.. After the revolution of 1908, he became a member of the Union and Progress Committee and preached Pan-Turanism. In 1921, he joined the movement led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. He stressed the need for reforms in all aspects of life and after his death was recognized as the father of Turkish nationalism.
Mehmet Ziya was born in Diyarbakir to a family of mixed Turkish and Kurdish origins. He attended the Imperial Veterinary School (1896) at Istanbul, where he joined the revolutionary Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). He was dismissed from the school, arrested, and jailed when his affiliation with the CUP was discovered by the secret police in 1897. After his release from prison, he returned to his native city and married his cousin Cevriye in 1898. They had three daughters who survived him and a son who died at an early age. Gokalp devoted his time in Diyarbakir mostly to ethnographic research among Kurdish and Turkoman tribes and to the study of Durkheimian sociology.
Following the Young Turk revolution of July 1908, Mehmet Ziya founded a local branch
of the CUP. He was a delegate to the important CUP Congress of Thessaloniki in 1909 where he was elected a member of the Central Committee, a position he held until the party dissolved in November 1918. Gokalp’s brilliant career as a nationalist thinker started in Thessaloniki, with the nationalist literary journal Genc kalemler (1911), where he used the pseudonym “Gok Alp” for the first time. When the Balkan War (1912-1913) broke out, he established himself in Istanbul, and continued to publish in various journals, notably Turk yurdu (1912-1914), Halka dogru (1913-1914), Islam mecmuasi (1914-1915), and Yeni mecmua (1917-1918). In 1915, he became a professor of sociology at Istanbul University. As a member of the Central Committee of the CUP, he was arrested and tried after World War I as a war criminal and deported to Malta by the British (1919). After his release, he lived for a short period in Diyarbakir where he published the journal Kucuk mecmua (1922-1923). Although he was elected deputy for Diyarbakir in 1923 on a Kemalist slate, he remained quite isolated in the capital city owing to his record as a notable CUP member and an admirer of Enver Pasha. He soon moved to Istanbul because of poor health and died there on October 25, 1924.
As a thinker, sociologist, poet, and politician, Ziya Gokalp has been one of the most influential minds in twentieth-century Turkish political and intellectual history. He is the theoretician par excellence of Turkish nationalism as a ground for synthesis of secularist westernization and Islamic reform movements. He never published a major work to express methodically his idea of nationalism. Even his Principles of Turkism (1923), which can be considered his final word on the subject, is a collection of essays on nationalism previously published in journals and newspapers. However, despite the tentative character of some of his ideas and his occasional modification of them, a highly articulate understanding of nationalism emerged in the numerous essays he published over a period of fifteen years.
Like almost all his contemporaries, Gokalp was obsessed with the predicament of the Ottoman state, and his initial quest for a solution to keep that polity viable can be considered an expression of Social Darwinism. What made him move away from his predecessors and contemporaries, however, was his conversion to French sociological thought through the works of Emile Durkheim and his subsequent reflection on the structure of Europe. This led him to make a distinction between culture, which remained national, and civilization, which was shared internationally. European society was divided into nation states despite centuries of identification with the same religion and a few multi-ethnic polities. Since that history could not obliterate the differences of language and customs, nationality was the most essential characteristic of human societies. Hence, Gokalp believed that Western civilization represented the sum total of Western nation states who shared a material and political civilization. According to Gokalp, this civilization cannot be related to Christianity for two reasons. First, despite the fact that religions are shared internationally, they exercise their appeal on individuals through a national language and a series of rituals that differ from one nation to another and are thus “nationalized.” Second, Western civilization was based on a suprareligious political organization and had already incorporated non-Christians such as Jews and Japanese. Gokalp contends that not only would the reorganization of the Ottoman Turkish polity along nationalistic lines invigorate that polity, but it would also pave the way for the Ottoman Turks to join Western civilization. In other words, unearthing the national genius was synonymous with westernization. In accordance with this thought, he vehemently insisted that Turkish nationalism would be a source of strength for the Ottoman Empire and contended, somewhat later, that the empire should be reorganized as a confederation of Turks and Arabs.
To join Western civilization meant for Gokalp both political action and social engineering. Political action consisted of secularization (muasirlasmak) of all aspects of social life, to the point of confining religion to the strictest individual sphere. As an influential member both of the Central Committee of the CUP and of the parliamentary commission that drafted the Turkish constitution, he was the mastermind in the secularization process at two important turning points, in 1917 and in 1923-1924. His insistence on placing the evkaf (awqaf, in Arabic) schools under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and the seriat (shari‘a) courts under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Justice in 1917 can be considered as the first steps, respectively, toward the Law on the Unification of Education passed in 1924 and the Civil Code adopted in 1926. In perfect harmony with positivistic determinism, yet another fashion of his age, Gokalp thought that social engineering too was necessary, for Turkish society had developed structural shortcomings for historical reasons. Composed almost exclusively of bureaucrats and agriculturalists, this society lacked the entrepreneurial class that had the most crucial role in the social division of labor in modern nation-states. Thus, Gokalp was also the initiator of the mobilization for “national(ist) economy” (milli iktisat), which consisted of a propaganda campaign aimed at developing the moneymaking instinct of the Turks and a series of legal measures, the most significant of which was protectionism.
Ziya Gokalp’s name has been associated with Pan-Turanism and proto-fascistic solidarism. During the period between 1912 and the end of World War I, Gokalp leaned toward Pan-Turanism under the influence of Russian émigrés and particularly of the Azeri publicist Huseyinzade Ali, active in Istanbul. This leaning also partly explains his sympathy for Enver Pasha, the champion of Pan-Turanism among the CUP leadership, to whom he dedicated his collected poems, Kizil elma, published shortly after the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. This romantic weakness of Gokalp survives also in his Principles of Turkism, though in the form of a mild utopianism. In the final analysis, his Pan-Turanism can be considered as a symptom of an age when the boundaries of a self-contained nation-state still appeared too modest to Turkish imperial hangover. His solidarism is less evident. There are sections in his Principles of Turkism that contradict each other, some thoroughly liberal and other solidaristic professions of faith. This is a result of the effect of the World War and the Bolshevik Revolution on Gokalp. The scramble for mandates in the Middle East and the social upheavals in Europe in the aftermath of the war were rationalized by Gokalp as the outcome of capitalistic greed. In 1923, he still thought of the entrepreneurial class as essential in the social division of labor, but he also advocated that the individual ventures be monitored by the state for the general good of the society.
Obsessed as he was with the nation-state, Gokalp neglected the study of the Ottoman Empire, a polity he discarded as a cosmopolitan, hybrid oddity. It is this weakness in historical outlook that led him to equate secularization exclusively with modernization. He ignored, for instance, the secular kanun tradition that constituted one of the pillars of the Ottoman Empire. This is yet another characteristic typical of the generation who founded the Turkish Republic, for which Ziya Gokalp was undoubtedly a spiritual father.
Ziya Gokalp see Gokalp
Mehmed Ziya’ see Gokalp
Ziya', Mehmed see Gokalp
“Gok Alp” see Gokalp
"sky hero" see Gokalp
Mehmet Ziya see Gokalp
As a thinker, sociologist, poet, and politician, Ziya Gokalp has been one of the most influential minds in twentieth-century Turkish political and intellectual history. He is the theoretician par excellence of Turkish nationalism as a ground for synthesis of secularist westernization and Islamic reform movements. He never published a major work to express methodically his idea of nationalism. Even his Principles of Turkism (1923), which can be considered his final word on the subject, is a collection of essays on nationalism previously published in journals and newspapers. However, despite the tentative character of some of his ideas and his occasional modification of them, a highly articulate understanding of nationalism emerged in the numerous essays he published over a period of fifteen years.
Like almost all his contemporaries, Gokalp was obsessed with the predicament of the Ottoman state, and his initial quest for a solution to keep that polity viable can be considered an expression of Social Darwinism. What made him move away from his predecessors and contemporaries, however, was his conversion to French sociological thought through the works of Emile Durkheim and his subsequent reflection on the structure of Europe. This led him to make a distinction between culture, which remained national, and civilization, which was shared internationally. European society was divided into nation states despite centuries of identification with the same religion and a few multi-ethnic polities. Since that history could not obliterate the differences of language and customs, nationality was the most essential characteristic of human societies. Hence, Gokalp believed that Western civilization represented the sum total of Western nation states who shared a material and political civilization. According to Gokalp, this civilization cannot be related to Christianity for two reasons. First, despite the fact that religions are shared internationally, they exercise their appeal on individuals through a national language and a series of rituals that differ from one nation to another and are thus “nationalized.” Second, Western civilization was based on a suprareligious political organization and had already incorporated non-Christians such as Jews and Japanese. Gokalp contends that not only would the reorganization of the Ottoman Turkish polity along nationalistic lines invigorate that polity, but it would also pave the way for the Ottoman Turks to join Western civilization. In other words, unearthing the national genius was synonymous with westernization. In accordance with this thought, he vehemently insisted that Turkish nationalism would be a source of strength for the Ottoman Empire and contended, somewhat later, that the empire should be reorganized as a confederation of Turks and Arabs.
To join Western civilization meant for Gokalp both political action and social engineering. Political action consisted of secularization (muasirlasmak) of all aspects of social life, to the point of confining religion to the strictest individual sphere. As an influential member both of the Central Committee of the CUP and of the parliamentary commission that drafted the Turkish constitution, he was the mastermind in the secularization process at two important turning points, in 1917 and in 1923-1924. His insistence on placing the evkaf (awqaf, in Arabic) schools under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and the seriat (shari‘a) courts under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Justice in 1917 can be considered as the first steps, respectively, toward the Law on the Unification of Education passed in 1924 and the Civil Code adopted in 1926. In perfect harmony with positivistic determinism, yet another fashion of his age, Gokalp thought that social engineering too was necessary, for Turkish society had developed structural shortcomings for historical reasons. Composed almost exclusively of bureaucrats and agriculturalists, this society lacked the entrepreneurial class that had the most crucial role in the social division of labor in modern nation-states. Thus, Gokalp was also the initiator of the mobilization for “national(ist) economy” (milli iktisat), which consisted of a propaganda campaign aimed at developing the moneymaking instinct of the Turks and a series of legal measures, the most significant of which was protectionism.
Ziya Gokalp’s name has been associated with Pan-Turanism and proto-fascistic solidarism. During the period between 1912 and the end of World War I, Gokalp leaned toward Pan-Turanism under the influence of Russian émigrés and particularly of the Azeri publicist Huseyinzade Ali, active in Istanbul. This leaning also partly explains his sympathy for Enver Pasha, the champion of Pan-Turanism among the CUP leadership, to whom he dedicated his collected poems, Kizil elma, published shortly after the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. This romantic weakness of Gokalp survives also in his Principles of Turkism, though in the form of a mild utopianism. In the final analysis, his Pan-Turanism can be considered as a symptom of an age when the boundaries of a self-contained nation-state still appeared too modest to Turkish imperial hangover. His solidarism is less evident. There are sections in his Principles of Turkism that contradict each other, some thoroughly liberal and other solidaristic professions of faith. This is a result of the effect of the World War and the Bolshevik Revolution on Gokalp. The scramble for mandates in the Middle East and the social upheavals in Europe in the aftermath of the war were rationalized by Gokalp as the outcome of capitalistic greed. In 1923, he still thought of the entrepreneurial class as essential in the social division of labor, but he also advocated that the individual ventures be monitored by the state for the general good of the society.
Obsessed as he was with the nation-state, Gokalp neglected the study of the Ottoman Empire, a polity he discarded as a cosmopolitan, hybrid oddity. It is this weakness in historical outlook that led him to equate secularization exclusively with modernization. He ignored, for instance, the secular kanun tradition that constituted one of the pillars of the Ottoman Empire. This is yet another characteristic typical of the generation who founded the Turkish Republic, for which Ziya Gokalp was undoubtedly a spiritual father.
Ziya Gokalp see Gokalp
Mehmed Ziya’ see Gokalp
Ziya', Mehmed see Gokalp
“Gok Alp” see Gokalp
"sky hero" see Gokalp
Mehmet Ziya see Gokalp
Golconda
Golconda. Refers to the Qutb Shahs of the Indian (actually Turkoman) dynasty in the Deccan (peninsular India) (r.1512-1687). Their main capitals were Muhammadnagar (Golconda) and, from 1590, Hyderabad. The dynasty was founded by a nephew of the last ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, who fled to India when their empire collapsed in 1478. His son, Sultan Quli (1512-1543), governor for the Bahmanids in Telingana from 1493, broke free following the fall of the Bahmanid empires in 1512 and established the Qutb-Shah state, which secured great independence under the stable government of his successors. The governments of Muhammad Quli (1581-1612) and Abd Allah (1626-1672) marked the cultural zenith. The last ruler, Abu’l-Hasan (1672-1687), is remembered primarily as a poet. In 1687, the Qutb Shah state was conquered by the Mughal ruler Aurangzib, who proceeded to annex the enitre Deccan to the Mughal empire.
Golconda. Refers to the Qutb Shahs of the Indian (actually Turkoman) dynasty in the Deccan (peninsular India) (r.1512-1687). Their main capitals were Muhammadnagar (Golconda) and, from 1590, Hyderabad. The dynasty was founded by a nephew of the last ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu, who fled to India when their empire collapsed in 1478. His son, Sultan Quli (1512-1543), governor for the Bahmanids in Telingana from 1493, broke free following the fall of the Bahmanid empires in 1512 and established the Qutb-Shah state, which secured great independence under the stable government of his successors. The governments of Muhammad Quli (1581-1612) and Abd Allah (1626-1672) marked the cultural zenith. The last ruler, Abu’l-Hasan (1672-1687), is remembered primarily as a poet. In 1687, the Qutb Shah state was conquered by the Mughal ruler Aurangzib, who proceeded to annex the enitre Deccan to the Mughal empire.
Golden Horde
Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi) (Ulus of Juchi) (Khanate of the Qipchaq) (Kipchaq Khanate). Refers to the group of Islamized Mongols having a Turkic ethnic majority. The Golden Horde controlled Russia from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries. The name the Golden Horde was the name given by the Russians to the western division of the Mongol Empire, which ruled from 1227 to 1502. It was created by Batu ibn Juci on the lower Volga, with its center at Old (later New) Saray. In eastern literature, the country is usually referred to as the Qipcaq (Kipchak) Steppe. Batu’s brother Berke was the first Mongol prince to become a Sunni Muslim and, thereby, began the incorporation of the Tatars into Islam. Berke's death did not altogether put an end to Islamic influence, although his immediate successors were again Shamanists. Ozbeg Khan (r. 1313-1341), a Muslim himself, definitely strengthened the position of Islam. The Golden Horde became more and more at the mercy of Poland-Lithuania and Muscovy. After 1419, the formation of independent khanates in Qazan, Astrakhan and in the Crimea started the disintegration of the Golden Horde. In 1502, the Golden Horde was vanquished by the Crimea and Muscovy.
The term Golden Horde is a Russian designation for the Ulus Juchi, the western part of the Mongol Empire, which flourished from the mid-13th century to the end of the 14th century. The people of the Golden Horde were a mixture of Turks and Mongols, with the latter generally constituting the aristocracy.
The ill-defined western portion of the empire of Genghis Khan formed the territorial endowment of his oldest son, Juchi. Juchi predeceased his father in 1227, but his son Batu expanded their domain in a series of brilliant campaigns that included the sacking and burning of the city of Kiev in 1240. At its peak the Golden Horde’s territory included most of European Russia from the Urals to the Carpathian Mountains, extending east deep into Siberia. On the south the Horde’s lands bordered on the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Iranian territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Il-Khans.
Batu founded his capital, Sarai Batu, on the lower stretch of the Volga River. The capital was later moved upstream to Sarai Berke, which at its peak held perhaps 600,000 inhabitants. The Horde was gradually Turkified and Islāmized, especially under their greatest khan, Öz Beg (1313–41). The Turkic tribes concentrated on animal husbandry in the steppes, while their subject peoples, Russians, Mordvinians, Greeks, Georgians, and Armenians, contributed tribute. The Russian princes, particularly those of Muscovy, soon obtained responsibility for collecting the Russian tribute. The Horde carried on an extensive trade with Mediterranean peoples, particularly their allies in Mamelūke Egypt and the Genoese.
The Black Death, which struck in 1346–47, and the murder of Öz Beg’s successor marked the beginning of the Golden Horde’s decline and disintegration. The Russian princes won a signal victory over the Horde general Mamai at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Mamai’s successor and rival, Tokhtamysh, sacked and burned Moscow in retaliation in 1382 and re-established the Horde’s dominion over the Russians. Tokhtamysh had his own power broken, however, by his former ally Timur, who invaded the Horde’s territory in 1395, destroyed Sarai Berke, and deported most of the region’s skilled craftsmen to Central Asia, thus depriving the Horde of its technological edge over resurgent Muscovy.
In the 15th century, the Horde disintegrated into several smaller khanates, the most important being those of the Crimea, Astrakhan, and Kazan. The last surviving remnant of the Golden Horde was destroyed by the Crimean Khan in 1502.
Ulus of Jochi see Golden Horde
Ulus of Juchi see Golden Horde
Khanate of the Qipchaq see Golden Horde
Kipchaq Khanate see Golden Horde
Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi) (Ulus of Juchi) (Khanate of the Qipchaq) (Kipchaq Khanate). Refers to the group of Islamized Mongols having a Turkic ethnic majority. The Golden Horde controlled Russia from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries. The name the Golden Horde was the name given by the Russians to the western division of the Mongol Empire, which ruled from 1227 to 1502. It was created by Batu ibn Juci on the lower Volga, with its center at Old (later New) Saray. In eastern literature, the country is usually referred to as the Qipcaq (Kipchak) Steppe. Batu’s brother Berke was the first Mongol prince to become a Sunni Muslim and, thereby, began the incorporation of the Tatars into Islam. Berke's death did not altogether put an end to Islamic influence, although his immediate successors were again Shamanists. Ozbeg Khan (r. 1313-1341), a Muslim himself, definitely strengthened the position of Islam. The Golden Horde became more and more at the mercy of Poland-Lithuania and Muscovy. After 1419, the formation of independent khanates in Qazan, Astrakhan and in the Crimea started the disintegration of the Golden Horde. In 1502, the Golden Horde was vanquished by the Crimea and Muscovy.
The term Golden Horde is a Russian designation for the Ulus Juchi, the western part of the Mongol Empire, which flourished from the mid-13th century to the end of the 14th century. The people of the Golden Horde were a mixture of Turks and Mongols, with the latter generally constituting the aristocracy.
The ill-defined western portion of the empire of Genghis Khan formed the territorial endowment of his oldest son, Juchi. Juchi predeceased his father in 1227, but his son Batu expanded their domain in a series of brilliant campaigns that included the sacking and burning of the city of Kiev in 1240. At its peak the Golden Horde’s territory included most of European Russia from the Urals to the Carpathian Mountains, extending east deep into Siberia. On the south the Horde’s lands bordered on the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Iranian territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Il-Khans.
Batu founded his capital, Sarai Batu, on the lower stretch of the Volga River. The capital was later moved upstream to Sarai Berke, which at its peak held perhaps 600,000 inhabitants. The Horde was gradually Turkified and Islāmized, especially under their greatest khan, Öz Beg (1313–41). The Turkic tribes concentrated on animal husbandry in the steppes, while their subject peoples, Russians, Mordvinians, Greeks, Georgians, and Armenians, contributed tribute. The Russian princes, particularly those of Muscovy, soon obtained responsibility for collecting the Russian tribute. The Horde carried on an extensive trade with Mediterranean peoples, particularly their allies in Mamelūke Egypt and the Genoese.
The Black Death, which struck in 1346–47, and the murder of Öz Beg’s successor marked the beginning of the Golden Horde’s decline and disintegration. The Russian princes won a signal victory over the Horde general Mamai at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Mamai’s successor and rival, Tokhtamysh, sacked and burned Moscow in retaliation in 1382 and re-established the Horde’s dominion over the Russians. Tokhtamysh had his own power broken, however, by his former ally Timur, who invaded the Horde’s territory in 1395, destroyed Sarai Berke, and deported most of the region’s skilled craftsmen to Central Asia, thus depriving the Horde of its technological edge over resurgent Muscovy.
In the 15th century, the Horde disintegrated into several smaller khanates, the most important being those of the Crimea, Astrakhan, and Kazan. The last surviving remnant of the Golden Horde was destroyed by the Crimean Khan in 1502.
Ulus of Jochi see Golden Horde
Ulus of Juchi see Golden Horde
Khanate of the Qipchaq see Golden Horde
Kipchaq Khanate see Golden Horde
Goni Mukhtar
Goni Mukhtar (d. 1809). Leader of the Fula jihad against the Kanuri state of Bornu (in Niger and Nigeria). {Goni is actually a Bornu title for someone who has mastered the Qur’an.} He lived in Deya, a province of Bornu. When the Fula Islamic leader ‘Uthman dan Fodio declared a jihad and appealed for support, Goni became leader of the southern contingent of Fula rebels against Bornu while another army attacked from the west. The two armies gained control of most of Bornu, and in 1808 Goni Mukhtar drove the mai -- the ruler -- from the capital and occupied it. The mai, Ahmad Alimi, abdicated in favor of his son Dunama, who searched for assistance. Assistance came from al-Kanemi, a Muslim cleric from Bornu province whose followers joined forces with the Bornu army to liberate the capital in 1809. Goni Mukhtar was killed in the fighting. The event marked the first stage in al-Kanemi’s take-over of the Bornu state. The Fula retained control of western Bornu, and the Misau Emirate there was founded by Goni Mukhtar’s descendants.
Goni Mukhtar (d. 1809). Leader of the Fula jihad against the Kanuri state of Bornu (in Niger and Nigeria). {Goni is actually a Bornu title for someone who has mastered the Qur’an.} He lived in Deya, a province of Bornu. When the Fula Islamic leader ‘Uthman dan Fodio declared a jihad and appealed for support, Goni became leader of the southern contingent of Fula rebels against Bornu while another army attacked from the west. The two armies gained control of most of Bornu, and in 1808 Goni Mukhtar drove the mai -- the ruler -- from the capital and occupied it. The mai, Ahmad Alimi, abdicated in favor of his son Dunama, who searched for assistance. Assistance came from al-Kanemi, a Muslim cleric from Bornu province whose followers joined forces with the Bornu army to liberate the capital in 1809. Goni Mukhtar was killed in the fighting. The event marked the first stage in al-Kanemi’s take-over of the Bornu state. The Fula retained control of western Bornu, and the Misau Emirate there was founded by Goni Mukhtar’s descendants.
Gorontalese
Gorontalese. The Gorontalese occupy nearly half of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, officially known as the Province of North Sulawesi in the Republic of Indonesia. The area’s main city is Gorontalo on the Gulf of Tomini.
There are several opinions regarding the origins of the people of Gorontalo. One is that they were an indigenous tribe located around Lake Limbotto. Another is that the Suwawa and Boelemo originated in South Sulawesi and migrated north. There are records to show that the Suwawa kingdom was founded in the eighth century and had trading relations with the Lusu kingdom in South Sulawesi. The kingdoms of Gorontalo and Limbotto came into existence in the fourteenth century and gained influence around the Gulf of Tomini. They conducted trade with peoples throughout the Molucca Sea, including the Ternate. In 1673, all the groups created a federation which later became the Kingdom of Lima Pohalaa. In 1889, the Dutch gave the kingdom the name “Gorontalo.”
Islam apparently came to Gorontalo in the early sixteenth century. In 1563, King Matolodulakiki declared it the official state religion. In 1677, the Dutch Governor Padtbrugge of the Moluccas advocated Christianity and required observance of the religion in formal Dutch local agreements. This policy was opposed by a number of local maharajas, two of whom were banished to Ceylon. By the end of the century, religious conflicts had become widespread. Muslims and Christians both considering the other kafir, non-believers. A Muslim who became a Christian could be thrown out of his community, deprived of his hereditary rights and even exiled. If he were a descendant of the aristocracy, he might lose his right to succeed to higher positions. On the other hand, non-Muslims, especially Chinese or Dutch, who accepted Islam were received with many honors.
The nearly one million Gorontalese are one of three major people groups of northern Sulawesi. Formerly mountain dwellers, the Gorontalese now inhabit scattered villages along the plain or coastal strip of the Sulawesi's northern peninsula, particularly in the city district of Gorontalo.
Sulawesi is located directly south of the Philippines. This large crab-shaped island is generally mountainous and marked by volcanic cones. Tropical rain forests are also characteristic of the area. The history of this region is one of the rising and falling of petty kingdoms. The kingdoms would occasionally ban together in times of war to form a larger and more powerful army. It seems likely that the region was originally inhabited by the Toradja peoples.
To the east of the Gorontalese are the neighboring Minahasans of Minado Island. The Minahasans have been strongly influenced by Dutch colonization and Christian education. As a result, they have been converted to Christianity. Unfortunately, however, the Gorontalese have remained devout Muslims and are largely unevangelized. There seem to be many barriers of prejudice between the two groups. There are no native Gorontalese churches, and local Christians are frightened to reach out to the Muslim Gorontalese for fear of persecution.
Rice, maize, and the fruit of sago palms are important food sources to the Gorontalese. Yams and millet are secondary crops, and coconut is grown commercially. Nets, traps, and harpoons are used for fishing in the lakes. Rattan (a type of palm) and damar (trees grown for timber) are gathered for sale. Cattle are commonly used for pulling heavy loads and horses for riding.
Indonesia has more than eight million farmers who are without land. To aid in this situation, the government offers free land, housing, and other assistance to those who are willing to move from overcrowded areas to the less developed islands.
Gorontalese society is patrilineal, which means that lines of descent are traced through the males. Marriages follow the Muslim pattern and are arranged by a "go between." This middleman has the responsibility of negotiating the bride price for the groom, an amount that is determined by the girl's social status. Although cross cousin marriages are preferred, parallel cousin marriages do sometimes occur. Once married, a couple usually lives with the bride's mother until the first child is born. Then the couple leaves to establish their own household. Each spouse owns property separately, and only the land obtained after marriage becomes mutual property.
Islam, the dominant religion in Indonesia today, is practiced by nearly 85% of the country's population. Hinduism is practiced by only 2% of the population, and about 8% are Protestant Christians. Many also follow Buddhist-Taoist teachings. Animism, the belief that non-living objects have spirits, is also practiced by tribes in remote areas.
Virtually all the Gorontalese are Sunni Muslims, although many of their ritual ceremonies and practices are actually a mixture of several religions.
Indonesian is spoken in the urban areas and taught in the schools. However, most of the Gorontalese—especially the women—speak only Gorontalo, for which there is no written script. Efforts are currently being made to complete a Bible translation as well as audio materials in the Gorontalo language. Prayer for the completion of these materials is needed.
Although Indonesians have religious freedom, the large Muslim population has strong political influence.
Gorontalese. The Gorontalese occupy nearly half of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, officially known as the Province of North Sulawesi in the Republic of Indonesia. The area’s main city is Gorontalo on the Gulf of Tomini.
There are several opinions regarding the origins of the people of Gorontalo. One is that they were an indigenous tribe located around Lake Limbotto. Another is that the Suwawa and Boelemo originated in South Sulawesi and migrated north. There are records to show that the Suwawa kingdom was founded in the eighth century and had trading relations with the Lusu kingdom in South Sulawesi. The kingdoms of Gorontalo and Limbotto came into existence in the fourteenth century and gained influence around the Gulf of Tomini. They conducted trade with peoples throughout the Molucca Sea, including the Ternate. In 1673, all the groups created a federation which later became the Kingdom of Lima Pohalaa. In 1889, the Dutch gave the kingdom the name “Gorontalo.”
Islam apparently came to Gorontalo in the early sixteenth century. In 1563, King Matolodulakiki declared it the official state religion. In 1677, the Dutch Governor Padtbrugge of the Moluccas advocated Christianity and required observance of the religion in formal Dutch local agreements. This policy was opposed by a number of local maharajas, two of whom were banished to Ceylon. By the end of the century, religious conflicts had become widespread. Muslims and Christians both considering the other kafir, non-believers. A Muslim who became a Christian could be thrown out of his community, deprived of his hereditary rights and even exiled. If he were a descendant of the aristocracy, he might lose his right to succeed to higher positions. On the other hand, non-Muslims, especially Chinese or Dutch, who accepted Islam were received with many honors.
The nearly one million Gorontalese are one of three major people groups of northern Sulawesi. Formerly mountain dwellers, the Gorontalese now inhabit scattered villages along the plain or coastal strip of the Sulawesi's northern peninsula, particularly in the city district of Gorontalo.
Sulawesi is located directly south of the Philippines. This large crab-shaped island is generally mountainous and marked by volcanic cones. Tropical rain forests are also characteristic of the area. The history of this region is one of the rising and falling of petty kingdoms. The kingdoms would occasionally ban together in times of war to form a larger and more powerful army. It seems likely that the region was originally inhabited by the Toradja peoples.
To the east of the Gorontalese are the neighboring Minahasans of Minado Island. The Minahasans have been strongly influenced by Dutch colonization and Christian education. As a result, they have been converted to Christianity. Unfortunately, however, the Gorontalese have remained devout Muslims and are largely unevangelized. There seem to be many barriers of prejudice between the two groups. There are no native Gorontalese churches, and local Christians are frightened to reach out to the Muslim Gorontalese for fear of persecution.
Rice, maize, and the fruit of sago palms are important food sources to the Gorontalese. Yams and millet are secondary crops, and coconut is grown commercially. Nets, traps, and harpoons are used for fishing in the lakes. Rattan (a type of palm) and damar (trees grown for timber) are gathered for sale. Cattle are commonly used for pulling heavy loads and horses for riding.
Indonesia has more than eight million farmers who are without land. To aid in this situation, the government offers free land, housing, and other assistance to those who are willing to move from overcrowded areas to the less developed islands.
Gorontalese society is patrilineal, which means that lines of descent are traced through the males. Marriages follow the Muslim pattern and are arranged by a "go between." This middleman has the responsibility of negotiating the bride price for the groom, an amount that is determined by the girl's social status. Although cross cousin marriages are preferred, parallel cousin marriages do sometimes occur. Once married, a couple usually lives with the bride's mother until the first child is born. Then the couple leaves to establish their own household. Each spouse owns property separately, and only the land obtained after marriage becomes mutual property.
Islam, the dominant religion in Indonesia today, is practiced by nearly 85% of the country's population. Hinduism is practiced by only 2% of the population, and about 8% are Protestant Christians. Many also follow Buddhist-Taoist teachings. Animism, the belief that non-living objects have spirits, is also practiced by tribes in remote areas.
Virtually all the Gorontalese are Sunni Muslims, although many of their ritual ceremonies and practices are actually a mixture of several religions.
Indonesian is spoken in the urban areas and taught in the schools. However, most of the Gorontalese—especially the women—speak only Gorontalo, for which there is no written script. Efforts are currently being made to complete a Bible translation as well as audio materials in the Gorontalo language. Prayer for the completion of these materials is needed.
Although Indonesians have religious freedom, the large Muslim population has strong political influence.
No comments:
Post a Comment