Khubayb ibn ‘Adi al-Ansari
Khubayb ibn ‘Adi al-Ansari. One of the first martyrs of Islam, killed by tribesmen of Libyan after the battle of Uhud in 625.
Ansari, Khubayb ibn 'Adi al- see Khubayb ibn ‘Adi al-Ansari.
Ansari, Khubayb ibn 'Adi al- see Khubayb ibn ‘Adi al-Ansari.
Khuda Bakhsh
Khuda Bakhsh (August 2, 1842 - August 3, 1908). Bibliophile of Muslim India. He was the founder of the celebrated Oriental Public Library at Patna. By 1891, when the collection of manuscripts collected by his father and by himself was made into a pious endowment (in Arabic, waqf), it had reached the number of 4,000. Educated at Patna and Calcutta, in 1880, he was appointed Governor Pleader at Patna.and in 1881 the title of Khan Bahadur was conferred upon him.for his social service. He was elevated to the position of Chief Justice of Nizam's Court Hyderabad for a period of three years in 1895.
In spite of having all these titles and positions, it was his library that was has passion. He spent whatever he earned on his library and, as a result, became penniless in his later years. He had to borrow money to obtain medical treatment. The Bengali government made him an 8000 rupee grant. He died on August 3, 1908 and was buried in the premises of his beloved library.
The Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library is one of the national libraries of India. It is known for its rare collection of Persian and Arabic manuscripts. It also hosts paintings made during the Rajput and Mughal eras of India.
Bakhsh, Khuda see Khuda Bakhsh
Khuda Bakhsh (August 2, 1842 - August 3, 1908). Bibliophile of Muslim India. He was the founder of the celebrated Oriental Public Library at Patna. By 1891, when the collection of manuscripts collected by his father and by himself was made into a pious endowment (in Arabic, waqf), it had reached the number of 4,000. Educated at Patna and Calcutta, in 1880, he was appointed Governor Pleader at Patna.and in 1881 the title of Khan Bahadur was conferred upon him.for his social service. He was elevated to the position of Chief Justice of Nizam's Court Hyderabad for a period of three years in 1895.
In spite of having all these titles and positions, it was his library that was has passion. He spent whatever he earned on his library and, as a result, became penniless in his later years. He had to borrow money to obtain medical treatment. The Bengali government made him an 8000 rupee grant. He died on August 3, 1908 and was buried in the premises of his beloved library.
The Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library is one of the national libraries of India. It is known for its rare collection of Persian and Arabic manuscripts. It also hosts paintings made during the Rajput and Mughal eras of India.
Bakhsh, Khuda see Khuda Bakhsh
Khuda’i Khidmatgar
Khuda’i Khidmatgar (“servants of God”). Also known as the Red Shirts. An organization of Pakhtun (Pathan) nationalists in India’s North-West Frontier Province. Founded in 1929/1930 as the volunteers of the Afghan Jirga, they were incorporated into the Indian National Congress in 1931 under the leadership of Abdul Ghaffar Khan. They were organized along quasi-military lines but included a pledge of non-violence in their rules of conduct. They opposed the creation of Pakistan and after independence worked for Pakhtun autonomy until they were declared illegal in June 1948.
The Red Shirt movement, in support of the Indian National Congress, was an action started by Abdul Ghaffar Khan of the North-West Frontier Province of India in 1930. Ghaffar Khan was a Pashtun who greatly admired Mahatma Gandhi and his nonviolent principles and saw support for the Congress as a way of pressing his grievances against the British frontier regime. He was called the Frontier Gandhi. His followers were pledged to nonviolence, and they derived their popular title from the red color of their shirts.
In the 1937 election under the new Government of India Act, the Congress Party, supported by the Red Shirts, won a majority and formed a ministry under Ghaffar Khan’s brother, Khan Sahib, which, with interludes, remained in office until the 1947 partition. In that year the Frontier Province, faced with the choice between India and Pakistan, opted for Pakistan in a plebiscite. Ghaffar Khan then advocated Pakhtunistan—the concept of an independent Pashtun state, drawn from both the Pakistan and Afghan frontier districts. The Pakistan government suppressed both this movement and the Red Shirts.
Khidmatgar, Khuda'i see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
"Servants of God" see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
Red Shirts see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
Khuda’i Khidmatgar (“servants of God”). Also known as the Red Shirts. An organization of Pakhtun (Pathan) nationalists in India’s North-West Frontier Province. Founded in 1929/1930 as the volunteers of the Afghan Jirga, they were incorporated into the Indian National Congress in 1931 under the leadership of Abdul Ghaffar Khan. They were organized along quasi-military lines but included a pledge of non-violence in their rules of conduct. They opposed the creation of Pakistan and after independence worked for Pakhtun autonomy until they were declared illegal in June 1948.
The Red Shirt movement, in support of the Indian National Congress, was an action started by Abdul Ghaffar Khan of the North-West Frontier Province of India in 1930. Ghaffar Khan was a Pashtun who greatly admired Mahatma Gandhi and his nonviolent principles and saw support for the Congress as a way of pressing his grievances against the British frontier regime. He was called the Frontier Gandhi. His followers were pledged to nonviolence, and they derived their popular title from the red color of their shirts.
In the 1937 election under the new Government of India Act, the Congress Party, supported by the Red Shirts, won a majority and formed a ministry under Ghaffar Khan’s brother, Khan Sahib, which, with interludes, remained in office until the 1947 partition. In that year the Frontier Province, faced with the choice between India and Pakistan, opted for Pakistan in a plebiscite. Ghaffar Khan then advocated Pakhtunistan—the concept of an independent Pashtun state, drawn from both the Pakistan and Afghan frontier districts. The Pakistan government suppressed both this movement and the Red Shirts.
Khidmatgar, Khuda'i see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
"Servants of God" see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
Red Shirts see Khuda’i Khidmatgar
Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al- (Abu Mahmud Hamid al-Khujandi) (Abu Mahmoud Khujandi) (Abu Mahmood Khujandi) (Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi) (b. ca. 940-1000). Astronomer and mathematician. He constructed astronomical instruments, the most important among them being the sextant which he made in order to determine the obliquity of
Abu Mahmood Khujandi was a Persian astronomer and mathematician who lived in the late 10th century and helped build an observatory near the city of Ray (near today's Tehran) in Iran. He was born in Khujand (now Tajikistan) in about 940, and died in 1000. A bronze bust of the astronomer is present in a park in modern-day Khujand.
The few facts about Khujandi's life that are known come from both his surviving writings and comments made by Nassereddin Tusi. From Tusi's comments it is fairly certain that Khujandi was one of the rulers of the Mongol tribe in the Khudzhand region, and thus must have come from the nobility.
In Islamic astronomy, Khujandi worked under the patronage of the Buwayhid Amirs at the observatory near Ray, Iran, where he is known to have constructed the first huge mural sextant in 994.
Al-Khujandi determined the axial tilt to be 23°32'19" (23.53°) for the year 994. He noted that measurements by earlier astronomers had found higher values (Indians: 24°; Ptolemy 23° 51') and thus discovered that the axial tilt is not constant but is in fact (currently) decreasing. His measurement of the axial tilt was however about 2 minutes too small, probably due to his heavy instrument settling over the course of the observations.
In Islamic mathematics, Khujandi stated a special case of Fermat's last theorem for n = 3, but his attempted proof of the theorem was incorrect. The law of sines may have also been discovered by Khujandi, but it is uncertain whether he discovered it first, or whether Abu Nasr Mansur, Abul Wafa or Nasir al-Din al-Tusi discovered it first.
Abu Mahmud Hamid al-Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmoud Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmood Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al- (Abu Mahmud Hamid al-Khujandi) (Abu Mahmoud Khujandi) (Abu Mahmood Khujandi) (Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi) (b. ca. 940-1000). Astronomer and mathematician. He constructed astronomical instruments, the most important among them being the sextant which he made in order to determine the obliquity of
Abu Mahmood Khujandi was a Persian astronomer and mathematician who lived in the late 10th century and helped build an observatory near the city of Ray (near today's Tehran) in Iran. He was born in Khujand (now Tajikistan) in about 940, and died in 1000. A bronze bust of the astronomer is present in a park in modern-day Khujand.
The few facts about Khujandi's life that are known come from both his surviving writings and comments made by Nassereddin Tusi. From Tusi's comments it is fairly certain that Khujandi was one of the rulers of the Mongol tribe in the Khudzhand region, and thus must have come from the nobility.
In Islamic astronomy, Khujandi worked under the patronage of the Buwayhid Amirs at the observatory near Ray, Iran, where he is known to have constructed the first huge mural sextant in 994.
Al-Khujandi determined the axial tilt to be 23°32'19" (23.53°) for the year 994. He noted that measurements by earlier astronomers had found higher values (Indians: 24°; Ptolemy 23° 51') and thus discovered that the axial tilt is not constant but is in fact (currently) decreasing. His measurement of the axial tilt was however about 2 minutes too small, probably due to his heavy instrument settling over the course of the observations.
In Islamic mathematics, Khujandi stated a special case of Fermat's last theorem for n = 3, but his attempted proof of the theorem was incorrect. The law of sines may have also been discovered by Khujandi, but it is uncertain whether he discovered it first, or whether Abu Nasr Mansur, Abul Wafa or Nasir al-Din al-Tusi discovered it first.
Abu Mahmud Hamid al-Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmoud Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmood Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi see Khujandi, Abu Mahmud Hamid al-
Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun
Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun (b. 864). Ruler of the Tulunid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (r.884-896). The ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mu‘tamid regarded him as an usurper, but in the end Khumarawayh acknowledged ‘Abbasid sovereignty. In return he was granted the de jure governorship of Egypt and Syria and Caliph al-Mu‘tadid took Khumarawayh’s daughter, Qatr al-Nada, as a bride for himself instead of for his son ‘Ali. The splendid nuptials lived on in chronicles and folk-literature.
Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun (b. 864). Ruler of the Tulunid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (r.884-896). The ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mu‘tamid regarded him as an usurper, but in the end Khumarawayh acknowledged ‘Abbasid sovereignty. In return he was granted the de jure governorship of Egypt and Syria and Caliph al-Mu‘tadid took Khumarawayh’s daughter, Qatr al-Nada, as a bride for himself instead of for his son ‘Ali. The splendid nuptials lived on in chronicles and folk-literature.
Khunji, Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan
Khunji, Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan (Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan Khunji) (1455-1521). Persian religious scholar and political writer. He was a staunch Sunni who fiercely opposed the Shi‘a Safavid Shah Isma‘il, left Persia and fled to Ozbeg Transoxiana.
Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan Khunji see Khunji, Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan
Khunji, Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan (Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan Khunji) (1455-1521). Persian religious scholar and political writer. He was a staunch Sunni who fiercely opposed the Shi‘a Safavid Shah Isma‘il, left Persia and fled to Ozbeg Transoxiana.
Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan Khunji see Khunji, Fadl Allah ibn Ruzbihan
Khurasan, Banu
Khurasan, Banu (Banu Khurasan). Dynasty which governed Tunis (r.1062-1128 and 1148-1159).
Banu Khurasan see Khurasan, Banu
Khurasan, Banu (Banu Khurasan). Dynasty which governed Tunis (r.1062-1128 and 1148-1159).
Banu Khurasan see Khurasan, Banu
Khurasani, Akhund Mulla
Khurasani, Akhund Mulla (Akhund Mulla Khurasani) (1839-1911). Shi‘a mujtahid from Tus in Iran. Since 1906, his name has been associated with the Persian Constitutional Revolution as one of its most influential supporters.
Akhund Mulla Khurasani see Khurasani, Akhund Mulla
Khurasani, Akhund Mulla (Akhund Mulla Khurasani) (1839-1911). Shi‘a mujtahid from Tus in Iran. Since 1906, his name has been associated with the Persian Constitutional Revolution as one of its most influential supporters.
Akhund Mulla Khurasani see Khurasani, Akhund Mulla
Khurramiyya
Khurramiyya (Khurramdiniyya). Farsi term which literally means “joyous.” The Khurramiyya was an Iranian incarnationist sect that insisted on purity. The Khurramiyya was a religious movement founded by Mazdak in the late fifth century, and of various Iranian, anti-Arab sects which developed out of it under the impact of certain extremist Shi‘a doctrines.
Khurramdiniyya see Khurramiyya
Khurramiyya (Khurramdiniyya). Farsi term which literally means “joyous.” The Khurramiyya was an Iranian incarnationist sect that insisted on purity. The Khurramiyya was a religious movement founded by Mazdak in the late fifth century, and of various Iranian, anti-Arab sects which developed out of it under the impact of certain extremist Shi‘a doctrines.
Khurramdiniyya see Khurramiyya
Khurrem
Khurrem (Khasseki Sultan) (Roxelana). Beloved wife of the Ottoman Sultan Sulayman II. According to tradition, she was of Polish origin. She had many pious bequests executed in Istanbul, Edirne, Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. In 1541, she moved to the Topkapi Palace. With a woman lodged for the first time at the political center, there began the rule of women (“the Reign of Women”), during which the policies of the Ottoman Empire were directed by a succession of foreign favorites, which lasted until the death of Sultan Murad IV’s mother in 1651. Due largely to Khurrem’s intrigues, her son Selim remained alone to succeed his father.
Khasseki Sultan see Khurrem
Roxalena see Khurrem
Khurrem (Khasseki Sultan) (Roxelana). Beloved wife of the Ottoman Sultan Sulayman II. According to tradition, she was of Polish origin. She had many pious bequests executed in Istanbul, Edirne, Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. In 1541, she moved to the Topkapi Palace. With a woman lodged for the first time at the political center, there began the rule of women (“the Reign of Women”), during which the policies of the Ottoman Empire were directed by a succession of foreign favorites, which lasted until the death of Sultan Murad IV’s mother in 1651. Due largely to Khurrem’s intrigues, her son Selim remained alone to succeed his father.
Khasseki Sultan see Khurrem
Roxalena see Khurrem
Khurshid
Khurshid. Name given in epic romances to a daughter of the emperor of Byzantium as the lover of Jamshid, a mythological king..
Khurshid. Name given in epic romances to a daughter of the emperor of Byzantium as the lover of Jamshid, a mythological king..
Khurshid
Khurshid. Dabuyid prince of Tabaristan (r.740-761). His rebellion against the ‘Abbasid caliph was subdued in 760.
Khurshid. Dabuyid prince of Tabaristan (r.740-761). His rebellion against the ‘Abbasid caliph was subdued in 760.
Khushhal Khan Khatak
Khushhal Khan Khatak (1613-1689). Pathan (Pashtun) (Pakhtun) poet and warrior chieftain. He lived in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains. He is recognized as the national poet of the Pashtun and became known as the "Afghan Warrior Poet." His poetry consists of more than 45,000 poems and he wrote more than 100 books. His more famous books are Baz Nama, Fazal Nama, Dister Nama and Farrah Nama.
Khushal Khan Khattak was a Pashtun warrior, poet and tribal chief of the Khattak tribe. He wrote in Pashto during the reign of the Mughal emperors in the seventeenth century, and admonished Afghans to forsake their divisive tendencies and unite. He was a renowned fighter who became known as the "Afghan Warrior Poet". He lived in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of western Pakistan.
Khushal Khan was the son of Shahbaz Khan and was born in Akora (now in Nowshera District, Pakistan). His grandfather, Malik Akoray, was the first Khattak to enjoy widespread fame during the reign of the Mughal King Jalal-ud-din Akbar. Akoray moved from Teri (a village in Karak District) to Sarai Akora, the town which Akoray founded and built. Akoray cooperated with the Mughals to safeguard the trunk route and was generously rewarded for his assistance. The Akor Khels, a clan named after Akoray, still hold a prominent position in the Khattak tribe. The Khattak tribe of Khushhal Khan now (2007) lives in areas of Karak, Kohat, Nowshera, Peshawar, Mardan and in other parts of the North-West Frontier Province.
Khushhal Khan’s life can be divided into two important parts — during his adult life he was mostly engaged in the service of the Mughal King, and during his old age he was preoccupied with the idea of the unification of the Pashtuns.
His first involvement in war occurred when he was just 13 years old. Shah Jehan appointed him as the tribal chief and Mansabdar at the age of 28 after the death of his father. By appointment of the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, Khushhal succeeded his father in 1641, but in 1658, Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan's successor, locked him away as a prisoner in the Gwalior fortress.
After Khushhal was permitted to return to Pashtun dominated areas (now constituting the NWFP), he incited the Afghans to rebel against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Along with the Rajputs, the Pashtun tribesmen of the Empire were considered the bedrock of the Mughal Army. They were crucial defenders of the Mughal Empire from the threat of invasion from the West. The Pashtun revolt in 1672 was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan attempted to molest women of the Safi tribe in what is now Kunar. The Safi tribes attacked the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of the tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber pass. There the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape.
After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority along the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-to-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly critical. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb himself camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebellion and while they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route, the revolt was partially suppressed. However, the long term anarchy on the Mughal frontier that prevailed as a consequence ensured that Nadir Shah's forces half a century later faced little resistance on the road to Delhi.
Forced to flee after the Mughals reasserted control, Khushal Khan died after many years of attempting to unite the various Pakhtun tribes together. His grave carries the inscription: da afghan pa nang me watarla tura, nanagyalai da zamana khushal khattak yam "I have taken up the sword to defend the pride of the Afghan, I am Khushal Khattak, the honorable man of the age." Khushhal Khan Khattak died on February 25, 1689, in Dambara.
The poetry of Khushal Khan consists of more than 45,000 poems. According to some historians, the number of books written by him is more than 200. His more famous books are Baz Nama, Fazal Nama, Distar Nama and Farrah Nama.
Khatak, Khushhal Khan see Khushhal Khan Khatak
Afghan Warrior Poet see Khushhal Khan Khatak
Khushhal Khan Khatak (1613-1689). Pathan (Pashtun) (Pakhtun) poet and warrior chieftain. He lived in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains. He is recognized as the national poet of the Pashtun and became known as the "Afghan Warrior Poet." His poetry consists of more than 45,000 poems and he wrote more than 100 books. His more famous books are Baz Nama, Fazal Nama, Dister Nama and Farrah Nama.
Khushal Khan Khattak was a Pashtun warrior, poet and tribal chief of the Khattak tribe. He wrote in Pashto during the reign of the Mughal emperors in the seventeenth century, and admonished Afghans to forsake their divisive tendencies and unite. He was a renowned fighter who became known as the "Afghan Warrior Poet". He lived in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of western Pakistan.
Khushal Khan was the son of Shahbaz Khan and was born in Akora (now in Nowshera District, Pakistan). His grandfather, Malik Akoray, was the first Khattak to enjoy widespread fame during the reign of the Mughal King Jalal-ud-din Akbar. Akoray moved from Teri (a village in Karak District) to Sarai Akora, the town which Akoray founded and built. Akoray cooperated with the Mughals to safeguard the trunk route and was generously rewarded for his assistance. The Akor Khels, a clan named after Akoray, still hold a prominent position in the Khattak tribe. The Khattak tribe of Khushhal Khan now (2007) lives in areas of Karak, Kohat, Nowshera, Peshawar, Mardan and in other parts of the North-West Frontier Province.
Khushhal Khan’s life can be divided into two important parts — during his adult life he was mostly engaged in the service of the Mughal King, and during his old age he was preoccupied with the idea of the unification of the Pashtuns.
His first involvement in war occurred when he was just 13 years old. Shah Jehan appointed him as the tribal chief and Mansabdar at the age of 28 after the death of his father. By appointment of the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, Khushhal succeeded his father in 1641, but in 1658, Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan's successor, locked him away as a prisoner in the Gwalior fortress.
After Khushhal was permitted to return to Pashtun dominated areas (now constituting the NWFP), he incited the Afghans to rebel against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Along with the Rajputs, the Pashtun tribesmen of the Empire were considered the bedrock of the Mughal Army. They were crucial defenders of the Mughal Empire from the threat of invasion from the West. The Pashtun revolt in 1672 was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan attempted to molest women of the Safi tribe in what is now Kunar. The Safi tribes attacked the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of the tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber pass. There the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape.
After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority along the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-to-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly critical. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb himself camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebellion and while they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route, the revolt was partially suppressed. However, the long term anarchy on the Mughal frontier that prevailed as a consequence ensured that Nadir Shah's forces half a century later faced little resistance on the road to Delhi.
Forced to flee after the Mughals reasserted control, Khushal Khan died after many years of attempting to unite the various Pakhtun tribes together. His grave carries the inscription: da afghan pa nang me watarla tura, nanagyalai da zamana khushal khattak yam "I have taken up the sword to defend the pride of the Afghan, I am Khushal Khattak, the honorable man of the age." Khushhal Khan Khattak died on February 25, 1689, in Dambara.
The poetry of Khushal Khan consists of more than 45,000 poems. According to some historians, the number of books written by him is more than 200. His more famous books are Baz Nama, Fazal Nama, Distar Nama and Farrah Nama.
Khatak, Khushhal Khan see Khushhal Khan Khatak
Afghan Warrior Poet see Khushhal Khan Khatak
Khusraw II Parwiz
Khusraw II Parwiz. (Khosrau II) (Khosrow II) (Chosroes II) (Xosrov II) (Parvez -- "the Ever Victorious") (d. 628). The twenty-second Sassanid (Sasanian) King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628. He was the son of Hormizd IV (reigned 579–590) and grandson of Khosrau I (reigned 531–579). He was the last great ruler of this dynasty before the invading Arabs overran the Persian Empire. In 602, he overthrew al-Nu‘man III ibn al-Mundhir and established direct Persian rule. Shirin, known from the very popular theme of Farhad and Shirin, was his favorite wife. Some historians note that the game of chess was invented during the reign of Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khosrow II, byname Khusraw II Parvīz (Persian: “Khusraw the Victorious”), was the Sāsānian king of Persia (reigned 590–628), under whom the Sasanian empire achieved its greatest expansion. Defeated at last in a war with the Byzantines, he was deposed in a palace revolution and executed.
The son of Hormizd IV, Khosrow was proclaimed king in 590 in turbulent times. Hormizd’s general, Bahrām Chūbīn, after his defeat by the Byzantine army at Lazica, had been openly insulted by the king. During a subsequent palace revolt led by Bostām and Bindōē (brothers-in-law of Hormizd), which culminated in the king’s assassination, Bahrām Chūbīn renounced the allegiance of his army to the monarchy and forced the new king Khosrow to flee to Mesopotamia. Khosrow’s pursuers were held off by the military tactics of his uncle Bindōē, until eventually the Byzantine emperor Maurice provided Khosrow with forces to defeat his adversary. Bahrām Chūbīn was subsequently assassinated.
Insecure and unpopular, Khosrow now eliminated those connected with his father’s murder, including Bindōē, on whose support he had relied. Although he retained a bodyguard of Byzantine legionaries, he resented the Byzantine presence in Armenia, which he had been forced to cede. Using the murder of Maurice (602) and his replacement as emperor by Phocas as a pretext and encouraged by the fact that Narces, who had commanded the Byzantine force that established Khosrow on the throne, refused to recognize Phocas, Khosrow’s armies invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia. The Byzantine forces in Mesopotamia were weak, and the towns of Dara, Amida, and Edessa soon fell (604). Crossing the Euphrates, Khosrow took Hierapolis and Beroea (Aleppo). Internal dissensions made the eastern Byzantine provinces easy prey, and Armenia and central Asia Minor were overrun by the Persians—though apparently not permanently occupied or administered. Nor was the Persian advance checked when Heraclius became emperor in 610 and sued for peace.
A second invasion of Mesopotamia, by Khosrow’s ablest general, Shahrbarāz, took place in 613. Damascus was taken in that year, and in 614 Jerusalem fell. The Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the True Cross carried to Ctesiphon. Although Khosrow himself was generally tolerant of Christianity, Shahrbarāz permitted thousands of Christian prisoners to be tortured by his Jewish aides. In 616 Alexandria was captured, and in 617 Chalcedon (opposite Byzantium), which had long been under siege by another of Khosrow’s generals, Shāhīn, finally fell to the Persians.
This tide of conquest was turned by Heraclius in a series of brilliant campaigns between 622 and 627. Since he retained command of the sea, Heraclius was able to sail to Issus and rout the Persian army near the Armenian border. In alliance with the Khazar kingdom north of the Caucasus, he invaded Armenia again in 623, gaining victory over the King’s army near Canzaca. The town and fire temple were destroyed, together with the temple at Lake Urmia, traditionally associated with Zoroaster. The campaigns of 624 and 625 ranged across northern Syria and Mesopotamia and culminated in a reversal for Shahrbarāz’ forces on the river Saras.
Khosrow rallied his forces in 626 and, in alliance with the Avars, a people who were also in conflict with Byzantium at this time, sent one army to besiege Constantinople and another to oppose Heraclius. Constantinople held, and Shāhīn was defeated; the Persian second force was outmaneuvered in 628 by Heraclius’ brave dash to Dastagird, the royal residence 70 miles (113 kilometers) north of Ctesiphon. An important but indecisive battle was fought near Nineveh, but, as the Byzantine army re-approached Dastagird, Khosrow fled. His letters calling Shahrbarāz to his aid had been intercepted, and, although his resources were by now drastically reduced, he refused peace terms.
Khosrow’s prestige was shattered, and he was now sick. The execution of Shahrbarāz and the desecration of Shāhīn’s corpse were followed by revolution in the royal household. Khosrow was condemned to death and executed (628), and his youngest son and heir, Mardānshāh, was murdered before his eyes. His eldest son, Kavadh (Qobad) II, Shērōē, signed the peace.
Khosrow was a serious patron of the arts; silverworking and carpet weaving reached their peak during his reign. Sources tell of the enormous “Spring of Khosrow,” a carpet whose design was a garden. A splendid silver dish in the Bibliothèque Nationale is thought to depict him in the traditional Sāsānian royal hunt. Most authorities attribute to Khosrow II the grottos at Taq-e Bostan (Kermanshah), taking them as evidence of a renaissance of rock sculpture in his reign. The reliefs depict the King in hunting scenes and standing motionless listening to a group of harpists—a reminder of the famous musicians Bārbad and Sarkash, who were kept at Khosrow’s court. His architectural work is chiefly known from the ruins of the enormous palace Imirat-e Khosrow near Qasr-e Shīrīn (near Khānaqīn) and at nearby Hawsk-Kuri. A provincial palace exists at Qaṣr al-Mushattā, Jordan.
Booty and taxes brought Khosrow enormous wealth, including thousands of elephants, camels, horses, and women. The 9th-century Arab historian aṭ-Ṭabarī describes his golden throne supported by legs of rubies, as well as such curios as a piece of malleable gold and an asbestos napkin. But, despite widespread trade connections and the amassing of individual fortunes, there is no evidence that the economy flourished. High taxation and the uncertainties of war did nothing for the merchant class. By creating a military aristocracy, Khosrow II had weakened the authority of the king, while his administrative reforms and bureaucratic centralization removed the power of regional dynasties and their feudal armies, which might have resisted the invasion of the Arabs 12 years after Khosrow’s death. Already in 611 the Arabs had inflicted a defeat on the Sāsānian army at Dhu-Qar. The destruction by Khosrow II of the Christian Arab states of the Lakhmids and Ghassānids in Syria and western Iraq was a further factor exposing Iran to Arab attack.
Khosrow is also remembered in Islamic tradition to be the Persian king to whom Muhammad had sent a messenger, Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi, along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam. The letter read:
"In the name of God, Most Gracious, Ever Merciful
"From Muhammad, Messenger of God, to Chosroes, Ruler of Persia. Peace be on him who follows the guidance, believes in God and His Messenger and bears witness that there is no one worthy of worship save God, the One, without associate, and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger. I invite you to the Call of God, as I am the Messenger of God to the whole of mankind, so that I may warn every living person and so that the truth may become clear and the judgment of God may overtake the disbelievers. I call upon you to accept Islam and thus make yourself secure. If you turn away, you will bear the sins of your Zoroastrian subjects."
The Persian historian Tabari reported that in outrage, Khosrow tore up Muhammad's letter and commanded Badhan, his vassal ruler of Yemen, to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man from Hijaz (Muhammad) to him. Meanwhile, back in Madinah, Abdullah told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces and Muhammad's only reply was, "May his kingdom tear apart", and predicted that Khosrow's own son would kill him. The narration carries on with accounts of their encounter and dialogue with Muhammad and conversion of Badhan (Bāzān) and the whole Yemenite Persians to Islam subsequent to receipt of shocking tidings of Khosrow’s murder by his own son, Kavadh II.
The love of Khosrow for his Christian wife Shīrīn was celebrated by the poets, especially by the 12th-century poet Neẓāmī in Khosrow-va-Shīrīn.
Khosrau II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khosrow II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Chosroes II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Xosrov II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Parvez see Khusraw II Parwiz.
The Ever Victorious see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khusraw II Parwiz. (Khosrau II) (Khosrow II) (Chosroes II) (Xosrov II) (Parvez -- "the Ever Victorious") (d. 628). The twenty-second Sassanid (Sasanian) King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628. He was the son of Hormizd IV (reigned 579–590) and grandson of Khosrau I (reigned 531–579). He was the last great ruler of this dynasty before the invading Arabs overran the Persian Empire. In 602, he overthrew al-Nu‘man III ibn al-Mundhir and established direct Persian rule. Shirin, known from the very popular theme of Farhad and Shirin, was his favorite wife. Some historians note that the game of chess was invented during the reign of Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khosrow II, byname Khusraw II Parvīz (Persian: “Khusraw the Victorious”), was the Sāsānian king of Persia (reigned 590–628), under whom the Sasanian empire achieved its greatest expansion. Defeated at last in a war with the Byzantines, he was deposed in a palace revolution and executed.
The son of Hormizd IV, Khosrow was proclaimed king in 590 in turbulent times. Hormizd’s general, Bahrām Chūbīn, after his defeat by the Byzantine army at Lazica, had been openly insulted by the king. During a subsequent palace revolt led by Bostām and Bindōē (brothers-in-law of Hormizd), which culminated in the king’s assassination, Bahrām Chūbīn renounced the allegiance of his army to the monarchy and forced the new king Khosrow to flee to Mesopotamia. Khosrow’s pursuers were held off by the military tactics of his uncle Bindōē, until eventually the Byzantine emperor Maurice provided Khosrow with forces to defeat his adversary. Bahrām Chūbīn was subsequently assassinated.
Insecure and unpopular, Khosrow now eliminated those connected with his father’s murder, including Bindōē, on whose support he had relied. Although he retained a bodyguard of Byzantine legionaries, he resented the Byzantine presence in Armenia, which he had been forced to cede. Using the murder of Maurice (602) and his replacement as emperor by Phocas as a pretext and encouraged by the fact that Narces, who had commanded the Byzantine force that established Khosrow on the throne, refused to recognize Phocas, Khosrow’s armies invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia. The Byzantine forces in Mesopotamia were weak, and the towns of Dara, Amida, and Edessa soon fell (604). Crossing the Euphrates, Khosrow took Hierapolis and Beroea (Aleppo). Internal dissensions made the eastern Byzantine provinces easy prey, and Armenia and central Asia Minor were overrun by the Persians—though apparently not permanently occupied or administered. Nor was the Persian advance checked when Heraclius became emperor in 610 and sued for peace.
A second invasion of Mesopotamia, by Khosrow’s ablest general, Shahrbarāz, took place in 613. Damascus was taken in that year, and in 614 Jerusalem fell. The Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the True Cross carried to Ctesiphon. Although Khosrow himself was generally tolerant of Christianity, Shahrbarāz permitted thousands of Christian prisoners to be tortured by his Jewish aides. In 616 Alexandria was captured, and in 617 Chalcedon (opposite Byzantium), which had long been under siege by another of Khosrow’s generals, Shāhīn, finally fell to the Persians.
This tide of conquest was turned by Heraclius in a series of brilliant campaigns between 622 and 627. Since he retained command of the sea, Heraclius was able to sail to Issus and rout the Persian army near the Armenian border. In alliance with the Khazar kingdom north of the Caucasus, he invaded Armenia again in 623, gaining victory over the King’s army near Canzaca. The town and fire temple were destroyed, together with the temple at Lake Urmia, traditionally associated with Zoroaster. The campaigns of 624 and 625 ranged across northern Syria and Mesopotamia and culminated in a reversal for Shahrbarāz’ forces on the river Saras.
Khosrow rallied his forces in 626 and, in alliance with the Avars, a people who were also in conflict with Byzantium at this time, sent one army to besiege Constantinople and another to oppose Heraclius. Constantinople held, and Shāhīn was defeated; the Persian second force was outmaneuvered in 628 by Heraclius’ brave dash to Dastagird, the royal residence 70 miles (113 kilometers) north of Ctesiphon. An important but indecisive battle was fought near Nineveh, but, as the Byzantine army re-approached Dastagird, Khosrow fled. His letters calling Shahrbarāz to his aid had been intercepted, and, although his resources were by now drastically reduced, he refused peace terms.
Khosrow’s prestige was shattered, and he was now sick. The execution of Shahrbarāz and the desecration of Shāhīn’s corpse were followed by revolution in the royal household. Khosrow was condemned to death and executed (628), and his youngest son and heir, Mardānshāh, was murdered before his eyes. His eldest son, Kavadh (Qobad) II, Shērōē, signed the peace.
Khosrow was a serious patron of the arts; silverworking and carpet weaving reached their peak during his reign. Sources tell of the enormous “Spring of Khosrow,” a carpet whose design was a garden. A splendid silver dish in the Bibliothèque Nationale is thought to depict him in the traditional Sāsānian royal hunt. Most authorities attribute to Khosrow II the grottos at Taq-e Bostan (Kermanshah), taking them as evidence of a renaissance of rock sculpture in his reign. The reliefs depict the King in hunting scenes and standing motionless listening to a group of harpists—a reminder of the famous musicians Bārbad and Sarkash, who were kept at Khosrow’s court. His architectural work is chiefly known from the ruins of the enormous palace Imirat-e Khosrow near Qasr-e Shīrīn (near Khānaqīn) and at nearby Hawsk-Kuri. A provincial palace exists at Qaṣr al-Mushattā, Jordan.
Booty and taxes brought Khosrow enormous wealth, including thousands of elephants, camels, horses, and women. The 9th-century Arab historian aṭ-Ṭabarī describes his golden throne supported by legs of rubies, as well as such curios as a piece of malleable gold and an asbestos napkin. But, despite widespread trade connections and the amassing of individual fortunes, there is no evidence that the economy flourished. High taxation and the uncertainties of war did nothing for the merchant class. By creating a military aristocracy, Khosrow II had weakened the authority of the king, while his administrative reforms and bureaucratic centralization removed the power of regional dynasties and their feudal armies, which might have resisted the invasion of the Arabs 12 years after Khosrow’s death. Already in 611 the Arabs had inflicted a defeat on the Sāsānian army at Dhu-Qar. The destruction by Khosrow II of the Christian Arab states of the Lakhmids and Ghassānids in Syria and western Iraq was a further factor exposing Iran to Arab attack.
Khosrow is also remembered in Islamic tradition to be the Persian king to whom Muhammad had sent a messenger, Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi, along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam. The letter read:
"In the name of God, Most Gracious, Ever Merciful
"From Muhammad, Messenger of God, to Chosroes, Ruler of Persia. Peace be on him who follows the guidance, believes in God and His Messenger and bears witness that there is no one worthy of worship save God, the One, without associate, and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger. I invite you to the Call of God, as I am the Messenger of God to the whole of mankind, so that I may warn every living person and so that the truth may become clear and the judgment of God may overtake the disbelievers. I call upon you to accept Islam and thus make yourself secure. If you turn away, you will bear the sins of your Zoroastrian subjects."
The Persian historian Tabari reported that in outrage, Khosrow tore up Muhammad's letter and commanded Badhan, his vassal ruler of Yemen, to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man from Hijaz (Muhammad) to him. Meanwhile, back in Madinah, Abdullah told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces and Muhammad's only reply was, "May his kingdom tear apart", and predicted that Khosrow's own son would kill him. The narration carries on with accounts of their encounter and dialogue with Muhammad and conversion of Badhan (Bāzān) and the whole Yemenite Persians to Islam subsequent to receipt of shocking tidings of Khosrow’s murder by his own son, Kavadh II.
The love of Khosrow for his Christian wife Shīrīn was celebrated by the poets, especially by the 12th-century poet Neẓāmī in Khosrow-va-Shīrīn.
Khosrau II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khosrow II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Chosroes II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Xosrov II see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Parvez see Khusraw II Parwiz.
The Ever Victorious see Khusraw II Parwiz.
Khusraw Firuz
Khusraw Firuz (al-Malik al-Rahim) (Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz) (Abu Nasr al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw Firuz) (1009-1059). Last Buyid ruler of Fars and Khuzistan (Iraq). He ruled from October 1048 to 1055. The son of Abu Kalijar, upon his father's death, he took the throne in Baghdad with the title "al-Malik al-Rahim." The Buyid state came to an end when the Seljuk Toghrul took control of Iraq in 1055. Khusraw Firuz died a prisoner in Ray in 1059.
Firuz, Khusraw see Khusraw Firuz
Malik al-Rahim, al- see Khusraw Firuz
Rahim, al-Malik al- see Khusraw Firuz
Abu Nasr al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw Firuz see Khusraw Firuz
Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz see Khusraw Firuz
Khusraw Firuz (al-Malik al-Rahim) (Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz) (Abu Nasr al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw Firuz) (1009-1059). Last Buyid ruler of Fars and Khuzistan (Iraq). He ruled from October 1048 to 1055. The son of Abu Kalijar, upon his father's death, he took the throne in Baghdad with the title "al-Malik al-Rahim." The Buyid state came to an end when the Seljuk Toghrul took control of Iraq in 1055. Khusraw Firuz died a prisoner in Ray in 1059.
Firuz, Khusraw see Khusraw Firuz
Malik al-Rahim, al- see Khusraw Firuz
Rahim, al-Malik al- see Khusraw Firuz
Abu Nasr al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw Firuz see Khusraw Firuz
Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz see Khusraw Firuz
Khuza‘a
Khuza‘a (Banu Khuza'a). Ancient tribe of obscure origin, whose main area of abode was between Mecca and Medina and who had close relations with the Quraysh. A branch of this tribe, the Ka‘b ibn ‘Amr, played a decisive role in the struggle between Mecca and the Prophet. Their meritorious attitude is fairly reflected in Muslim hadith.
At an unknown date the Banu Khuza'a wrested control of the Mecca Valley and its well from the Banu Jarham. In the fifth century of the Christian calendar, the Banu Khuza'a lost their authority over the Ka'ba to the allied tribe of the Quraysh.led by Qusai ibn Kilab, who had married a woman from the Khuza'a. The Khuza'a became allies of the Quraysh and fought with them in the Year of the Elephant (570) against the forces of Abraha.
In 630, the Khuza'a were attacked by the Banu Bakr, allies of the Quraysh. Since the Khuza'a had by that time allied with Muhammad, this attack constituted a breach of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. The Treaty of Hudaybiyya had brought about a truce between the Muslims and the Quraysh. The breach of the truce led to renew hostilities and ultimately to the Muslim conquest of Mecca.
Banu Khuza'a see Khuza‘a
Khuza‘a (Banu Khuza'a). Ancient tribe of obscure origin, whose main area of abode was between Mecca and Medina and who had close relations with the Quraysh. A branch of this tribe, the Ka‘b ibn ‘Amr, played a decisive role in the struggle between Mecca and the Prophet. Their meritorious attitude is fairly reflected in Muslim hadith.
At an unknown date the Banu Khuza'a wrested control of the Mecca Valley and its well from the Banu Jarham. In the fifth century of the Christian calendar, the Banu Khuza'a lost their authority over the Ka'ba to the allied tribe of the Quraysh.led by Qusai ibn Kilab, who had married a woman from the Khuza'a. The Khuza'a became allies of the Quraysh and fought with them in the Year of the Elephant (570) against the forces of Abraha.
In 630, the Khuza'a were attacked by the Banu Bakr, allies of the Quraysh. Since the Khuza'a had by that time allied with Muhammad, this attack constituted a breach of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. The Treaty of Hudaybiyya had brought about a truce between the Muslims and the Quraysh. The breach of the truce led to renew hostilities and ultimately to the Muslim conquest of Mecca.
Banu Khuza'a see Khuza‘a
Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim
Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim (Muhammad Hashim Khwafi Khan) (Khwafi Muhammad Hashim Khan Nizam al-Mulk) (c.1664-1732). Persian historian. He is known for his history of the Indian branch of the Timurid dynasties, the most valuable parts being the accounts of the Mughal Emperors Shah Jahan I and Aurangzib.
Muhammad Hashim Khwafi Khan see Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim
Khwafi Muhammad Hashim Khan Nizam al-Mulk see Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim
Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim (Muhammad Hashim Khwafi Khan) (Khwafi Muhammad Hashim Khan Nizam al-Mulk) (c.1664-1732). Persian historian. He is known for his history of the Indian branch of the Timurid dynasties, the most valuable parts being the accounts of the Mughal Emperors Shah Jahan I and Aurangzib.
Muhammad Hashim Khwafi Khan see Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim
Khwafi Muhammad Hashim Khan Nizam al-Mulk see Khwafi Khan, Muhammad Hashim
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (Abu Isma'il 'Abdullah ibn Abi Mansour Mohammad) (Khajah Abdullah Ansari) (1006-1088/1089). Also called Pir-i Herat (“Sufi Master of Herat”). A brilliant youth, he studied in Nishapur under Shafi‘ite teachers but later adopted the more severe Hanbali school. He was born in Herat and spent most of his life in that city. A much celebrated Sufi poet and philosopher and “mystic of love,” he became a “mystic of tawhid” -- the “mystic of unity.” He wrote both in Arabic and Persian. His Arabic poetry is said to contain more than 6,000 couplets, and his Persian poetry is said to amount to about 14,000 verses. His most famous work, Munajat Namah (Dialogues with God), is considered a masterpiece of Persian literature. His tomb is in Gazargah, near Herat, amid ruins from the Timurid period.
Abu Ismaïl Abdullah ibn Abi-Mansour Mohammad or Khajah Abdullah Ansari of Herat was a famous Persian Sufi who lived in the 11th century in Herat (then Khorasan, now a city of Afghanistan). He is known as the Pious of Herat as he lived and died in Herat city. He is also known as "Shaikul Mashayekh" [Master of (Sufi) Masters] and his other title was "Shaikhul Islam".
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari was the disciple of Shaikh Abul Hassan Kharaqani, for whom he had deep respect. He wrote several books on Islamic mysticism and philosophy in Persian and Arabic. His most famous work is "Munajat Namah" (literally 'Litanies or dialogues with God'), which is considered a masterpiece of Persian literature. After his death, his students and disciples compiled his teachings about the Tafsir of Qu'ran, and named it "Kashful Asrar". This is the best and lengthiest Sufi Tafsir of Qu'ran, being published several times in 10 volumes.
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari excelled in the knowledge of Hadith, history, and Ilm ul-Ansaab. He used to avoid the company of the rich, powerful and the influential. His yearly majlis-e-wa'az was attended by people from far and wide. Whatever his disciples and followers used to present to him was handed over to the poor and the needy. He is said to have had a very impressive personality, and used to dress gracefully. One of his most significant and ardent followers was Imam Ibn Taymiyah.
He practiced the Hanbali fiqh, one of the four Sunni schools of law or jurisprudence. His shrine, built during the Timurid Dynasty, is a popular pilgrimage site for Persians/Tajiks.
The books (in Persian) of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari include:
* Munajat Namah
* Nasayeh
* Zad-ul Arefeen
* Kanz-ul Salikeen
* Haft Hesar
* Elahi Namah
* Muhabbat Namah
* Qalandar Namah
* Resala-é Del o Jan
* Resala-é Waredat
* Sad Maidan
* Resala Manaqib Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal
The books (in Arabic) of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari include:
* Anwar al-Tahqeeq
* Zem al-Kalam
* Manāzel al-Sā'erīn
* Kitaab al-Frooq
* Kitaab al-Arba'een
Ansari, Khwaja Abdullah see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Pir-i Herat see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Sufi Master of Herat see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Abu Isma'il 'Abdullah ibn Abi Mansour Mohammad see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Shaikhul Mashayekh see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Mystic of Love see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (Abu Isma'il 'Abdullah ibn Abi Mansour Mohammad) (Khajah Abdullah Ansari) (1006-1088/1089). Also called Pir-i Herat (“Sufi Master of Herat”). A brilliant youth, he studied in Nishapur under Shafi‘ite teachers but later adopted the more severe Hanbali school. He was born in Herat and spent most of his life in that city. A much celebrated Sufi poet and philosopher and “mystic of love,” he became a “mystic of tawhid” -- the “mystic of unity.” He wrote both in Arabic and Persian. His Arabic poetry is said to contain more than 6,000 couplets, and his Persian poetry is said to amount to about 14,000 verses. His most famous work, Munajat Namah (Dialogues with God), is considered a masterpiece of Persian literature. His tomb is in Gazargah, near Herat, amid ruins from the Timurid period.
Abu Ismaïl Abdullah ibn Abi-Mansour Mohammad or Khajah Abdullah Ansari of Herat was a famous Persian Sufi who lived in the 11th century in Herat (then Khorasan, now a city of Afghanistan). He is known as the Pious of Herat as he lived and died in Herat city. He is also known as "Shaikul Mashayekh" [Master of (Sufi) Masters] and his other title was "Shaikhul Islam".
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari was the disciple of Shaikh Abul Hassan Kharaqani, for whom he had deep respect. He wrote several books on Islamic mysticism and philosophy in Persian and Arabic. His most famous work is "Munajat Namah" (literally 'Litanies or dialogues with God'), which is considered a masterpiece of Persian literature. After his death, his students and disciples compiled his teachings about the Tafsir of Qu'ran, and named it "Kashful Asrar". This is the best and lengthiest Sufi Tafsir of Qu'ran, being published several times in 10 volumes.
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari excelled in the knowledge of Hadith, history, and Ilm ul-Ansaab. He used to avoid the company of the rich, powerful and the influential. His yearly majlis-e-wa'az was attended by people from far and wide. Whatever his disciples and followers used to present to him was handed over to the poor and the needy. He is said to have had a very impressive personality, and used to dress gracefully. One of his most significant and ardent followers was Imam Ibn Taymiyah.
He practiced the Hanbali fiqh, one of the four Sunni schools of law or jurisprudence. His shrine, built during the Timurid Dynasty, is a popular pilgrimage site for Persians/Tajiks.
The books (in Persian) of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari include:
* Munajat Namah
* Nasayeh
* Zad-ul Arefeen
* Kanz-ul Salikeen
* Haft Hesar
* Elahi Namah
* Muhabbat Namah
* Qalandar Namah
* Resala-é Del o Jan
* Resala-é Waredat
* Sad Maidan
* Resala Manaqib Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal
The books (in Arabic) of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari include:
* Anwar al-Tahqeeq
* Zem al-Kalam
* Manāzel al-Sā'erīn
* Kitaab al-Frooq
* Kitaab al-Arba'een
Ansari, Khwaja Abdullah see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Pir-i Herat see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Sufi Master of Herat see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Abu Isma'il 'Abdullah ibn Abi Mansour Mohammad see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Shaikhul Mashayekh see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Mystic of Love see Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
Khwaja ‘Ubayd Allah Ahrar
Khwaja ‘Ubayd Allah Ahrar (1404-1490). Shaykh of the Naqshbandiyya order. Under his guidance, the order became firmly rooted in Central Asia.
Ahrar, Khwaja 'Ubayd Allah see Khwaja ‘Ubayd Allah Ahrar
Khwaja ‘Ubayd Allah Ahrar (1404-1490). Shaykh of the Naqshbandiyya order. Under his guidance, the order became firmly rooted in Central Asia.
Ahrar, Khwaja 'Ubayd Allah see Khwaja ‘Ubayd Allah Ahrar
Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Khwaju, Kamal al-Din (Kamal al-Din Khwaju) (Khwaju Kermani) (1280-1352). Persian poet from Kirman. He attained celebrity as an ingenious and skillful ghazal writer. He is buried in Shiraz, Iran, and his tomb is a popular tourist attraction today.
Kamal al-Din Khwaju see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Khwaju Kermani see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Kermani, Khwaju see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Khwaju, Kamal al-Din (Kamal al-Din Khwaju) (Khwaju Kermani) (1280-1352). Persian poet from Kirman. He attained celebrity as an ingenious and skillful ghazal writer. He is buried in Shiraz, Iran, and his tomb is a popular tourist attraction today.
Kamal al-Din Khwaju see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Khwaju Kermani see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Kermani, Khwaju see Khwaju, Kamal al-Din
Khwandamir
Khwandamir (Khvandamir) (Muhammad Khwandamir) (Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khwandamir) (Ghiyāś ad-Dīn Moḥammad Khwāndamīr) (c.1475-c.1535). Surname of the Persian historian Ghiyath al-Din. His most valuable work is a general history from the earliest times down to the end of the reign of Shah Isma‘il. He was born in Herat and was buried in Delhi.
Khvandamir see Khwandamir
Muhammad Khwandamir see Khwandamir
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khwandamir see Khwandamir
Ghiyāś ad-Dīn Moḥammad Khwāndamīr see Khwandamir
Khwandamir (Khvandamir) (Muhammad Khwandamir) (Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khwandamir) (Ghiyāś ad-Dīn Moḥammad Khwāndamīr) (c.1475-c.1535). Surname of the Persian historian Ghiyath al-Din. His most valuable work is a general history from the earliest times down to the end of the reign of Shah Isma‘il. He was born in Herat and was buried in Delhi.
Khvandamir see Khwandamir
Muhammad Khwandamir see Khwandamir
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khwandamir see Khwandamir
Ghiyāś ad-Dīn Moḥammad Khwāndamīr see Khwandamir
Khwansari, Sayyid Mirza
Khwansari, Sayyid Mirza (Sayyid Mirza Khwansari) (1811-1895). Persian religious scholar and writer. He is best known for a biographical dictionary, which has enjoyed a great reputation.
Sayyid Mirza Khwansari see Khwansari, Sayyid Mirza
Khwansari, Sayyid Mirza (Sayyid Mirza Khwansari) (1811-1895). Persian religious scholar and writer. He is best known for a biographical dictionary, which has enjoyed a great reputation.
Sayyid Mirza Khwansari see Khwansari, Sayyid Mirza
Khwansari, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi
Khwansari, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi (Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi Khwansari). Twentieth century Shi‘a mujtahid of distinguished piety. He was recognized as marja’-i taqlid and, among other things, sanctioned Mosaddeq’s measures towards the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi Khwansari see Khwansari, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi
Khwansari, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi (Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi Khwansari). Twentieth century Shi‘a mujtahid of distinguished piety. He was recognized as marja’-i taqlid and, among other things, sanctioned Mosaddeq’s measures towards the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi Khwansari see Khwansari, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Musawi
Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Khwarazmi). See Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-.
Abu 'Abd Allah al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Khwarazmi). See Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-.
Abu 'Abd Allah al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa see Khwarazmi, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Bakr al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Bakr al- (Abu Bakr al-Khwarazmi) (934-993). Arabic poet and writer. He was the author of an excellent diwan and fine epistles. He was famed for his prodigious memory.
Abu Bakr al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Bakr al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Bakr al- (Abu Bakr al-Khwarazmi) (934-993). Arabic poet and writer. He was the author of an excellent diwan and fine epistles. He was famed for his prodigious memory.
Abu Bakr al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Bakr al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al- (Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi) (Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Algorizm) (c,770-c.840). Mathematician, astronomer and geographer. His name still lies in the term algorithm. His Algebra (in Arabic, al-jabr) was translated partially by Robert of Chester as Liber algebras et almucabola, and shortly afterwards by Gerard of Cremona as De jebra et almucabola. In this way, there was introduced into Europe a science completely unknown until then. Almost at the same time an adaptation of his Arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, which today are “Arabic numerals,” was made known in Spain in a Latin version by John of Seville.
Al-Khwarazmi was born in Khwarizm (Kheva), a town south of the Oxus River in present day Uzbekistan. His parents migrated to a place south of Baghdad when he was a child. The exact date of his birth is not known. It has been established from his contributions that he flourished under Khalifah (Caliph) al-Mamun who reigned from 813 to 833 at Baghdad. Al-Khwarizmi is best known for introducing the mathematical concept algorithm, which is named after him.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians that ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name algebra is derived from al-Khwarizmi’s famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. Al-Khwarizmi developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections.
The influence of al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as Algorithm, or Algorizm. In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
In addition to an important treatise on astronomy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early twelfth century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatise on arithmetic (Kitab al-Jam‘a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on algebra (al-Maqala fi Hisab al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah), are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new mathematics to Europe -- to the West. Until this translation was made, the new math was unknown to Europeans. Al-Khwarizmi’s Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book of European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.
The contribution of al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy’s views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizimi’s leadership and they produced the first map of the then known world in 830. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by khalifah (Caliph) Mamun al-Rashid that were aimed at measuring the volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled Kitab Surat-al-Ard, including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and Kitab al-Rukhmat (on sundials). Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died around 840.
Very little is known of the life of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. The name al-Khwarismi means literally “the man from Khwarizm;” the epithet may also, however, be interpreted to indicate the origin of one’s “stock.” The historian al-Tabari asserts that al-Khwarizmi actually came from Qutrubull, a district not far from Baghdad, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Some sources even give his place of birth as Baghdad. Historians do agree that he lived in Baghdad in the early ninth century under the caliphates of al-Ma’mun and al-Mu‘tasim, whose reigns spanned the years from 813 to 842.
In Kitab al-Fihrist (Book of Chronicles -- c. 987), Ibn Abi Yaqub al-Nadim’s entry on al-Khwarizmi reads: al-Khwarizmi. His name was Muhammad ibn Musa and his family origin was from Khwarazm. He was temporarily associated with the Treasury of the “House of Wisdom” of al-Ma’mun. He was one of the leading scholars in astronomy. People both before and after the observations [conducted under al-Ma’mun] used to rely on his first and second zijes [astronomical tables] which were both known by the name Sindhind. His books are (as follows): (1) the Zij, in two [editions], the first and second; (2) the book on sundials; (3) the book on the use of the astrolabe; (4) the book on the construction of the astrolabe; and (5) the [chronicle].
Al-Nadim’s list is, however, incomplete. He mentions only the astronomical studies and omits an algebra, an arithmetic, a study of the quadrivium, and an adaptation of Ptolemy’s geography. Al-Khwarizmi was apparently well-known in Baghdad for his scholarly works on astronomy and mathematics. His inheritance tables on the distribution of money were widely used.
Al-Khwarizmi is credited by early Arab scholars Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) and Katib Celebi (1609-1657) with being the first mathematician to write about algebra. The word “algebra” comes from the second word of the title, Kitab al-jabr wa al-muquabalah. It is his best known work. Literally, the title means “the book of integration and equation.” It contained rules for arithmetical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, for elementary geometry, and for inheritance problems concerning the distribution of wealth according to proportions. The algebra was based on a long tradition originating in Babylonian mathematics of the early second millennium B.C.T. When it was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the rules for the distribution of wealth, which had been so popular in the Near East, were omitted. Translated into English from a Latin version in 1915 by Louis Charles Karpinski, the book opens with a pious exhortation which reveals al-Khwarizmi’s belief in an ordered universe. In the same introduction, al-Khwarizmi describes three kinds of numbers, “roots, squares, and numbers.”
The first six chapters of al-Khwarizmi’s algebra deal with the following mathematical relationships: “Concerning roots equal to roots,” “Concerning squares equal to numbers,” “Concerning roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and numbers equal to roots,” and “Concerning roots and numbers equal to a square.” These chapters are followed by illustrative geometrical demonstrations and then many problems with their solutions.Some of his problems are purely formal, whereas others appear in practical contexts. An interesting chapter on mercantile transactions asserts that “mercantile transactions and all things pertaining thereto involve two ideas and four numbers.”
For Muslims, al-Khwarizmis astronomical works are perhaps even more important than his algebra. His astronomical tables were used for accurate timekeeping. In Islam, the times of the five daily prayers are determined by the apparent position of the sun in the sky and vary naturally throughout the year. In al-Khwarizmi’s work on the construction and use of the astrolabe, the times of midday and afternoon prayers are determined by measuring shadow lengths. These timekeeping techniques were widely used for centuries.
Al-Khwarizmi also created tables to compute the local direction of Mecca. This is fundamental to Muslims because it is the direction in which they face when they pray, bury their dead, and perform various ritual acts. It is no wonder that in Islamic texts, al-Khwarizmi is referred to as “the astronomer.”
Al-Khwarizmi’s book on arithmetic has been preserved in only one version. Translated into Latin and published in Rome in 1857 by Prince Baldassare Boncompagni, al-Khwarizmi’s Algoritmi de numero indorum appears as part 1 of a volume entitled Tratti d’aritmetica. The title means “al-Khwarizmi concerning the Hindu art of numbering.” This is the derivation of the word “algorithm.” The arithmetic introduced Arabic numerals and the art of calculating by decimal notation. The only copy of this work is in the Cambridge University library.
Al-Khwarizmi’s study of the quadrivium -- the medieval curriculum of arithmetic, music, astronomy, and geometry -- is entitled Liber y sagogarum Alchorismi in artem astronomican a magistro A. compositus (1126). It was the first of al-Khwarizmi’s writings to appear in Europe. The identity of the writer “A” is not certain, but he is assumed to be the scholar Adelard of Bath, who is known as the translator of al-Khwarizmi’s tables. These trigonometric tables were among the first of the Arabic studies in mathematics to appear in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi enjoyed an excellent reputation among his fellow Arab scholars. Some of his numerical examples were repeated for centuries, becoming so standardized that many subsequent mathematicians did not consider it necessary to acknowledge al-Khwarizmi as the source.
The geography Kitab surat al-ard (Book of the Form of the Earth) differs in several respects from Ptolemy’s geography. Like Ptolemy’s, it is a description of a world map and contains a list of the coordinates of the principal places on it, but al-Khwarizmi’s arrangement is radically different, and it is clear that the map to which it refers is not the same as the map which Ptolemy described. It is supposed that al-Khwarizmi’s world map was the one constructed for al-Ma’mun. This map was an improvement over Ptolemy’s, correcting distortions in the supposed length of the Mediterranean. It was far more accurate, too, in its description of the areas under Islamic rule. Because it contained errors of its own, however, the geography written by al-Khwarizmi failed to replace the Ptolemaic geography used in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi’s importance in the history of mathematics is not debatable. Two notable arithmetic books, Alexander de Villa Dei’s Carmen de Algorismo (twelfth century) and Johannes de Sacrobosco’s Algorismus vulgaris (thirteenth century), owe much to al-Khwarizmi’s arithmetic and were widely used for several hundred years. In the ninth century, Abu Kamil drew on al-Khwarizmi’s works for his own writings on algebra. In turn, Leonardo of Pisa, a thirteenth century scholar, was influenced by Abu Kamil. Numerous commentaries on Abu Kamil’s work kept al-Khwarizmi’s influence alive in the Middle Ages and throughout the Renaissance.
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kharizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Kharizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al- see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Algorizm see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al- (Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi) (Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi) (Algorizm) (c,770-c.840). Mathematician, astronomer and geographer. His name still lies in the term algorithm. His Algebra (in Arabic, al-jabr) was translated partially by Robert of Chester as Liber algebras et almucabola, and shortly afterwards by Gerard of Cremona as De jebra et almucabola. In this way, there was introduced into Europe a science completely unknown until then. Almost at the same time an adaptation of his Arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, which today are “Arabic numerals,” was made known in Spain in a Latin version by John of Seville.
Al-Khwarazmi was born in Khwarizm (Kheva), a town south of the Oxus River in present day Uzbekistan. His parents migrated to a place south of Baghdad when he was a child. The exact date of his birth is not known. It has been established from his contributions that he flourished under Khalifah (Caliph) al-Mamun who reigned from 813 to 833 at Baghdad. Al-Khwarizmi is best known for introducing the mathematical concept algorithm, which is named after him.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians that ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name algebra is derived from al-Khwarizmi’s famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. Al-Khwarizmi developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections.
The influence of al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as Algorithm, or Algorizm. In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
In addition to an important treatise on astronomy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early twelfth century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatise on arithmetic (Kitab al-Jam‘a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on algebra (al-Maqala fi Hisab al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah), are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new mathematics to Europe -- to the West. Until this translation was made, the new math was unknown to Europeans. Al-Khwarizmi’s Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book of European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.
The contribution of al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy’s views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizimi’s leadership and they produced the first map of the then known world in 830. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by khalifah (Caliph) Mamun al-Rashid that were aimed at measuring the volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled Kitab Surat-al-Ard, including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and Kitab al-Rukhmat (on sundials). Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died around 840.
Very little is known of the life of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. The name al-Khwarismi means literally “the man from Khwarizm;” the epithet may also, however, be interpreted to indicate the origin of one’s “stock.” The historian al-Tabari asserts that al-Khwarizmi actually came from Qutrubull, a district not far from Baghdad, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Some sources even give his place of birth as Baghdad. Historians do agree that he lived in Baghdad in the early ninth century under the caliphates of al-Ma’mun and al-Mu‘tasim, whose reigns spanned the years from 813 to 842.
In Kitab al-Fihrist (Book of Chronicles -- c. 987), Ibn Abi Yaqub al-Nadim’s entry on al-Khwarizmi reads: al-Khwarizmi. His name was Muhammad ibn Musa and his family origin was from Khwarazm. He was temporarily associated with the Treasury of the “House of Wisdom” of al-Ma’mun. He was one of the leading scholars in astronomy. People both before and after the observations [conducted under al-Ma’mun] used to rely on his first and second zijes [astronomical tables] which were both known by the name Sindhind. His books are (as follows): (1) the Zij, in two [editions], the first and second; (2) the book on sundials; (3) the book on the use of the astrolabe; (4) the book on the construction of the astrolabe; and (5) the [chronicle].
Al-Nadim’s list is, however, incomplete. He mentions only the astronomical studies and omits an algebra, an arithmetic, a study of the quadrivium, and an adaptation of Ptolemy’s geography. Al-Khwarizmi was apparently well-known in Baghdad for his scholarly works on astronomy and mathematics. His inheritance tables on the distribution of money were widely used.
Al-Khwarizmi is credited by early Arab scholars Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) and Katib Celebi (1609-1657) with being the first mathematician to write about algebra. The word “algebra” comes from the second word of the title, Kitab al-jabr wa al-muquabalah. It is his best known work. Literally, the title means “the book of integration and equation.” It contained rules for arithmetical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, for elementary geometry, and for inheritance problems concerning the distribution of wealth according to proportions. The algebra was based on a long tradition originating in Babylonian mathematics of the early second millennium B.C.T. When it was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the rules for the distribution of wealth, which had been so popular in the Near East, were omitted. Translated into English from a Latin version in 1915 by Louis Charles Karpinski, the book opens with a pious exhortation which reveals al-Khwarizmi’s belief in an ordered universe. In the same introduction, al-Khwarizmi describes three kinds of numbers, “roots, squares, and numbers.”
The first six chapters of al-Khwarizmi’s algebra deal with the following mathematical relationships: “Concerning roots equal to roots,” “Concerning squares equal to numbers,” “Concerning roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and roots equal to numbers,” “Concerning squares and numbers equal to roots,” and “Concerning roots and numbers equal to a square.” These chapters are followed by illustrative geometrical demonstrations and then many problems with their solutions.Some of his problems are purely formal, whereas others appear in practical contexts. An interesting chapter on mercantile transactions asserts that “mercantile transactions and all things pertaining thereto involve two ideas and four numbers.”
For Muslims, al-Khwarizmis astronomical works are perhaps even more important than his algebra. His astronomical tables were used for accurate timekeeping. In Islam, the times of the five daily prayers are determined by the apparent position of the sun in the sky and vary naturally throughout the year. In al-Khwarizmi’s work on the construction and use of the astrolabe, the times of midday and afternoon prayers are determined by measuring shadow lengths. These timekeeping techniques were widely used for centuries.
Al-Khwarizmi also created tables to compute the local direction of Mecca. This is fundamental to Muslims because it is the direction in which they face when they pray, bury their dead, and perform various ritual acts. It is no wonder that in Islamic texts, al-Khwarizmi is referred to as “the astronomer.”
Al-Khwarizmi’s book on arithmetic has been preserved in only one version. Translated into Latin and published in Rome in 1857 by Prince Baldassare Boncompagni, al-Khwarizmi’s Algoritmi de numero indorum appears as part 1 of a volume entitled Tratti d’aritmetica. The title means “al-Khwarizmi concerning the Hindu art of numbering.” This is the derivation of the word “algorithm.” The arithmetic introduced Arabic numerals and the art of calculating by decimal notation. The only copy of this work is in the Cambridge University library.
Al-Khwarizmi’s study of the quadrivium -- the medieval curriculum of arithmetic, music, astronomy, and geometry -- is entitled Liber y sagogarum Alchorismi in artem astronomican a magistro A. compositus (1126). It was the first of al-Khwarizmi’s writings to appear in Europe. The identity of the writer “A” is not certain, but he is assumed to be the scholar Adelard of Bath, who is known as the translator of al-Khwarizmi’s tables. These trigonometric tables were among the first of the Arabic studies in mathematics to appear in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi enjoyed an excellent reputation among his fellow Arab scholars. Some of his numerical examples were repeated for centuries, becoming so standardized that many subsequent mathematicians did not consider it necessary to acknowledge al-Khwarizmi as the source.
The geography Kitab surat al-ard (Book of the Form of the Earth) differs in several respects from Ptolemy’s geography. Like Ptolemy’s, it is a description of a world map and contains a list of the coordinates of the principal places on it, but al-Khwarizmi’s arrangement is radically different, and it is clear that the map to which it refers is not the same as the map which Ptolemy described. It is supposed that al-Khwarizmi’s world map was the one constructed for al-Ma’mun. This map was an improvement over Ptolemy’s, correcting distortions in the supposed length of the Mediterranean. It was far more accurate, too, in its description of the areas under Islamic rule. Because it contained errors of its own, however, the geography written by al-Khwarizmi failed to replace the Ptolemaic geography used in Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi’s importance in the history of mathematics is not debatable. Two notable arithmetic books, Alexander de Villa Dei’s Carmen de Algorismo (twelfth century) and Johannes de Sacrobosco’s Algorismus vulgaris (thirteenth century), owe much to al-Khwarizmi’s arithmetic and were widely used for several hundred years. In the ninth century, Abu Kamil drew on al-Khwarizmi’s works for his own writings on algebra. In turn, Leonardo of Pisa, a thirteenth century scholar, was influenced by Abu Kamil. Numerous commentaries on Abu Kamil’s work kept al-Khwarizmi’s influence alive in the Middle Ages and throughout the Renaissance.
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kharizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Kharizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al- see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Musa see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Algorizm see Khwarazmi, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Musa al-
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