Musa. See Mansa Musa.
Musa al-Kazim (Mūsá ibn Ja‘far al-Kāżim) (al-Kādhim) (November 6, 745 - September 1, 799). Seventh Imam of the Twelver Shi‘a. He adhered to a quietist policy, devoting himself to prayer and contemplation. Yet he was harassed by the ‘Abbasid Caliphs al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid. His descendants are known as Musawis.
Musa’s imamate coincided with one of the greatest periods of the persecution of the Shi‘a community. Son of Jafar as-Sadiq by a Berber slave named Hamida, he was twenty years of age at his father’s death. Initially his imamate was very controversial with many Shi‘a. Many recognized his brother Abdullah al-Aftali, or insisting that the imamate had stayed with Ismail, Sadiq’s oldest son, who had died while Sadiq was still living.
After this rocky start, Musa managed to gain the allegiance of most of the Shi‘a community but as time went on persecution increased until it climaxed under the bloody reign of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Hundreds of Alids were killed and Musa was arrested and brought to Baghdad to be executed. Surprisingly, Harun released Musa at the last minute, reportedly because of a dream. This respite was short lived and rearrested, Musa spent six years in prison before being poisoned.
His body was publicly displayed by Harun to dispel any rumors that he had escaped and was living in secret. He was buried with his grandson, Muhammad at Taqi, in Kazimayn near Baghdad, Iraq. Their burial place was covered by a magnificent gold domed shrine. Musa al-Kazim was succeeded by his son Ali ar-Rida.
Mūsá ibn Ja‘far al-Kāżim was the son of the sixth Imam, Ja‘far aṣ-Ṣādiq and his mother was Hamidah Khātūn, a student and former slave of African descent. His wife Najmah was also a former slave purchased and freed by Hamidah, his mother.
Mūsá al-Kāżim was born during the power struggles between the Umayyad and the Abbasid. Like his father, he was assassinated by the Abbasids. He bore three notable children: the eighth Imām, ‘Alī ar-Riżá, and two daughters, Fāṭimah al-Ma‘sūmah and Hājar Khātūn.
The Festival of Imam Musa al-Kadhim celebrates his life and death.
Musa ibn Ja'far al-Kazim see Musa al-Kazim
Kazim, Musa al- see Musa al-Kazim
Kazim, Musa ibn Ja'far al- see Musa al-Kazim
Kadhim, al- see Musa al-Kazim
Musa, Banu (Banu Musa). Name of three brothers: Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan, who were among the most important figures of Baghdad in the ninth century. They were skilled in geometry, mechanics, music, mathematics and astronomy. Muhammad (d. 873) played a part in the nomination of the Caliph al-Musta‘in (I) bi-‘llah. The best known of their books, which largely the work of Ahmad, comprises descriptions of some 100 small machines.
The Banū Mūsā brothers ("Sons of Mūsā") were three 9th century Persian scholars, of Baghdad, active in the House of Wisdom:
* Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (before 803 – 873), who specialized in astronomy, engineering, geometry and physics.
* Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (803 – 873), who specialized in engineering and mechanics.
* Al-Hasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (810 – 873), who specialized in engineering and geometry.
The Banu Musa were the sons of Mūsā ibn Shākir, who had been a highwayman and later an astrologer to the Caliph al-Ma'mūn. At his death, he left his young sons in the custody of the Caliph, who entrusted them to Ishaq bin Ibrahim al-Mus'abi, a former governor of Baghdad. The education of the three brothers was carried out by Yahya bin Abu Mansur who worked at the famous House of Wisdom library and translation center in Baghdad.
The Banu Musa brothers built a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Some of these inventions include:
* Feedback controller
* Automatic flute player
* Self-trimming lamp (Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir)
* Self-feeding lamp
* Gas mask
* Grab
* Clamshell grab
* Fail-safe system
* Differential pressure
The Banu Musa also invented "the earliest known mechanical musical instrument", in this case a hydro-powered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. This cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century.
In physics and astronomy, Muhammad ibn Musa was a pioneer of astrophysics and celestial mechanics. In the Book on the motion of the orbs, he was the first to discover that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth.
Ahmad (c. 805) specialized in mechanics and wrote a work on pneumatic devices called On mechanics.
The eldest brother, Ja'far Muḥammad, wrote a critical revision on Apollonius' Conics, called the Premises of the book of conics.
The Banu Musa's most famous mathematical treatise is The Book of the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures, which considered similar problems as Archimedes did in his On the Measurement of the Circle and On the Sphere and the Cylinder.
The youngest brother, al-Hasan (c. 810), specialised in geometry and wrote a work on the ellipse called The elongated circular figure.
Banu Musa see Musa, Banu
Musabbihi, al- (977-1030). Fatimid historian. He is known as a prolific and versatile writer. The only one of his writings which has survived is a chapter of his history of Egypt, recording events of 1023-1024.
Mus‘ab ibn ‘Abd Allah (773-851). Genealogist from Medina. His fame rests upon a work on the history of the Quraysh, which is of outstanding importance for the history of the beginnings of Islam, and in particular for that of the first four caliphs.
Mus‘ab ibn al-Zubayr (d. 691). Son of the famous Companion of the Prophet al-Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam and brother of the anti-caliph ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. He defeated al-Mukhtar at Kufa in 687 but was killed near Basra.
Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umayr ( Mus'ab ibn 'Umair) (d. 625). Companion of the Prophet of the Quraysh clan of ‘Abd al-Dar. He died in the Battle of Uhud.
Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umair was a sahabi (companion) of Muhammad. He was from the Banū ‘Abd al-Dār branch of the tribe of Quraish. He died in the Battle of Uhud. He is said to have been the first envoy of Islam.
Mus‘ab bin ‘Umair was a very handsome young man. He was the son of ‘Umair who was a wealthy person. He brought up his son in quite a luxurious fashion. Mus‘ab enjoyed the best of food, finest dresses and the best perfumes. Whenever Mus‘ab passed through the streets, dressed in precious clothes and profusely perfumed, the sweet smell scented the atmosphere all around and the people gazed at him with amazement and appreciation. His beauty and charm was the talk of the town. Every person knew that Mus‘ab's parents were bringing up their son with great affection and care.
Whenever the Prophet Muhammad talked of him, he said "There is nobody more handsome in Makkah than Mus‘ab. There is no person in the city better clothed and fed than Mus‘ab. There is no child brought up with more affection and love than him." Due to his charming personality and being a lovely son of wealthy parents, everyone young or old had great regard for him.
When he embraced Islam he was given a respectable place in the Muslim society. But it was not due to his beauty, charm, good dress, good manners or wealth, but due to his piety and fear of God. When he embraced Islam, he faced severe hardships and torture. The beauty and charm of his person faded. He was also deprived of the affection and care of his parents. But his virtues and piety won the appreciation of Allah and the prophet Muhammed. In his pursuit for winning the favor of Allah and the prophet Muhammed, Mus‘ab cared neither for good food, nor good dress. He was no longer inclined towards expensive perfumes, instead he devoted himself whole heartedly to serve the cause of Islam.
Mus‘ab accepted Islam at a time when life had been made unbearable for Muslims. He was turned out of his home and was socially boycotted. He had to suffer countless miseries. This pampered young man embraced Islam at a time when those who believed in Islam were refused food and water and were thrown in dark prison cells. Many tyrants, not satisfied with the infliction of pain and injury, often murdered their Muslim victims. There were other hard-hearted fellows who had invented various forms of torments, to inflict on the Muslims.
Mus‘ab accepted Islam during that difficult period. One day a non-believer saw him offering prayers. He at once informed Mus‘ab's parents who turned hostile to their son. His mother's affection vanished. All the love and care of his father changed into anger and grief. They admonished him, but when they knew that he was firm, they tied him with ropes and threw him in a dark cell. He was kept in prison for a long time, but his belief in Islam was so deep that the torment of prison did not change his mind. He sacrificed everything and remained patient.
When the Muslims were ordered to migrate to Abyssinia, this young-man, brought up like a prince, also migrated along with the other devotees. When he returned from Abyssinia, people saw in him a different person- all the luster and gaity was gone. He who would have scoffed at the most precious raiment, was wearing a dress made of coarse, worn-out blanket. The spectacle inspired amazement, and awe among the onlookers. His mother, too, pitied her son’s condition and repented of the harsh treatment, she had shown to him.
During this period many people of Medina had accepted Islam. They requested that prophet Muhammed send them a preacher for teaching them the fundamentals of Islam. Prophet Muhammed selected Mus'ab. He went from door to door to convince the people of the message of Islam. Initially, he talked to each person in terms which that person could understand, and then presented to him the message of Islam at the right moment. He recited before the people selected verses of the Qur’an, which had a profound effect on their minds. He treated his visitors very politely. He had a natural gift for soft speech and people who approached him instantly became his friends.
It was in Medina that Mus‘ab bin ‘Umair did a remarkable work which shows his intelligence and tact in propagating the call of Islam. When the number of Muslims increased in Medina, he organized them in a body and requested permission of the prophet Muhammad to lay the foundation of Friday prayers. When the permission of Friday prayers was granted Mus'ab's first talks were to deliver a very impressive address. Then he led the congregational Friday prayers with great reverence. In this way Mus‘ab bin ‘Umair had the honor of founding the Friday prayers. Mus‘ab's achievements at Medina were constantly reported to the prophet Muhammed.
When Mus‘ab’s mission had been fully accomplished, he led a group of Muslims to Mecca to bring the prophet Muhammed to Medina. On arrival at Mecca the first thing Mus‘ab did was to approach the prophet Muhammad to give him a full report of the success of his mission. Muhammad was very pleased with Mus‘ab’s account. A true Muslim (Momin) does not require anything else but the pleasure of Allah through following the commands of their prophet Muhammad.
Mus‘ab’s mother learned that her son had returned home at last; and that he was staying with someone else. She felt annoyed and sent him word : “My son! You have returned to a town, in which I reside. But woe to me! You have not come to see me!” The reply which Mus‘ab sent to his mother shows his sincere devotion to prophet Muhammad. He said, “I will not see anybody before I have paid homage to the Holy Prophet".
The account of Mus‘ab bin ‘Umair given above demonstrates an exemplary proof of the great love he had for Islam and the pains he took in presenting Islam to the non-believers. He sacrificed everything he possessed for the sake of Islam including his charm and beauty, his wealth and worldly belongings, his luxurious style of living and shed his attachment to his parents, his homeland, his people and his own country. In short, everything which was dear to him, was sacrificed by him for Islam.
Mus‘ab bin ‘Umair was not only very handsome, he also possessed the qualities of submission and sacrifice; he was a master of high intelligence and good eloquence, and he was also a gallant soldier, a fearless warrior and an able General. It was because of his gallantry that the prophet Muhammed entrusted him with the charge of the highest banner of war, in the battle of Badr. He was also given the rare honor of holding the Muslim banner during the battle of Uhud. The way in which the high office of holding the war banner was discharged in the two battles by this great devotee of Islam may be judged from the events of the Battle of Uhud.
In the battle of Uhud, the battle was lost for a while by a casual mistake of the Muslims. The people of Mecca attacked the Muslims from the rear via cavalry and thus disorganized the Muslim army. At that critical time, Mus‘ab kept the Islamic banner flying high. When the Muslims were scattered, he stood fast until he met Ibn Quma'ah who was a knight. He struck him on his right hand and cut it off, but Mus'ab said, "And Muhammad is but a Messenger. Messengers have died before him" He carried the standard with his left hand and leaned on it. He struck his left hand and cut it off, and so he leaned on the standard and held it with his upper arms to his chest, all the while saying, "And Muhammad is but a Messenger. Messengers have died before him". Then a third one struck him with his spear, and the spear went through him. Mus'ab fell and the standard followed.
In another account: Mus'ab withstood the attack of his enemies with great valour. He bore the cuts of the enemy on his breast, but held the Islamic banner in his hands firmly. During this attack one of the enemies stepped forward and cut off his right hand with one stroke of the sword. The hand fell on the ground. The banner was about to fall when he transferred it to his left hand. The enemy now took another chance and struck a second blow of sword on his left hand. Still Mus‘ab did not lose courage; he did not allow the banner to fall down; he held it by his breast, within the circle of his arms. The enemy was irritated to see such intrepid devotion. In savage fury, he threw the sword on the ground and flung a spear at the breast of Mus‘ab. The pointed end of the blade pierced the chest, broke and remained embedded there.
The great hero, thus fell to the ground reciting the following Qur’anic verse: “Wa ma Muhammad-dun illa rasulun qad khalat min qablehil rusul). Meaning: “And Muhammad is only a prophet of Allah. Many other Prophets have died before him."
When the keeper of Islamic banner fell, the banner fluttered in the air. Seeing this Abul bin ‘Umair, brother of the martyr, moved forward and took over the banner. He protected its honor until the last.
When the battle came to an end the Prophet stood by the dead body of Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umair and recited the verse: (Minal momeneena rejalun sadqu ma ‘ahadullaha ‘ alaihe) Meaning: “There are some persons among the devoted Muslims (momeneen) who kept the promise made to Allah.”
Musa Celebi (d. 1413). Ottoman prince and ruler of Rumelia. He laid an unsuccessful siege on Constantinople.
Celebi, Musa see Musa Celebi
Musafirids
Musafirids (Kangarids) (Sallarids) (Langarids). Dynasty of Daylami origin, which came from Tarum and reigned in the tenth through eleventh centuries in Azerbaijan, Arran and Armenia.
The Sallarid dynasty was an Islamic Iranian dynasty principally known for its rule of Iranian Azerbaijan and part of Armenia from 942 until 979. They constitute the period in history that has been named the Iranian Intermezzo, a period that saw the rise of native Iranian dynasties during the 9th to the 11th centuries of the Christian calendar.
The Sallarids were Dailamites who, probably in the later 9th century, gained control of Shamiran, a mountain stronghold about twenty five miles north of Zanjan. From Shamiran they established their rule over the surrounding region of Tarum. The Sallarids also established marriage ties with the neighboring Justanid dynasty of Rudbar.
In the early 10th century the Sallarid in control of Shamiran was Muhammad bin Musafir. He married a Justanid and subsequently involved himself in their internal affairs. His harsh rule, however, eventually turned even his family against him, and in 941 he was imprisoned by his sons Wahsudan and Marzuban.
Wahsudan remained in Shamiran while Marzuban invaded Azerbaijan and took it from its ruler, Daisam. Marzuban took Dvin and successfully held off attacks from the Rus and Hamdanids of Mosul. However, he was captured in a war with the Buwayhid Rukn al-Daula and control of Azerbaijan was fought over between Muhammad bin Musafir, Wahsudan, the Buyids, and Daisam. Eventually Marzuban escaped, re-established control over Azerbaijan and made peace with Rukn al-Daula, marrying off his daughter to him. He ruled until his death in 957.
Marzuban designated his brother Wahsudan as his successor. When he came to Azerbaijan, however, the commanders of the fortresses refused to surrender to him, recognizing instead Maruban's son Justan as his successor. Unable to establish his rule in the province, Wahusdan returned to Tarum. Justin was recognized as ruler in Azerbaijan, with his brother Ibrahim made governor of Dvin. Justan seems to have been interested primarily in his harem, a fact which alienated some of his supporters, although he and Ibrahim successfully put down a revolt by a grandson of the caliph al-Muktafi in 960.
Shortly afterwards Justan and another brother, Nasir, came to Tarum, where they were treacherously imprisoned by Wahsudan, who sent his son Isma'il to take over Azerbaijan. Ibrahim raised an army in Armenia to oppose Isma'il, prompting Wahsudan to execute Justan, his mother and Nasir. Ibrahim was driven out of Azerbaijan by Isma'il, but retained his rule in Armenia.
Isma'il died in 962, however, allowing Ibrahim to occupy Azerbaijan. He then invaded Tarum and forced Wahsudan to flee to Dailaman. In 966 Ibrahim was defeated by an army of Wahsudan's and his soldiers subsequently deserted him. He fled to his brother-in-law, the Buyid Rukn al-Daula, while Wahsudan installed his son Nuh in Azerbaijan. Rukn al-Daula sent an army under his vizier to reinstate Ibrahim in Azerbaijan, and Wahsudan was ejected from Tarum for a time. In 967 however he again sent an army, which burned Ardabil before Ibrahim concluded a peace with his uncle, ceding part of Azerbaijan to him. In 968, he reaffirmed Sallarid authority over Shirvan, forcing the Shirvanshah to pay him tribute.
Ibrahim's authority began to decline in the latter part of his reign. In 971, the Shaddadids took Ganja, and Ibrahim was forced to recognize their rule in that city after a siege failed to dislodge them. In around 979 he was deposed and imprisoned; he died in 983. His deposition marked the end of the Sallarids as a major power in Azerbaijan, as the Rawadids of Tabriz overran much of the province. A grandson of Wahsudan named Marzuban b. Isma'il retained a small portion of Azerbaijan until 984 when he was captured by the Rawadids. His son Ibrahim fled to Tarum and would later restore Sallarid rule there after it was seized by the Buwayhids.
In Dvin, meanwhile, a son of Ibrahim b. Marzuban b. Muhammad, Abu'l-Hajja', held power; in 982 or 983 he was persuaded by the King of Kars to invade the domain of the Bagratid king Smbat II. Some time after this Abu'l-Hajja' led an expedition against Abu Dulaf al-Shaibani, the ruler of Golthn and Nakhchivan, but was defeated and lost Dvin to him. He then traveled throughout Georgia and Armenia and visited the Byzantine emperor Basil II. In 989 or 990 Smbat II gave him an army to retake Dvin, but afterwards revoked his support. Eventually Abu'l-Hajja' met his end at the hands of his servants, who strangled him.
After Wahsudan's death (some time after 967), his son Nuh succeeded him in Shamiran. Nuh died before 989. In that year the Buwayhid Fakhr al-Daula married his widow and then divorced her, taking Shamiran in the process. Nuh's young son Justan was brought to Ray.
In 997, after Fakhr al-Daula died, Ibrahim ibn Marzuban ibn Isma'il took advantage of the weakness of his successor to seize control of Shamiran, Zanjan, Abhar, and Suharavard. When the Ghaznavid Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Ray in 1029 he sent a force to conquer Ibrahim's territories, but it failed to do so. Ibrahim took Qazvin from the Ghaznavids and defeated Mahmud's son Mas'ud in battle. Mas'ud managed to bribe some of Ibrahim's soldiers to capture him. Ibrahim's son refused to give up the fortress of Sarjahan but was compelled to pay tribute. By 1036 the Sallarids were back in Shamiran.
In around 1043 the Seljuk sultan Toghril Beg received the submission of the salar of Tarum, who became his vassal and submitted tribute. This Sallarid may have been Justan ibn Ibrahim, who was named as the ruler of Tarum in 1046. In 1062 Toghril went to Shamiran and again received tribute from its ruler, Musafir. This is the last Sallarid who is known. It is likely that the dynasty was shortly afterwards wiped out by the Assassins of Alamut, who dismantled the fortress of Shamiran.
Sallarids see Musafirids
Langarids see Musafirids
Musa Hajji Isma‘il Galaal (Musa Galaal) (b. 1914). Somali prose writer, poet and collector of oral literature. He spent his youth as a camel-herder of the nomadic interior and became a teacher after World War II. From 1951 to 1954, he worked at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. After the independence of the Somali Republic in 1960, he became the chairman of the Linguistic Committee concerned with the introduction of a national orthography for Somali, and afterwards the head of the Cultural Relations Division in the Ministry of Education in Mogadishu. In 1956, he published a collection of traditional stories and poems in Somali under the title Hikmad Somali (1956).
Galaal, Musa Hajji Isma'il see Musa Hajji Isma‘il Galaal
Musa Galaal see Musa Hajji Isma‘il Galaal
Galaal, Musa see Musa Hajji Isma‘il Galaal
Musahib-zade Jelal (Musahip-zade Celal) (1868-1959). Turkish classical playwright. The themes of his plays were mainly taken from the daily lives of the Ottoman people in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Jelal, Musahib-zade see Musahib-zade Jelal
Musahip-zade Celal see Musahib-zade Jelal
Celal, Musahip-zade see Musahib-zade Jelal
Musa ibn Abi’l-‘Afiya (d. 938). Chieftain of the Miknasa, a prominent Berber tribe of the Zanata confederation. His claim to fame rests on his role in the troubled history of the Idrisids of Fez and the politics of the western Maghrib in the tenth century.
Musa ibn Nusayr (Musa bin Nusair) (Musa ben Nusair) (640-716). Conqueror of the western Maghrib and of Spain. In 698, he was given the governorship of Ifriqiya by the governor of Egypt ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan. He crossed to Spain in 712 and left the following year with immense booty.
Musa ibn Nusayr was an Azdi of Assir (south west Saudi Arabia) who served as a governor and general under the Umayad caliph Al-Walid I. He ruled over the Muslim provinces of North Africa (Ifriqiya), and directed the Islamic opening of the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania.
Musa's father was an Arab of either Syria or Western Iraq (there are several different opinions) who was captured during the first Muslim expeditions and made a slave. Musa according to the most reliable reports state that he was the son of a Jewish convert to Islam. This convert had preferred relations with Muawiya (first Muslim Governor of Syria and first Umayyad Dynasty Caliph). He advised Muawiyah that the only way to capture Constantinople was from both sides. His son Musa was groomed to be the leader of the army to start the western invasion starting from Spain. However this plan was delayed because of the outbreak of civil war among Muslims.
Uqba bin Nafi was sent to continue the Islamic opening in North Africa all the way to Morocco. However, his policies were quite strict and he did not tolerate Berber traditions. This caused fierce resistance from the Berbers, leading to his demise in a battle against an alliance of Byzantines and Berbers. Musa bin Nusair was then sent to renew the attacks against the Berbers. But he did not impose Islam by force, rather, he respected Berber traditions and used diplomacy in subjugating them. This proved highly successful, as many Berbers converted to Islam and even entered his army as soldiers and officers, amongst whom would be Tariq bin Ziyad who would lead the later Islamic expedition in Iberia.
A few years earlier in 698, Musa had been made the governor of Ifriqiya and was responsible for completing the Umayyad conquest of North Africa and reopening of Cyprus, the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. He was the first governor of Ifriqiya not to be subordinate to the governor of Egypt. He was the first Muslim general to take Tangiers and occupy it. His troops also conquered the Sous, effectively taking control of all of modern Morocco. He also had to deal with constant harassment from the Byzantine navy. He built a navy that would go on to conquer the islands of Ibiza, Majorca, and Minorca.
While Musa bin Nusair was eager to cross the strait to the land mass of the Iberian peninsula, he was only encouraged to do so when a Visigoth nobleman, Julian, had come to Musa encouraging him to invade Iberia, telling him of the people's sufferings and the injustice of their king, Roderick, while giving him additional cause by telling him of the riches that would be found, and the many palaces, gardens and beauties of Iberia.
After a successful minor raid on the coast of today's Portugal, and the raiding force returning with a booty they captured without any reported resistance, Musa decided to land a larger invasion force. Tariq bin Ziyad crossed the strait with approximately 7,000 Berbers and Arabs, and landed at Gibraltar (from Jebel Tariq, meaning Tariq's mountain in Arabic). The expedition's purpose must have been to conduct further raids and explore the territory. Tariq's army contained some guides supplied by Julian. Three weeks after his landing, the Muslims were faced with a superior Visigoth army of nearly 20,000 led by King Roderick. The Muslims won the Battle of Guadalete and the entire Visigoth nobility was all but exterminated at the battle. The Muslims then marched towards Córdoba, bypassing several strong fortifications. The ill defended city fell and Tariq established a garrison there comprised mainly of the city's Jews who welcomed the invaders, having been subjected to persecution from the Visigoths for centuries. Tariq then continued on his way to Toledo.
Musa, learning of Tariq's successes, landed in Iberia with an army of 18,000 Berbers and Arabs. He planned to rendezvous with Tariq at Toledo, but first proceeded to take Seville, which Tariq had bypassed, and where Musa met stiff resistance, and succeeded after three months of siege. He then campaigned in the area that is today Portugal, eliminating the remaining Gothic resistance there. His last destination before meeting Tariq was to subdue Mérida. After five months of siege and inconclusive fighting, a group of Ceutans pretended to be Christian reinforcements and managed to convince the guards into opening the gates. Once inside, the "reinforcements", nearly 700, overwhelmed the guards and managed to keep the gates open for the Muslims to enter the city and capture it.
After Mérida, Musa divided his forces, taking the majority with him to meet Tariq at Toledo where he would remain for winter. The remainder of his forces were led by his son 'Abd al-Aziz, who would return to Sevilla to deal with an uprising. 'Abd al-Aziz made short work of the rebellion. He then conducted several campaigns on the return journey in the territories comprising future Portugal. Coimbra and Santarém were captured in the spring of 714. 'Abd al-Aziz then campaigned in Murcia. The Duke of Murcia, Theodemir, or Tudmir as he was called by the Muslims, surrendered to 'Abd al-Aziz after several hard-fought engagements in April 713. The terms imposed on Theodemir declared that the duke would keep the citadel of Orihuela and several other settlements, including Alicante and Lorca on the Mediterranean; that his followers would not be killed, taken prisoner, forced into Islam; and that their churches would not be burned. It also demanded that Theodemir not encourage or support others to resist the Muslims, and that he pay an annual tax in money and other goods.
Musa finally met up with Tariq where there was an argument over the latter's booty, which reportedly included a table holding gems and other precious stones that belonged to King Solomon. Meanwhile, Musa's messenger, Mughith al-Rumi (the Roman) who had been sent to Caliph al-Walid I to inform him of the situation in Iberia, had returned. The Caliph requested Musa to withdraw and to report in person to Damascus. Musa chose to ignore this order temporarily, knowing that if he did not continue his advance, Visigoth resistance would increase and turn the tables against the Muslims. Having done so, he continued with Tariq to the north; Musa heading for Zaragoza, to which he lay siege, while Tariq continued to the provinces of León and Castile, capturing the towns of León and Astorga. Musa continued after taking Zaragoza to the north, taking Oviedo and reaching as far as the Bay of Biscay. The Islamic opening of Iberia now complete, Musa proceeded to place governors and prefects throughout the newly conquered Al-Andalus, before returning to Damascus with most of the booty captured from the Jihad.
Both North African leaders were thereafter summoned by the caliph to Damascus. Tariq arrived first. But then the caliph was taken ill. So the caliph's brother, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik became temporarily in charge, and asked Musa, who was arriving with a cavalcade of soldiers and spoils, to delay his grand entry into the city. He most certainly intended to claim the glories brought from the conquest for himself. But Musa dismissed this request, triumphantly entered Damascus anyway, and brought the booty before the ailing Al-Walid I, which brought Musa and Tariq unprecedented popularity amongst the people of Damascus. Al-Walid I then died a few days later and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman, who demanded that Musa deliver up all his spoils. When Musa complained, Sulayman stripped him of his rank and confiscated all the booty, including a table which had reputedly once belonged to Solomon. He ordered that Musa (a very old man by then) be paraded through the city's streets with a rope around his neck and Musa said "Oh, Caliph, I deserve a better rewarding than this". Reports claim he was seen begging at a mosque door in the last days of his life.
One of Musa's sons, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, married a Spanish woman, who was the daughter of Roderick. She asked 'Abd al-Aziz why his guests did not bow to him as they used to do in the presence of her father. It was reported that he began to force guests to bow to him. It was rumored that he had secretly become a Christian, and a group of Arabs assassinated him, cut off his head and sent it to the caliph. Sulayman had Musa in his audience when the head arrived, and seeing whose it was, callously asked Musa if he recognized it. Musa maintained his dignity, saying he recognized it as belonging to someone who had always practiced the faith fervently, and cursed the men who had killed him.
Musa died naturally while on the Hajj pilgrimage with Sulayman in about the year 715-716. Because of his disgrace, and the misfortunes of his sons, there was a tendency among medieval historians of the Maghreb to attribute his deeds (the Islamic opening of Tangiers and the Sous) to Uqba ibn Nafi.
Musa, Mansa
Musa I (b.c. 1280, Mali Empire – d.c. 1337, Mali Empire), or Mansa Musa, was the ninth Mansa -- the ninth Emperor -- of the Mali Empire, one of the most powerful West African states in history. He has sometimes been called the wealthiest person in history, though his wealth is impossible to accurately quantify and it is difficult to meaningfully compare the wealth of historical figures. At the time of Musa's ascension to the throne, Mali in large part consisted of the territory of the former Ghana Empire, which Mali had conquered. The Mali Empire consisted of land that is now part of Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, The Gambia and the modern state of Mali.
Musa went on hajj to Mecca in 1324, and traveled with an enormous entourage and a vast supply of gold. En route, he spent time in Cairo, where his lavish gift-giving caused a noticeable drop in the price of gold for over a decade and garnered the attention of the wider Muslim world.
Musa expanded the borders of the Mali Empire, in particular incorporating the cities of Gao and Timbuktu into its territory. He sought closer ties with the rest of the Muslim world, particularly the Mamluk Sultanate and Marinid Sultanate. He recruited scholars from the wider Muslim world to travel to Mali, such as the Andalusian poet Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, and helped establish Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning. His reign is associated with numerous construction projects, including part of Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu. Musa's reign is often regarded as the zenith of Mali's power and prestige.
Mansa Musa's personal name was Musa, the Arabic form of Moses. Mansa means "ruler" or "king" in Mande, and was the title of the ruler of the Mali Empire. It has also been translated as "conqueror" and "priest-king". In oral tradition and the Timbuktu Chronicles, Musa is known as Kanku Musa. In Mandé tradition, it was common for one's name to be prefixed by their mother's name, so the name Kanku Musa means "Musa, son of Kanku", although it is unclear if the genealogy implied is literal. He is also called Hidji Mansa Musa in oral tradition in reference to his hajj.
In the Songhai language, rulers of Mali such as Musa were known as the Mali-koi, koi being a title that conveyed authority over a region: in other words, the "ruler of Mali".
Much of what is known about Musa comes from Arabic sources written after his hajj, especially the writings of Al-Umari and Ibn Khaldun. While in Cairo during his hajj, Musa befriended officials such as Ibn Amir Hajib, who learned about him and his country from him and later passed on that information to historians such as Al-Umari. Additional information comes from two 17th-century manuscripts written in Timbuktu, the Tarikh as-Sudan and Tarikh al-fattash. Oral tradition, as performed by the jeliw (sg. jeli), also known as griots, includes relatively little information about Musa compared to some other parts of the history of Mali.
Musa's father was named Faga Leye and his mother may have been named Kanku. Faga Leye was the son of Abu Bakr, a brother of Sunjata, the first mansa of the Mali Empire. Ibn Battuta, who visited Mali during the reign of Musa's brother Sulayman, said that Musa's grandfather was named Sariq Jata. Sariq Jata may be another name for Sunjata, who was actually Musa's great-uncle. The date of Musa's birth is unknown, but he still appeared to be a young man in 1324. The Tarikh al-fattash claims that Musa accidentally killed Kanku at some point prior to his hajj.
Musa ascended to power in the early 1300s under unclear circumstances. According to Musa's own account, his predecessor as mansa of Mali, presumably Muhammad ibn Qu, launched two expeditions to explore the Atlantic Ocean (200 ships for the first exploratory mission and 2,000 ships for the second). The mansa led the second expedition himself, and appointed Musa as his deputy to rule the empire until he returned. When he did not return, Musa was crowned as mansa himself, marking a transfer of the line of succession from the descendants of Sunjata to the descendants of his brother Abu Bakr. Some modern historians have cast doubt on Musa's version of events, suggesting he may have deposed his predecessor and devised the story about the voyage to explain how he took power. Nonetheless, the possibility of such a voyage has been taken seriously by several historians.
According to the Tarikh al-Fattash, Musa had a wife named Inari Konte.
Musa was a devout Muslim, and his pilgrimage to Mecca, also known as hajj, made him well known across Northern Africa and the Middle East. To Musa, Islam was "an entry into the cultured world of the Eastern Mediterranean". He would have spent much time fostering the growth of the religion within his empire.
Musa made his pilgrimage between 1324 and 1325 spanning 2,700 miles. His procession reportedly included 60,000 men, all wearing brocade and Persian silk, including 12,000 slaves, who each carried 1.8 kg (4 lb) of gold bars, and heralds dressed in silks, who bore gold staffs, organized horses, and handled bags. Musa provided all necessities for the procession, feeding the entire company of men and animals. Those animals included 80 camels which each carried 23–136 kg (50–300 lb) of gold dust. Musa gave the gold to the poor he met along his route. Musa not only gave to the cities he passed on the way to Mecca, including Cairo and Medina, but also traded gold for souvenirs. It was reported that he built a mosque every Friday.
Musa's journey was documented by several eyewitnesses along his route. These eyewitnesses invariably were in awe of his wealth and the extensive procession that followed him. Records exist in a variety of sources, including journals, oral accounts, and histories. Musa is known to have visited the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, Al-Nasir Muhammad in July 1324. Al-Umari, who visited Cairo shortly after Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca, noted that it was "a lavish display of power, wealth, and unprecedented by its size and pageantry". Musa made a major point of showing off his nation's wealth. His goal was to make his kingdom known to the outside world. He succeeded greatly in this, so much so that he landed himself and Mali on the Catalan Atlas of 1375.
Musa embarked on a large building program, raising mosques and madrasas in Timbuktu and Gao. Most notably, the ancient center of learning Sankore Madrasah (or University of Sankore) was constructed during his reign.
In Niani, Musa built the Hall of Audience, a building connected by an interior door to the royal palace. It was an admirable monument, surmounted by a dome and adorned with arabesques of striking colors. The wooden window frames of an upper story were plated with silver foil; those of a lower story with gold. Like the Great Mosque, a contemporaneous and grandiose structure in Timbuktu, the Hall was built of cut stone.
During the reign of Mansa Musa, there was an advanced level of urban living in the major centers of Mali. At the height of his power, Mali had at least 400 cities, and the interior of the Niger Delta was very densely populated.
It is recorded that Mansa Musa traveled through the cities of Timbuktu and Gao on his way to Mecca, and made them a part of his empire when he returned around 1325. He brought architects from Andalusia, a region in Spain, and from Cairo to build his grand palace in Timbuktu and the great Djinguereber Mosque that still stands today.
Timbuktu soon became the center of trade, culture, and Islam. Markets brought in merchants from Hausaland, Egypt, and other African kingdoms. A university was founded in the city (as well as in the Malian cities of Djenne and Segou), and Islam was spread through the markets and university, making Timbuktu a new center for Islamic scholarship. News of the Malian empire's city of wealth even traveled across the Mediterranean to southern Europe, where traders from Venice, Granada, and Genoa soon added Timbuktu to their maps to trade manufactured goods for gold.
The University of Sankore in Timbuktu was restaffed under Musa's reign with jurists, astronomers, and mathematicians. The university became a center of learning and culture, drawing Muslim scholars from around Africa and the Middle East to Timbuktu.
In 1330, the kingdom of Mossi invaded and conquered the city of Timbuktu. Gao had already been captured by Musa's general, and Musa quickly regained Timbuktu, built a rampart and stone fort, and placed a standing army to protect the city from future invaders.
While Musa's palace has since vanished, the university and mosque still stand in Timbuktu today.
By the end of Mansa Musa's reign, the Sankoré University had been converted into a fully staffed University with the largest collections of books in Africa since the Library of Alexandria. The Sankoré University was capable of housing 25,000 students and had one of the largest libraries in the world with roughly 1,000,000 manuscripts.
The date of Mansa Musa's death is not certain. Using the reign lengths reported by Ibn Khaldun to calculate back from the death of Mansa Suleyman in 1360, Musa would have died in 1332. However, Ibn Khaldun also reports that Musa sent an envoy to congratulate Abu al-Hasan Ali for his conquest of Tlemcen, which took place in May 1337, but by the time Abu al-Hasan sent an envoy in response, Musa had died and Suleyman was on the throne, suggesting that Musa died in 1337. In contrast, al-Umari, writing twelve years after Musa's hajj, in approximately 1337, claimed that Musa returned to Mali intending to abdicate and return to live in Mecca but died before he could do so, suggesting that he died even earlier than 1332. It is possible that it was actually Musa's son Maghan who congratulated Abu al-Hasan, or Maghan who received Abu al-Hasan's envoy after Musa's death. The latter possibility is corroborated by Ibn Khaldun calling Suleyman Musa's son in that passage, suggesting he may have confused Musa's brother Suleyman with Musa's son Maghan. Alternatively, it is possible that the four-year reign Ibn Khaldun credits Maghan with actually referred to his ruling Mali while Musa was away on the hajj, and he only reigned briefly in his own right. Nevertheless, 1337 is deemed to be the most likely date for Musa's death and is the one set forth here.
Musa's hajj has been regarded as the most illustrious moment in the history of West Africa. Musa's reign is commonly regarded as Mali's golden age, but this perception may be the result of his reign being the best recorded by Arabic sources, rather than him necessarily being the wealthiest and most powerful mansa of Mali.
Musa is less renowned in Mandé oral tradition as performed by the jeliw. He is criticized for being unfaithful to tradition, and some of the jeliw regard Musa as having wasted Mali's wealth. However, some aspects of Musa appear to have been incorporated into a figure in Mandé oral tradition known as Fajigi, which translates as "father of hope". Fajigi is remembered as having traveled to Mecca to retrieve ceremonial objects known as boliw, which feature in Mandé traditional religion. As Fajigi, Musa is sometimes conflated with a figure in oral tradition named Fakoli, who is best known as Sunjata's top general. The figure of Fajigi combines both Islam and traditional beliefs.
The name "Musa" has become virtually synonymous with pilgrimage in Mandé tradition, such that other figures who are remembered as going on a pilgrimage, such as Fakoli, are also called Musa.
Musa has been considered the wealthiest human ever. Though some sources have estimated his wealth as equivalent to US$400 billion, his actual wealth is impossible to accurately calculate. Contemporary Arabic sources may have been trying to express that Musa had more gold than they thought possible, rather than trying to give an exact number. Furthermore, it is difficult to meaningfully compare the wealth of historical figures such as Mansa Musa, due to the difficulty of separating the personal wealth of a monarch from the wealth of the state and the difficulty of comparing wealth in highly different societies. Musa may have brought as much as 18 tons of gold on his hajj, equal in value to over US$957 million in 2022. Musa himself further promoted the appearance of having vast, inexhaustible wealth by spreading rumors that gold grew like a plant in his kingdom.
Musa see Mansa Musa
Kankan Musa see Mansa Musa
Musa, Nabawiyah (1886-1951). Feminist and pioneer in women’s education. Born in Zagazig, Egypt, the daughter of Musa Muhammad, an army captain who died before her birth, Nabawiyah was raised in Cairo by her mother. Beginning her education at home with the help of her older brother, Nabawiyah entered the girls’ section of the ‘Abbas Primary School, receiving her certificate in 1903. She began teaching at ‘Abbas in 1906, after completing the Teachers’ Training Program at the Saniyah School. Musa resolved to obtain a secondary school diploma when she discovered that male teachers with this degree received higher pay. But, in the absence of government secondary school for girls, Musa prepared at home for the state baccalaureate examination. Overcoming objections from colonial education officials, she successfully completed the exam in 1907. She became the first woman to teach Arabic in the state school system, incurring the wrath of religiously trained shaykhs, who monopolized Arabic instruction. In 1909, she was appointed principal of the Girls’ School in Fayyum, an oasis west of Cairo, the first Egyptian woman to hold such a post. The following year, she became principal of the Women Teachers’ Training School in Mansurah. In 1915, Musa was principal of the Wardiyan Women Teachers’ Training School in Alexandria. Nine years later she was appointed chief inspector of female education in the Ministry of Education. She incurred numerous adversaries as an efficient and strong-willed administrator who enforced a strict moral code among teachers and students, and was dismissed from the ministry in 1926. She then founded and ran two private schools for girls, al-Tarqiyah al-Fatah primary school in Alexandria and Banat al-Ashraf secondary school in Cairo.
Musa’s feminism and nationalist aspirations were expressed in her everyday life. Discreetly unveiling around 1909, in full awareness that concealing the face was not an Islamic prescription, Musa remained fastidious about covering her hair and wearing modest clothing. When the Egyptian University opened in 1908 Musa was refused enrollment, but the following year was invited to lecture in the university’s special extracurricular program for women. During the Egyptian national independence movement of 1919-1922, Musa maintained the operation of her school, rather than demonstrating and risking closure, considering this a political act in itself and insisting that education was the strongest weapon against colonial domination. In 1920, she published Al-mar’ah wa-al-‘amal (The Woman and Work), promoting education ad work for women as a means of individual and national liberation within the framework of Islamic modernism. In 1923, the year after Egyptian independence, Musa joined the Egyptian Feminist Union, attending the Rome Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance as a member of the union’s delegation. However, Musa soon rejected movement feminism, preferring the mode of everyday activism within the context of her profession as an educator. She also sustained advocacy through her writings, including Al-ayah al-bayyinah fi tarbiyat al-banat (The Clear Model in the Education of Girls), Diwan al-fatah (The Young Woman Collection of Poems), and Riwayah Nabhutub (Nabhutub: A Novel). In 1937, she founded Majallat al-fatah (The Magazine of the Young Woman), which published through 1943.
Musa’s educational career came to an end in 1942 when she was imprisoned for publicly protesting the Egyptian government’s conciliatory policy regarding national sovereignty in the face of British pressure. She died in retirement in 1951. Four decades later the Egyptian state honored her by issuing a commemorative stamp. Musa is claimed as a foremother by feminists and Islamists alike.
Nabawiyah Musa see Musa, Nabawiyah
Musawis. Name for the descendants of Imam Musa al-Kazim, who are said to account for some seventy percent (70%) of all the Sayyids in present day Iran.
Musaylima ibn Habib (Maslamah ibn Habib) (Musaylimah) (d. 632). Member of the Banu Hanifa who lived in al-Yamama. He claimed to be a prophet, and led a large section of his tribe in revolt during the politico-religious uprisings, known as “apostasy” (in Arabic, ridda), in various parts of Arabia during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated him at the fierce battle of al-‘Aqraba’, in which many Helpers, invaluable for their knowledge of the as yet unwritten Qur’an, were killed.
Musaylimah was one of a series of men who claimed to be a prophet around the same time as Muhammad. He is often viewed as a false prophet by traditional accounts, and frequently referred to by the epithet "the Liar" (Arabic: al-Kaḏḏāb).
Musaylimah's name was Ibn Habib al-Hanifi, which indicates that he was the son of Habib, of the tribe Banu Hanifa, one of the largest tribes of Arabia that inhabited the region of Yamamah. The present House of Saud and the Al Saud dynasty traces their ancestry to the same Banu Hanifa tribe. The Banu Hanifa were a Christian branch of Banu Bakr and led an independent existence prior to Islam.
Musaylimah was the theocratic lord of a sacred haram or enclave which, according to one report, he had set up in Yamamah before the prophet's hijrah. He thus controlled an extensive area of eastern Arabia. He controlled more extensive territories and properties than Muhammad.
Among the first records of him is in late 9th Hijri, the Year of Delegations, when he accompanied a delegation of his tribe to Medina. The delegation included two other prominent Muslims. They would later help Musaylimah rise to power and save their tribe from destruction. These men were Nahar Ar-Rajjal bin Unfuwa (or Rahhal) and Muja'a bin Marara. In Medina, the deputation stayed with the daughter of al-Harith, a woman of the Ansar from the Banu Najjar.
When the delegation arrived at Medinah, the camels were tied in a traveler's camp, and Musaylimah remained there to look after them while the other delegates went in.
They had talks with Muhammad. The delegation before their departure embraced Islam and denounced Christianity without compunction. As was his custom, Muhammad presented gifts to the delegates, and when they had received their gifts one said, "We left one of our comrades in the camp to look after our mounts."
Muhammad gave them gifts for him also, and added, "He is not the least among you that he should stay behind to guard the property of his comrades." On their return they converted the tribe of Banu Hanifa to Islam. They built a mosque at Yamamah and started regular prayers.
Musaylimah, who is reported as having been a skilled magician, dazzled the crowd with miracles. He could put an egg in a bottle; he could cut off the feathers of a bird and then stick them on so the bird would fly again; and he used this skill to persuade the people that he was divinely gifted.
Musaylimah shared verses purporting them to have been revelations from God and told the crowd that Muhammad had shared power with him. Musaylimah even referred to himself as Rahman, which suggests that he may have attributed some divinity to himself. Thereafter, some of the people accepted him as a prophet alongside Muhammad. Gradually the influence and authority of Musaylimah increased with the people of his tribe. Musaylimah sought to abolish prayer and freely allow sex and alcohol consumption. He also took to addressing gatherings as an apostle of Allah just like Muhammad, and would compose verses and offer them, as Quranic revelations. Most of his verses extolled the superiority of his tribe, the Bani Hanifa, over the Quraish.
Musaylimah also proposed to share power over Arabia with Muhammad. Then one day, in late 10 Hijri, he wrote to Muhammad:
"From Musaylimah, Messenger of Allah, to Muhammad, Messenger of God. Salutations to you. I have been given a share with you in this matter. Half the earth belongs to us and half to the Quraish. But the Quraish are a people who transgress."
Muhammad, however, replied back:
“ "From Muhammad, the messenger of God, to Musaylimah, the arch-liar. Peace be upon him who follows (God's) guidance. Now then, surely the earth belongs to God, who bequeaths it to whom He will amongst his servants. The ultimate issue is to the God-fearing." ”
After Muhammad's death, Musaylimah rose up against the new Caliph Abu Bakr but his forces were defeated by Khalid ibn al-Walid as Musaylimah was killed by Wahshi ibn Harb in the Battle of Yamama.
Not all the followers of Musaylimah became "good" Muslims. Ten or twenty years later the man who carried his message to Muhammad and some others were denounced in Kufar as remaining followers of Musaylima. The messenger was executed
* Al-Aswad Al-Ansi
* Tulayha
* Prestidigitators
* Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era
[edit] References
Maslamah ibn Habib see Musaylima ibn Habib
The Liar see Musaylima ibn Habib
Kaddab, al- see Musaylima ibn Habib
Musaylimah see Musaylima ibn Habib
Mushaqa, Mikha’il ibn Jirjis (Mikha'il ibn Jirjis Mushaqa) (1800-1888). Lebanese historian and polemicist, and the most important of modern Arabic writers on the theory of music.
Mikha'il ibn Jirjis Mushaqa see Mushaqa, Mikha’il ibn Jirjis
Musharraf, Pervez (Pervez Musharraf) (b. August 11, 1943, New Delhi, British India [today in India]- d. February 5, 2023, Dubai, United Arab Emirates) was President of Pakistan from 2001 to 2008. He was born on August 11, 1943, in New Delhi, India. His father, a civil servant in British-ruled India, later served as a Pakistani ambassador to Turkey. The family fled to Pakistan ambassador to Turkey. The family fled to Pakistan in 1947 when British India was partitioned into predominantly Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. Young Musharraf joined the army in 1964. In 1965, he received a medal for gallantry for his efforts during the 16 day war with India. In 1998, Musharraf became chief of the army and, in October 1999, he seized power in a coup d’etat and declared himself the nation’s “chief executive.” He served as president of Pakistan from 2001 to 2008.
Musharraf moved with his family from New Delhi to Karachi in 1947, when Pakistan was separated from India. The son of a career diplomat, he lived in Turkey during 1949–56. He joined the army in 1964, graduated from the Army Command and Staff College in Quetta, and attended the Royal College of Defence Studies in London. He held a number of appointments in the artillery, the infantry, and commando units and also taught at the Staff College in Quetta and in the War Wing of the National Defence College. He fought in Pakistan’s 1965 and 1971 wars with India. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif appointed him head of the armed forces in October 1998. Musharraf is believed to have played a key role in the invasion of the Indian-administered portion of the disputed Kashmir region in the summer of 1999. Under international pressure, Sharif later ordered the troops to pull back to Pakistani-controlled territory, a move that angered the military.
On October 12, 1999, while Musharraf was out of the country, Sharif dismissed him and tried to prevent the plane carrying Musharraf home from landing at the Karachi airport. The armed forces, however, took control of the airport and other government installations and deposed Sharif, paving the way for Musharraf to become head of a military government. Although he was generally considered to hold moderate views and promised an eventual return to civilian rule, Musharraf suspended the constitution and dissolved parliament. He formed the National Security Council, made up of civilian and military appointees, to run Pakistan in the interim. In early 2001 he assumed the presidency and later attempted to negotiate an agreement with India over the Kashmir region. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 in the United States and the subsequent United States invasion of Afghanistan later that year, the United States government cultivated close ties with Musharraf in an attempt to root out Islamic extremists in the Afghan-Pakistan border region.
Over the next several years, Musharraf survived a number of assassination attempts. He reinstated the constitution in 2002, though it was heavily amended with the Legal Framework Order (LFO)—a provision of which extended his term as president for another five years. Parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, and in late 2003 the legislature ratified most provisions of the LFO.
In 2007 Musharraf sought re-election to the presidency, but he faced opposition from Pakistan’s Supreme Court, primarily over the issue of his continuing to serve simultaneously as both president and head of the military. The court thwarted his attempt to suspend the chief justice, and in October it delayed the results of Musharraf’s re-election (by the parliament). In November, Musharraf responded by declaring a state of emergency. Citing growing terrorist threats, he suspended the constitution for a second time, dismissed the chief justice and replaced other justices on the Supreme Court, arrested opposition political leaders, and imposed restrictions on the independent press and media. Later that month, the reconstituted Supreme Court dismissed the last legal challenges to his re-election, and he resigned his military post to become a civilian president. Musharraf ended the state of emergency in mid-December, though, before restoring the constitution, he instituted several amendments to it that protected the measures enacted during emergency rule.
The poor performance of Musharraf’s party in the February 2008 parliamentary elections was widely seen as a rejection of the president and his rule. The elections yielded an opposition coalition headed by Sharif and Asif Ali Zardari, the widower of former prime minister Benazir Bhutto, who had been assassinated in December 2007. Citing grave constitutional violations, the governing coalition moved in early August 2008 to begin impeachment proceedings against Musharraf, and, faced with the impending charges, Musharraf announced his resignation on August 18.
In October 2010, after a period of self-imposed exile, Musharraf announced the formation of a new political party, the All Pakistan Muslim League, and vowed to return to Pakistan in time for the 2013 national elections. He did so in March 2013, but his bid to stand in elections faced a variety of legal and political obstacles, including several open criminal investigations regarding his actions as president. On April 18, 2013, a Pakistani court disqualified him from entering the race because of an ongoing investigation regarding his suspension of the constitution in 2007. He was arrested the following day to face charges stemming from the investigation. In August 2013, with Musharraf still under house arrest, murder charges were filed against him in connection with Bhutto’s assassination in 2007.
Musharraf was permitted to leave the country to seek medical treatment in Dubai in 2016, where he remained thereafter. In late 2018 it was revealed that his health was rapidly deteriorating due to amyloidosis -- a disease in which abnormal proteins build up in tissue. He was convicted a year later in absentia on charges of high treason and sentenced to death, though his state of health made any return to Pakistan unlikely. In January 2020, the special court that issued the sentence was ruled unconstitutional, and his conviction was overturned.
Pervez Musharraf died on February 5, 2023 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates from amyloidosis.
Pervez Musharraf see Musharraf, PervezMusha‘sha’ (Musha'sha'iyyah). Shi‘a Arab dynasty of the town of Hawiza (Huwayza) in Khuzistan which ruled from the fifteenth through the nineteenth centuries.
The Musha‘sha’iyyah were a Shī‘ah sect founded and led by Muhammad ibn Falah, an Iraqi-born theologian who believed himself to be the earthly representative of ‘Alī and the Mahdi. From the middle of the 15th century to the 19th century, they came to dominate much of western Khūzestān Province in southwestern Iran.
Beginning in 1436, Ibn Falah spread his messianic beliefs amongst the less powerful Arab tribes along the area of the present-day border of Iraq and Iran, gaining converts in an attempt to forge a strong tribal alliance. In 1441, they succeeded in capturing the city of Hoveizeh in Khuzestan, and during the following ten years the Musha‘sha’iyyah increased their strength and consolidated their power in the area around the city and the Tigris river. These early military ambitions were fueled by Muhammad ibn Falah's zealous millenarian theology, which continued to significantly influence the later military campaigns of the Musha‘sha’iyyah decades after his death.
Successors of ibn Falah were in continual conflict with the Safavid rulers as well as with Iranian Arab tribes until overcome by the Safavids in 1508. The conflict with the Safavids was driven not only by politics and territorial domination, but also by theological differences and competition between two rival Shi'a schools of thought. According to Moojan Momen, both sects adhered to heterodox (ghuluww) Shi'a beliefs.
According to Shī‘ah eschatology, the Mahdi will appear at the end times to lead the forces of good, who will be based in Yemen, to struggle against the forces of evil, who will be based in Syria and Khorasan. The Musha‘sha’iyyah believed that the end times were imminent and that they would need to defeat the Safavids and gain control of Iran in order to fulfill the prophecy heralded by Ibn Falah.
The Musha‘sha’iyyah gradually abandoned their eschatological beliefs and more closely adhered to mainstream Shī‘a orthodoxy. Like other mystical Shī‘a sects, they placed a great deal of importance upon poetry and art.
Musha'sha'iyyah see Musha‘sha’
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