Osama Bin Laden
Osama Bin Laden. See Bin Laden.
Osama Bin Laden. See Bin Laden.
Osei Kwame
Osei Kwame (c.1765-1803/1804). Ruler of the Akan kingdom of Asante (r.1777-1798). He was about twelve years old when he was picked to succeed Osei Kwadwo. His mother’s attempts to rule during his minority threw Asante into civil war which lasted until the early 1790s. By then Osei Kwame had come of age but before the end of the decade a new civil conflict had begun. The causes are partly attributable to Osei Kwame’s cruelty and jealousy, but the major reason was his predilection towards Islam. Islamic influence had increased as a result of Asante conquest of Muslim-governed territories to the north. Asante chiefs feared he would use Islam to undermine the traditional religion and augment his own power, already enlarged due to administrative reforms. Around 1798, he fled Kumasi, the capital, and was deposed. His successor, Opoku II (Opoku Fofie), died around 1801 and Muslims in the north attempted to restore Osei Kwame to power. Warfare continued until Osei Kwame’s death in 1803/1804.
Osei Kwame (c.1765-1803/1804). Ruler of the Akan kingdom of Asante (r.1777-1798). He was about twelve years old when he was picked to succeed Osei Kwadwo. His mother’s attempts to rule during his minority threw Asante into civil war which lasted until the early 1790s. By then Osei Kwame had come of age but before the end of the decade a new civil conflict had begun. The causes are partly attributable to Osei Kwame’s cruelty and jealousy, but the major reason was his predilection towards Islam. Islamic influence had increased as a result of Asante conquest of Muslim-governed territories to the north. Asante chiefs feared he would use Islam to undermine the traditional religion and augment his own power, already enlarged due to administrative reforms. Around 1798, he fled Kumasi, the capital, and was deposed. His successor, Opoku II (Opoku Fofie), died around 1801 and Muslims in the north attempted to restore Osei Kwame to power. Warfare continued until Osei Kwame’s death in 1803/1804.
Osman I
Osman I (Osman Gazi) ‘Othman I Ghazi (1258-1324, Sogut, Ottoman Empire [now in Turkey]). Ottoman bey (r.1300-1324), while he was the ruler of his principality from 1293. Osman is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Osman was the son of Ertugrul, and inherited the position of ruler over a principality with Sogut as capital. He controlled an effective army, consisting of Muslim warriors called ghazis. While the official purpose of the ghazis were to fight the infidels, they mainly resorted to looting in enemy territory. The main opponent was Byzantium. During Osman’s reign, several Byzantine fortresses were conquered, among which was Yenisehir.
His main campaigns were sieging Nicaea (later, under the Turks renamed to Iznik) and Brusa (later, under the Turks renamed to Bursa). Shortly before his death, he conquered Bursa, which was made into the capital of his kingdom.
With his death in Sogut at the age of 66, Osman was succeed by his son, Orhan.
Osman I was a ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. Both the name of the dynasty and the empire that the dynasty established are derived from the Arabic form (ʿUthmān) of his name.
Osman was descended from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz Turkmen. His father, Ertugrul, had established a principality centered at Sögüt. With Sögüt as their base, Osman and the Muslim frontier warriors (Ghazis) under his command waged a slow and stubborn conflict against the Byzantines, who sought to defend their territories in the hinterland of the Asiatic shore opposite Constantinople (now Istanbul). Osman gradually extended his control over several former Byzantine fortresses, including Yenişehir, which provided the Ottomans with a strong base to lay siege to Bursa and Nicaea (now İznik), in northwestern Anatolia. The greatest success of Osman’s reign was the conquest of Bursa shortly before his death.
Osman Gazi see Osman I
‘Othman I Ghazi see Osman I
Osman I (Osman Gazi) ‘Othman I Ghazi (1258-1324, Sogut, Ottoman Empire [now in Turkey]). Ottoman bey (r.1300-1324), while he was the ruler of his principality from 1293. Osman is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Osman was the son of Ertugrul, and inherited the position of ruler over a principality with Sogut as capital. He controlled an effective army, consisting of Muslim warriors called ghazis. While the official purpose of the ghazis were to fight the infidels, they mainly resorted to looting in enemy territory. The main opponent was Byzantium. During Osman’s reign, several Byzantine fortresses were conquered, among which was Yenisehir.
His main campaigns were sieging Nicaea (later, under the Turks renamed to Iznik) and Brusa (later, under the Turks renamed to Bursa). Shortly before his death, he conquered Bursa, which was made into the capital of his kingdom.
With his death in Sogut at the age of 66, Osman was succeed by his son, Orhan.
Osman I was a ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. Both the name of the dynasty and the empire that the dynasty established are derived from the Arabic form (ʿUthmān) of his name.
Osman was descended from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz Turkmen. His father, Ertugrul, had established a principality centered at Sögüt. With Sögüt as their base, Osman and the Muslim frontier warriors (Ghazis) under his command waged a slow and stubborn conflict against the Byzantines, who sought to defend their territories in the hinterland of the Asiatic shore opposite Constantinople (now Istanbul). Osman gradually extended his control over several former Byzantine fortresses, including Yenişehir, which provided the Ottomans with a strong base to lay siege to Bursa and Nicaea (now İznik), in northwestern Anatolia. The greatest success of Osman’s reign was the conquest of Bursa shortly before his death.
Osman Gazi see Osman I
‘Othman I Ghazi see Osman I
Osman II
Osman II (Genc Osman -- "Young Osman") (Othman II) (Uthman II) (b. November 15, 1603, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey] - d. May 20, 1622, Constantinople). Ottoman sultan (r.1618-1622). He was born on November 15, 1603, in Istanbul. In 1618, at the age of 14, Osman II became the new sultan as Mustafa I was removed from the sultanate.
In 1621, Osman tried to reform the Janissaries by removing some of their privileges, like their coffee shops, which functioned like cells of disobedience among the troops. This led to strong reactions among the Janissaries.
In 1622, Osman started planning a pilgrimage to Mecca, which really was a campaign to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria, in order to defeat the Ottomans. The result became an actual revolt among his enemies. On May 19, Osman was forced by Janissary troops to resign from power, and let Mustafa I return to office. On May 20, he is strangled by Janissaries of Istanbul.
Despite being only fourteen years when becoming sultan, Osman was the most apt ruler of the Ottoman Empire since Suleyman I fifty years earlier. However, conditions in the empire had deteriorated too much, so when Osman tried to reform the Janissaries, he was violently removed from his position.
Osman also set out on campaigns against Poland, but without being able to get the victories he had hoped for. This failure he correctly interpreted to be the result of weak moral and little devotedness in the army, principally from the Janissary troops.
Ambitious and courageous, Osman undertook a military campaign against Poland, which had interfered in the Ottoman vassal principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Realizing that his defeat at Chocim (Khotin, Ukraine) in 1621 largely stemmed from the lack of discipline and the degeneracy of the Janissary corps, he proceeded to discipline them by cutting their pay and closing their coffee shops. Then he announced a plan to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, but his real purpose was to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria to break the power of the Janissaries. Hearing of this scheme and already resentful because of Osman’s previous policies, the Janissaries revolted, deposed Osman on May 19, 1622, and strangled him the next day.
Genc Osman see Osman II
Young Osman see Osman II
Othman II see Osman II
Uthman II see Osman II
Osman II (Genc Osman -- "Young Osman") (Othman II) (Uthman II) (b. November 15, 1603, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey] - d. May 20, 1622, Constantinople). Ottoman sultan (r.1618-1622). He was born on November 15, 1603, in Istanbul. In 1618, at the age of 14, Osman II became the new sultan as Mustafa I was removed from the sultanate.
In 1621, Osman tried to reform the Janissaries by removing some of their privileges, like their coffee shops, which functioned like cells of disobedience among the troops. This led to strong reactions among the Janissaries.
In 1622, Osman started planning a pilgrimage to Mecca, which really was a campaign to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria, in order to defeat the Ottomans. The result became an actual revolt among his enemies. On May 19, Osman was forced by Janissary troops to resign from power, and let Mustafa I return to office. On May 20, he is strangled by Janissaries of Istanbul.
Despite being only fourteen years when becoming sultan, Osman was the most apt ruler of the Ottoman Empire since Suleyman I fifty years earlier. However, conditions in the empire had deteriorated too much, so when Osman tried to reform the Janissaries, he was violently removed from his position.
Osman also set out on campaigns against Poland, but without being able to get the victories he had hoped for. This failure he correctly interpreted to be the result of weak moral and little devotedness in the army, principally from the Janissary troops.
Ambitious and courageous, Osman undertook a military campaign against Poland, which had interfered in the Ottoman vassal principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Realizing that his defeat at Chocim (Khotin, Ukraine) in 1621 largely stemmed from the lack of discipline and the degeneracy of the Janissary corps, he proceeded to discipline them by cutting their pay and closing their coffee shops. Then he announced a plan to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, but his real purpose was to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria to break the power of the Janissaries. Hearing of this scheme and already resentful because of Osman’s previous policies, the Janissaries revolted, deposed Osman on May 19, 1622, and strangled him the next day.
Genc Osman see Osman II
Young Osman see Osman II
Othman II see Osman II
Uthman II see Osman II
Osmanli
Osmanli (Ottomans) (Imperial House of Osman) (Osmanlı Hânedanı). Term pertaining to descendants of Osman I or to their soldiers and administrators, or to their language.
The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) (Turkish: Osmanlı Hânedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan. Before that the tribe/dynasty might have been known as Söğüt but was renamed Osmanlı (Ottoman in English) in honor of Osman.
The sultan was the sole and absolute regent, head of state and head of government of the empire, at least officially, though often much power shifted de facto to other officials, especially the Grand Vizier.
The Ottoman dynasty is known in Turkish as Osmanlı, meaning "House of Osman". The first rulers of the dynasty never had called themselves sultans, but rather beys, or "chieftain", roughly the Turkic equivalent of Emir, which would itself become a gubernatorial title and even a common military or honorific rank. Thus, they still formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the contemporary Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and its successor, the Ilkhanate.
The first Ottoman to actually claim the title of sultân was Murad I, who ruled from 1359 to 1389. The title sultan was in later Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Baghdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was more prestigious then Emir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'king' or the original Persian title of Shah. With the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the road was open for the Ottoman state to become an empire, with Sultan Mehmed II taking the title of pâdişah, a Persian title meaning "lord of kings" claiming superiority to the other kings, that title was abandoned when the empire declined and lost its former might.
In addition to such secular titles, the Ottoman sultan became the Caliph of Islam, starting with Selim I, who became khalif after the death of the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, the last of Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo.
In Europe, the Ottoman padishah was often referred to informally by such terms unrelated to the Ottoman protocol as the Grand Turk and the Grand Signor.
The sultans further adopted in time many secondary formal titles as well, such as "Sovereign of the House of Osman", "Sultan of Sultans" (roughly King of Kings), and "Khan of Khans".
As the empire grew, sultans adopted secondary titles expressing the empire's claim to be the successor in law of the structures of the absorbed states. Furthermore they tended to enumerate even regular provinces, not unlike the long lists of -mainly inherited- feudal titles in the full style of many Christian European monarchs.
When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories, which at the time before the Fall of Constantinople, however, extended to little more than the city itself, plus some areas in Morea (Peloponnese) and the Empire of Trebizond.
The conqueror of Constantinople was Sultan Mehmed II Fatih Ghazi 'Abu'l Fath (1451 - 1481, 7th Sovereign of the House of Osman), was still 'simply' styled Kaysar-i-Rum (=Emperor of [Byzantium = the second] Rome, Caesar of Rome), Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, Emperor of the three Cities of Constantinople, Edirne and Bursa, Lord of the two lands and the two seas and the first to adopt the 'imperial' style Padishah.
During the 16th century, the institutions of society and government that had been evolving in the Ottoman dominions for two centuries reached the classical forms and patterns that were to persist into modern times. The basic division in Ottoman society was the traditional Middle Eastern distinction between a small ruling class of Ottomans (Osmanlı) and a large mass of subjects called rayas (reʿâyâ). Three attributes were essential for membership in the Ottoman ruling class: profession of loyalty to the sultan and his state; acceptance and practice of Islām and its underlying system of thought and action; and knowledge and practice of the complicated system of customs, behaviour, and language known as the Ottoman Way. Those who lacked any of these attributes were considered to be members of the subject class, the “protected flock” of the sultan.
Ottomans see Osmanli
Imperial House of Osman see Osmanli
Osmanli Hanedani see Osmanli
Osmanli (Ottomans) (Imperial House of Osman) (Osmanlı Hânedanı). Term pertaining to descendants of Osman I or to their soldiers and administrators, or to their language.
The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) (Turkish: Osmanlı Hânedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan. Before that the tribe/dynasty might have been known as Söğüt but was renamed Osmanlı (Ottoman in English) in honor of Osman.
The sultan was the sole and absolute regent, head of state and head of government of the empire, at least officially, though often much power shifted de facto to other officials, especially the Grand Vizier.
The Ottoman dynasty is known in Turkish as Osmanlı, meaning "House of Osman". The first rulers of the dynasty never had called themselves sultans, but rather beys, or "chieftain", roughly the Turkic equivalent of Emir, which would itself become a gubernatorial title and even a common military or honorific rank. Thus, they still formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the contemporary Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and its successor, the Ilkhanate.
The first Ottoman to actually claim the title of sultân was Murad I, who ruled from 1359 to 1389. The title sultan was in later Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Baghdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was more prestigious then Emir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'king' or the original Persian title of Shah. With the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the road was open for the Ottoman state to become an empire, with Sultan Mehmed II taking the title of pâdişah, a Persian title meaning "lord of kings" claiming superiority to the other kings, that title was abandoned when the empire declined and lost its former might.
In addition to such secular titles, the Ottoman sultan became the Caliph of Islam, starting with Selim I, who became khalif after the death of the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, the last of Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo.
In Europe, the Ottoman padishah was often referred to informally by such terms unrelated to the Ottoman protocol as the Grand Turk and the Grand Signor.
The sultans further adopted in time many secondary formal titles as well, such as "Sovereign of the House of Osman", "Sultan of Sultans" (roughly King of Kings), and "Khan of Khans".
As the empire grew, sultans adopted secondary titles expressing the empire's claim to be the successor in law of the structures of the absorbed states. Furthermore they tended to enumerate even regular provinces, not unlike the long lists of -mainly inherited- feudal titles in the full style of many Christian European monarchs.
When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories, which at the time before the Fall of Constantinople, however, extended to little more than the city itself, plus some areas in Morea (Peloponnese) and the Empire of Trebizond.
The conqueror of Constantinople was Sultan Mehmed II Fatih Ghazi 'Abu'l Fath (1451 - 1481, 7th Sovereign of the House of Osman), was still 'simply' styled Kaysar-i-Rum (=Emperor of [Byzantium = the second] Rome, Caesar of Rome), Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, Emperor of the three Cities of Constantinople, Edirne and Bursa, Lord of the two lands and the two seas and the first to adopt the 'imperial' style Padishah.
During the 16th century, the institutions of society and government that had been evolving in the Ottoman dominions for two centuries reached the classical forms and patterns that were to persist into modern times. The basic division in Ottoman society was the traditional Middle Eastern distinction between a small ruling class of Ottomans (Osmanlı) and a large mass of subjects called rayas (reʿâyâ). Three attributes were essential for membership in the Ottoman ruling class: profession of loyalty to the sultan and his state; acceptance and practice of Islām and its underlying system of thought and action; and knowledge and practice of the complicated system of customs, behaviour, and language known as the Ottoman Way. Those who lacked any of these attributes were considered to be members of the subject class, the “protected flock” of the sultan.
Ottomans see Osmanli
Imperial House of Osman see Osmanli
Osmanli Hanedani see Osmanli
Ossetians
Ossetians. People descended from the ancient Alans. The Ossetians speak Ossetic, a language of the Iranian branch of the subfamily of Indo-Iranian languages. The Ossetians inhabit Ossetia, a region in the central part of the North Caucasus. They are divided into Orthodox Christians and Sunni Muslims. The latter constitute between 20 to 30 percent of the population. Both faiths form only a thin veneer over a strong residual influence of the ancient polytheist and animist beliefs.
Christianity was introduced among the Ossetians in the twelfth century. Subsequently, a large number of them adopted Islam and many are now Sunnite Muslims. The people were conquered by the Russians in the early nineteenth century. They are divided into northern and southern groups and presently number about 600,000. The northern Ossetians export timber and cultivate various crops, principally corn. The small group of southern Ossetians is chiefly pastoral, herding sheep and goats in the east and cattle in the west. Peasant industries include the manufacture of leather goods, fur caps, daggers, and metalware. Since the Ossetians received political and cultural autonomy, the Latin alphabet has been adopted for the writing of the Ossetic language. That language was formerly written in the Armenian alphabet.
While Muslims are a minority among the Ossetians, a rural people living in the Caucasus Mountains, they are the second largest group of Indo-Iranian speaking Muslims in Russia and Georgia. Ossetians call themselves Iron and their land Iristan. One tribal division lives in the Digor River valley, and its members call themselves Digiron. It is the Digiron who comprise the Muslims among the Ossetians.
The Ossetians descend from the Alans–Sarmatians, a Scythian tribe. About 200 C.C., the Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion. The Alans remaining built up a great kingdom between the Don and the Volga. Between 350 C.C. and 374 C.C., the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom, and only a few survive to this day in the Caucasus as the Ossetes. The Ossetians became Christians under Byzantine and Georgian influence. A small number adopted Sunni Islam.
In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia-Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and benefited from the Silk Road.
Forced out of their medieval homeland (south of the River Don in present-day Russia) during Mongol rule, Alans migrated towards and over the Caucasus mountains, where they formed three ethnic groups:
* Iron and Digor in the north became what is now North Ossetia-Alania, under Russian rule from 1767. Iron dialect is the literary and written language of the Ossetian people.
* Digor in the west came under the influence of the neighboring Kabard people who introduced Islam. Today the two main Digor districts in North Ossetia are Digora district or Digorskiy rayon (with Digora as its center) and Irafskiy rayon or Iraf district (with Chikola as its center). Digora district is Christian while some parts of the Iraf district are Muslim. The dialect spoken in Digor part of North Ossetia is Digor, the most archaic form of the Ossetian language.
* Kudar, the southern Ossetic tribe. Initially they lived in the upper course of the Ardon River and the Darial Pass. Subsequently, around the 17th century, part of them started to migrate over the Caucasus and into Georgia. After the Russian annexation of Georgia in 1801, an Ossetian okrug was formed within the Tiflis governorate from 1846 to 1859. In 1922, the surrounding region received an autonomy within the Georgian SSR as South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. In 1991 Republic of South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia in aftermath of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict.
In recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian-Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and South Ossetia.
Most of the Ossetians became Christians in the 10th century under Byzantine influence.
As the time went by, Digor in the west came under Kabard and Islamic influence. It was through the Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into the region in the 17th century.
Kudar in the southernmost region became part of what is now South Ossetia, and Iron, the northernmost group, came under Russian rule after 1767, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity considerably.
Today the majority of Ossetians, from both North and South Ossetia, follow Eastern Orthodoxy, although there is a sizable number of adherents to Islam.
Traces of paganism are still very widespread among Ossetians, with rich ritual traditions, sacrificing animals, holy shrines, non-Christian saints.
Ossetians. People descended from the ancient Alans. The Ossetians speak Ossetic, a language of the Iranian branch of the subfamily of Indo-Iranian languages. The Ossetians inhabit Ossetia, a region in the central part of the North Caucasus. They are divided into Orthodox Christians and Sunni Muslims. The latter constitute between 20 to 30 percent of the population. Both faiths form only a thin veneer over a strong residual influence of the ancient polytheist and animist beliefs.
Christianity was introduced among the Ossetians in the twelfth century. Subsequently, a large number of them adopted Islam and many are now Sunnite Muslims. The people were conquered by the Russians in the early nineteenth century. They are divided into northern and southern groups and presently number about 600,000. The northern Ossetians export timber and cultivate various crops, principally corn. The small group of southern Ossetians is chiefly pastoral, herding sheep and goats in the east and cattle in the west. Peasant industries include the manufacture of leather goods, fur caps, daggers, and metalware. Since the Ossetians received political and cultural autonomy, the Latin alphabet has been adopted for the writing of the Ossetic language. That language was formerly written in the Armenian alphabet.
While Muslims are a minority among the Ossetians, a rural people living in the Caucasus Mountains, they are the second largest group of Indo-Iranian speaking Muslims in Russia and Georgia. Ossetians call themselves Iron and their land Iristan. One tribal division lives in the Digor River valley, and its members call themselves Digiron. It is the Digiron who comprise the Muslims among the Ossetians.
The Ossetians descend from the Alans–Sarmatians, a Scythian tribe. About 200 C.C., the Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion. The Alans remaining built up a great kingdom between the Don and the Volga. Between 350 C.C. and 374 C.C., the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom, and only a few survive to this day in the Caucasus as the Ossetes. The Ossetians became Christians under Byzantine and Georgian influence. A small number adopted Sunni Islam.
In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia-Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and benefited from the Silk Road.
Forced out of their medieval homeland (south of the River Don in present-day Russia) during Mongol rule, Alans migrated towards and over the Caucasus mountains, where they formed three ethnic groups:
* Iron and Digor in the north became what is now North Ossetia-Alania, under Russian rule from 1767. Iron dialect is the literary and written language of the Ossetian people.
* Digor in the west came under the influence of the neighboring Kabard people who introduced Islam. Today the two main Digor districts in North Ossetia are Digora district or Digorskiy rayon (with Digora as its center) and Irafskiy rayon or Iraf district (with Chikola as its center). Digora district is Christian while some parts of the Iraf district are Muslim. The dialect spoken in Digor part of North Ossetia is Digor, the most archaic form of the Ossetian language.
* Kudar, the southern Ossetic tribe. Initially they lived in the upper course of the Ardon River and the Darial Pass. Subsequently, around the 17th century, part of them started to migrate over the Caucasus and into Georgia. After the Russian annexation of Georgia in 1801, an Ossetian okrug was formed within the Tiflis governorate from 1846 to 1859. In 1922, the surrounding region received an autonomy within the Georgian SSR as South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. In 1991 Republic of South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia in aftermath of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict.
In recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian-Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and South Ossetia.
Most of the Ossetians became Christians in the 10th century under Byzantine influence.
As the time went by, Digor in the west came under Kabard and Islamic influence. It was through the Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into the region in the 17th century.
Kudar in the southernmost region became part of what is now South Ossetia, and Iron, the northernmost group, came under Russian rule after 1767, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity considerably.
Today the majority of Ossetians, from both North and South Ossetia, follow Eastern Orthodoxy, although there is a sizable number of adherents to Islam.
Traces of paganism are still very widespread among Ossetians, with rich ritual traditions, sacrificing animals, holy shrines, non-Christian saints.
‘Othman I Ghazi
‘Othman I Ghazi. See Osman I.
‘Othman I Ghazi. See Osman I.
‘Othman II
‘Othman II. See Osman II.
‘Othman II. See Osman II.
‘Othman III
‘Othman III (Osman III) (‘Osmān-i sālis) (January 2/3, 1699 – October 30, 1757). Ottoman sultan (r.1754-1757). His reign was relatively uneventful, but is remembered for the great fires in Istanbul in 1755 and 1756. His name is associated with the great mosque of Nuruosmaniyye.
The younger brother of Mahmud I (1730–54) and son of Mustafa II (1695–1703) and Valide Sultan Saliha Sabkati, born at Edirne Palace, Osman III was a generally insignificant prince. His brief reign is notable for a rising intolerance of non-Muslims with Christians and Jews being required to wear distinctive clothes or badges and for a fire in Istanbul. His mother was Şehsuvar Sultan, a Serbian valide sultan.
Osman III lived most of his life as a prisoner in the Palace. Upon becoming Sultan he had some behavioral peculiarities. Unlike previous Sultans, he hated music, and sent all musicians out of the palace. Also living in the "kafes", the palace prison in the "harem" which was the part of the palace containing women's quarters, he grew a dislike for women's companionship. Therefore he would wear iron shoes in order to not cross paths with any women, and by wearing such shoes they could hear him approach and disperse. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. He married Layla, without issue.
‘Othman III (Osman III) (‘Osmān-i sālis) (January 2/3, 1699 – October 30, 1757). Ottoman sultan (r.1754-1757). His reign was relatively uneventful, but is remembered for the great fires in Istanbul in 1755 and 1756. His name is associated with the great mosque of Nuruosmaniyye.
The younger brother of Mahmud I (1730–54) and son of Mustafa II (1695–1703) and Valide Sultan Saliha Sabkati, born at Edirne Palace, Osman III was a generally insignificant prince. His brief reign is notable for a rising intolerance of non-Muslims with Christians and Jews being required to wear distinctive clothes or badges and for a fire in Istanbul. His mother was Şehsuvar Sultan, a Serbian valide sultan.
Osman III lived most of his life as a prisoner in the Palace. Upon becoming Sultan he had some behavioral peculiarities. Unlike previous Sultans, he hated music, and sent all musicians out of the palace. Also living in the "kafes", the palace prison in the "harem" which was the part of the palace containing women's quarters, he grew a dislike for women's companionship. Therefore he would wear iron shoes in order to not cross paths with any women, and by wearing such shoes they could hear him approach and disperse. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. He married Layla, without issue.
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu (Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha) (1526-1585). Ottoman Grand Vizier and a celebrated military commander. A son of Ozdemir Pasha, he was beglerbegi of Habesh from 1561 to 1567 and then served as governor of San‘a’ until 1569. In 1578, he engineered two decisive victories over the Safavids, and another in 1583.
Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha see ‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu (Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha) (1526-1585). Ottoman Grand Vizier and a celebrated military commander. A son of Ozdemir Pasha, he was beglerbegi of Habesh from 1561 to 1567 and then served as governor of San‘a’ until 1569. In 1578, he engineered two decisive victories over the Safavids, and another in 1583.
Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha see ‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib (Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade) (d. 1724). Ottoman poet, scholar and historian . The most important of his many works is a collection of lives of the first ninety-two Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire.
Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade see ‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib (Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade) (d. 1724). Ottoman poet, scholar and historian . The most important of his many works is a collection of lives of the first ninety-two Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire.
Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade see ‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
Ottomans
Ottomans (Osmanli) (Othmanli). Name of a Turkish dynasty, ultimately of Oghuz origin, which ruled from 1281 to 1924 over Anatolia, the Balkans and the Arab lands.
The family probably stemmed from the Qayigh clan and seems to have led a nomadic life in Asia Minor. They had been attached to the Rum Saljuqs in Konya, who had gradually relapsed into anarchy after the victory of the Mongols over Kaykhusraw II in 1243. Several principalities arose in Asia Minor: the Qarasi-oghlu in Mysia, the Sarukhan-oghlu in Lydia, the Aydin-oghlu in Ionia, the Menteshe-oghlu in Caria, the Teke-oghlu in Lycia, the Germiyan-oghlu in Phrygia, the Hamid-oghlu in Pisidia and the Qaraman-oghlu in Cilicia. These regions were never part of the territory administered by the Mongols in the fourteenth century.
Ottoman history may conveniently be divided into four consecutive periods: the foundation and expansion of the Ottoman Empire (1280-1500); the empire at its zenith (1500-1650); the period of decline (1650-1840); and the beginnings of reform and westernization and the end of the dynasty (1840-1924).
The father of ‘Othman I, Ertoghul, is said to have established himself with his little tribe in the neighborhood of Sogud near Eskisehir. ‘Othman’s successor Orkhan took Izniq, Izmid and Bursa (Brusa), which became the capital. At his death, the Saqarya River was practically the eastern boundary of the state, and to the south it had reached Eskisehir. He had also acquired the Turkmen principality of the Qarasi-oghlu. Both he and ‘Othman had close relations with the Christian chiefs and commanders in the neighborhood. In 1353 began the military occupation of the European side of the Hellespont; Gallipoli was taken in 1357, and in 1362 Adrianople (Edirne) became the European capital of Murad I. The greater part of what is now Bulgaria was assured and Serbian power was crushed in the battle of Kosovo in 1389. Sultan Bayazid’s military expeditions extended over Hungary, Bosnia and southern Greece, but the conquests were not yet permanent. Constantinople became a mere vassal town. Ankara fell in 1359 and the territories of the Germiyan-oghlu and the Hamid-oghlu were acquired by marriage and sale.
After the battle of Ankara in 1402, in which Bayazid I was crushed by Tamerlane, Sultan Muhammad I was able to restore Ottoman power, which in general was realized without much bloodshed. Trebizond was conquered in 1461 and in 1468 the Qaraman dynasty was extinguished. The Ottomans survived the dangerous raid of the Aq Qoyunlu Uzun Hasan in 1472, but their frontier wars with the Mameluke forces in Syria were not glorious.
During the fifteenth century, the chief military activity of the Ottomans took place in Europe. A conflict with Venice broke out with the advance into Albania and Morea, and Hungary became the other Christian opponent through Ottoman raids and conquests in Serbia and Wallachia. The capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Muhammad II was only the realization of a part of his political scheme.
The sixteenth century brought wars with the Shi‘a Safavids of Persia. At the end of the reign of Suleyman II, the Ottoman Empire found itself between two powerful continental neighbors, the Austrian monarchy and the Safavids. The defeat at Lepanto in 1571 is considered to be the first great military blow inflicted on the Ottomans, and the possibility of further military expansion brought about a further inner weakening of the Empire. Baghdad was lost in 1623 but reconquered in 1638. In 1639, a long period of peace with Persia began.
During the eighteenth century, Austria and Venice diminished in power, but another formidable enemy had risen in the now much enlarged Russia. By the end of the century, the Ottoman Empire began to be a factor in the new imperialistic schemes of the Western Powers. Bessarabia was lost to Russia, and Ottoman authority in Egypt was weakened. The Greek independence brought further humiliation. But the existence of the Ottoman Empire was considered as a political necessity, and treaties were concluded with several Western Powers. The Capitulations (Imtiyazat), however, brought a form of international servitude which, at the end of the nineteenth century had taken the character of a collective tutelage, the Empire being dismembered more and more.
During World War I, Turkey joined the Central Powers and had to sign the Treaty of Sevres in 1920. Under the growing successes of the Nationalists, the Government at Istanbul was dissolved and the Sultan deposed, by which the Ottoman Empire and its dynasty came to an end.
Ottoman arts can be divided into several branches. Architecture developed in the fourteenth century. The great name here is Mi‘mar Sinan. Glazed pottery and tiles are found at Konya in the twelfth through thirteenth century and later Izniq became the great center. Carpets and textiles were produced since the fifteenth century. Flourishing were also metalwork, bookbinding, glass-making, manuscript illustrations, royal portraiture and numismatics.
Ottoman literature may be divided into three great periods: from the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century; the period after 1600; and the so-called “European type” as well as national literature, arising out of the development of the national movement, to the end of the dynasty.
Ottoman social and economic history can be studied under the following headings: The governing class and its subjects; peasant status and power in the countryside; peasant production; nomads and other herdsmen; trade; monetary developments; urban artisans; urban society and spatial structure; social dynamics.
Religious life under the Ottomans had a two-fold aspect. First, there was the official religious institution of the ‘ulema’ and fuqaha’, in varying extents connected with the ruling dynasty and headed by the Shaykh ul-Islam (Shaykh al-Islam) in Istanbul. Second, there had always been a strong current of Sufi mysticism.
The following is a list of the Ottoman sultans:
Ertoghrul (d. c. 1280)
‘Othman I (1281)
Orkhan (1324)
Murad I (1362)
Bayezid I Yildirim (“The Lightning Flash”) (1389)
The Timurid Invasion (1402)
Mehemmed I Celebi
{at first in Anatolia only,
after 1413 in Rumelia also} (1403)
Suleyman I {in Rumelia only until 1411} (1403)
Murad II (first reign) (1421)
Mehemmed II Fatih (“The Conqueror”)<tab>
{first reign} (1444)
Murad II (second reign) (1446)
Mehemmed II Fatih (second reign) (1451)
Bayezid II (1481)
Selim I Yavuz (“The Grim”) (1512)
Suleyman II Qanuni
{“The Law Giver”/”The Magnificent”} (1520)
Selim II (1566)
Murad III (1574)
Mehemmed III (1595)
Ahmed I (1603)
Mustafa I (first reign) (1617)
‘Othman II (1618)
Mustafa I (second reign) (1622)
Murad IV (1623)
Ibrahim (1640)
Mehemmed IV (1648)
Suleyman III (1687)
Ahmed II (1691)
Mustafa II (1695)
Ahmed III (1703)
Mahmud I (1730)
‘Othman III (1754)
Mustafa III (1757)
Abdulhamid I (1774)
Selim III (1789)
Mustafa IV (1807)
Mahmud II (1808)
Abdulmedcid I (1839)
Abdulaziz (1861)
Murad V (1876)
Abdulhamid II (1876)
Mehemmed V Reshad (1909)
Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin (1918)
Abdulmecid II (as caliph only) (1922-24)
Republican regime of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
The main capitals of the Ottomans were (beginning in 1280) Yenisehir; (beginning in 1326) Bursa; (beginning in 1366) Edirne; and (beginning in 1453) Istanbul (Constantinople). As an association of Ghuzz Turks, in the thirteenth century they were driven out of central Asia by the Mongols towards the west, where they formed a belligerent frontier emirate in Bithynia (from 1237) and later drove back the Anatolian Seljuks. Under the first sultan, Osman (r. 1280-1326) and his successors came a period of successful self-assertion and expansion, achieved at the cost of the Byzantine Empire (conquest of Bursa in 1326 and Edirne in 1361). In 1354, the Ottomans established their first strongholds in the Balkans (Gallipoli) and assembled the elite Janissary corps, which enabled them to expand rapidly through the Balkans and into Anatolia (with victories in the battles of Kosovo in 1389 and Nicopolis in 1396). In 1402, they suffered defeat by the troops of Timur at Ankara, which was followed by political confusion. A reorganization of the state and further expansion followed under Murad II (r. 1421-1451) and Muhammad II (r. 1451-1481), who conquered Constantinople in 1453 and destroyed the Christian Byzantine empire. The Ottomans became the leading power in the Islamic world and landed in Lower Italy in 1480. Selim I (r. 1512-1520) conquered the whole of Southwest Asia (Syria and Palestine in 1516, Egypt in 1517, followed by the Arabian Peninsula), emerged victorious against the Safavids at Chaldiran in 1514, and took over Azerbaijan. He assumed the title of caliph. The cultural zenith was the rule of his son, Suleyman II the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566), who conquered the Balkans (as far as Hungary and the siege of Vienna in 1529) and expanded control of the Mediterranean (occupation of the entire Maghrib coast from 1552, rule over Algeria, Tunisia, Libya). After 1566, with a few exceptions, weak or incapable sultans ruled, so that the period from 1656 saw the supremacy of the great viziers and Janissary officers, as well as cultural refinement and political decadence. In the ongoing conflict with the Hapsburg empire (Vienna was besieged again in 1683), the Ottomans were on the defensive after 1700. The state structure was reorganized under the reforming sultans, Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839), which coincided with the collapse of the Ottoman empire. 1839 saw the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms based on the European model. Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) implemented the Tanzimat policy by authoritarian means and fell into lasting conflict with bourgeois-liberal and nationalist opposition groups. In 1922, the last Ottoman sultan Muhammad VI (r. 1918-1922), was deposed and in 1924, the caliphate was disbanded by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
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