Nedim
Nedim (Ahmet Nedîm Efendi) (Ahmed Nedim Efendi) (1681 – 1730). Pen name of one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets. He achieved his greatest fame during the reign of Ahmed III, the so-called Tulip Era from 1718 to 1730. Both his life and his work are often seen as being representative of the relaxed attitude and European influences of that time. He was known for his slightly decadent, even licentious poetry often couched in the most staid of classical formats, but also for bringing the folk poetic forms of türkü and şarkı into the court.
Nedim, whose real name was Ahmed, was born in Istanbul sometime around the year 1681. His father, Mehmed Efendi, had served as a chief military judge (kazasker) during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Ibrahim I. At an early age, Nedim began his studies in a medrese, where he learned both Arabic and Persian. After completing his studies, he went on to work as a scholar of Islamic law.
In an attempt to gain recognition as a poet, Nedim wrote several kasîdes, or panegyric poems, dedicated to Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Grand Vizier from 1713 to 1716. However, it was not until — again through kasîdes — he managed to impress the subsequent Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha. It was then that Nedim managed to gain a foothold in the court of the sultan. Thereafter, Nedim became very close to the Grand Vizier, who effectively served as his sponsor under the Ottoman patronage system. Ibrahim Pasha's viziership coincided with the Ottoman
Tulip Era, a time known both for its aesthetic achievements and its decadence, and as Nedim fervently participated in this atmosphere he is often called the "Poet of the Tulip Period." Nedim is thought to have been an alcoholic and a drug user, most likely of opium.
It is known that Nedim died in 1730 during the Janissary revolt initiated by Patrona Halil, but there are conflicting stories as to the manner of his death. The most popular account has him falling to his death from the roof of his home in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul while attempting to escape from the insurgents. Another story, however, claims that he died as a result of excessive drinking, while a third story relates how Nedim — terrified by the tortures enacted upon Ibrahim Pasha and his retinue — suddenly died of fright. Nedim is buried in the Üsküdar district of Istanbul.
Nedim is now generally considered, along with Fuzûlî and Bâkî, to be one of the three greatest poets in the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition. It was not, however, until relatively recently that he came to be seen as such. In his own time, for instance, the title of reîs-i şâirân, or "president of poets", was given by Sultan Ahmed III not to Nedim, but to the now relatively obscure poet Osmanzâde Tâib, and several other poets as well were considered superior to Nedim in his own day. This relative lack of recognition may have had something to do with the sheer newness of Nedim's work, much of which was rather radical for its time.
In his kasîdes and occasional poems — written for the celebration of holidays, weddings, victories, circumcisions, and the like — Nedim was, for the most part and with some exceptions, a fairly traditional poet. He used many Arabic and Persian loan words, and employed much the same patterns of imagery and symbolism that had driven the Divan tradition for centuries. It was, however, in his songs (şarkı) and some of his gazels that Nedim showed his most innovation, in terms of both content and language.
Ahmet Nedim Efendi see Nedim
Ahmed Nedim Efendi see Nedim
It is known that Nedim died in 1730 during the Janissary revolt initiated by Patrona Halil, but there are conflicting stories as to the manner of his death. The most popular account has him falling to his death from the roof of his home in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul while attempting to escape from the insurgents. Another story, however, claims that he died as a result of excessive drinking, while a third story relates how Nedim — terrified by the tortures enacted upon Ibrahim Pasha and his retinue — suddenly died of fright. Nedim is buried in the Üsküdar district of Istanbul.
Nedim is now generally considered, along with Fuzûlî and Bâkî, to be one of the three greatest poets in the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition. It was not, however, until relatively recently that he came to be seen as such. In his own time, for instance, the title of reîs-i şâirân, or "president of poets", was given by Sultan Ahmed III not to Nedim, but to the now relatively obscure poet Osmanzâde Tâib, and several other poets as well were considered superior to Nedim in his own day. This relative lack of recognition may have had something to do with the sheer newness of Nedim's work, much of which was rather radical for its time.
In his kasîdes and occasional poems — written for the celebration of holidays, weddings, victories, circumcisions, and the like — Nedim was, for the most part and with some exceptions, a fairly traditional poet. He used many Arabic and Persian loan words, and employed much the same patterns of imagery and symbolism that had driven the Divan tradition for centuries. It was, however, in his songs (şarkı) and some of his gazels that Nedim showed his most innovation, in terms of both content and language.
Ahmet Nedim Efendi see Nedim
Ahmed Nedim Efendi see Nedim
Nef‘i
Nef‘i (‘Omer Efendi) (1572, Hasankale, Anatolia - 1634/1635, Istanbul). Greatest satirist of the Ottomans. His Arrows of Fate are directed against almost every one prominent in politics and society in his time.
Nef'i was an Ottoman poet and satirist. Nef'i entered military service as a quartermaster with Grand Vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha (in office 1606-1611) during his suppression of the Jelali revolts in Anatolia in the early 1600s. Upon Murat Pasha's return to Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Nef'i accompanied him as an accountant.
Nef'i attempted to gain the sultan's favor for his poetry, but was unsuccessful with Ahmet I (r. 1603-1617) and Osman II (r. 1618-1622). However, finally, Sultan Murad IV (r. 1623-1640) recognized his skill and granted him a stipend.
Because of his vicious literary attacks on government officials, he was executed by strangulation in 1635 at the request of Grand Vizier Bayram Pasha.
The following story is told about the execution of Nef'i:
Nefi's execution was decided due to his satirical verses on Grand Vizier Bayram Pasha.
As Nef'i went to Topkapı Palace to present his newly written satire book "Sihâm-ı Kazâ" (English: Arrows of Misfortune) to Sultan Murad IV, lightning struck the dome of the palace. The sultan ordered him away yelling "You evil! Take your book and get off so that we get rid of the arrows of misfortune".
After leaving sultan's audience, Nef'i asked the palace master (Ottoman Turkish: Dâr-üs Saâde Ağası) to mediate for his pardoning. The black master of African origin started to write an application to the grand vizier while Nef'i stood nearby and watched. A short while after, a drop of black ink fell onto the white paper, and Nef'i promptly commented in sarcasm "Sir, your sweat dripped." The palace master tore the paper in anger, and Nef'i was delivered to the executioner. He was courageous until the last moment as he said to his executioner "Go man, you slacker!" After he was strangled with an oiled rope in the woodshed of the palace, his corpse was thrown into the sea.
Nef'i was strongly influenced by classical Persian poetry, but developed the Turkish kaside form. In addition to odes, especially about Sultan Murad IV, Nef'i wrote sarcastic and often vitriolic verse about the failings of specific governmental officials.
'Omer Efendi see Nef‘i
Nef‘i (‘Omer Efendi) (1572, Hasankale, Anatolia - 1634/1635, Istanbul). Greatest satirist of the Ottomans. His Arrows of Fate are directed against almost every one prominent in politics and society in his time.
Nef'i was an Ottoman poet and satirist. Nef'i entered military service as a quartermaster with Grand Vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha (in office 1606-1611) during his suppression of the Jelali revolts in Anatolia in the early 1600s. Upon Murat Pasha's return to Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Nef'i accompanied him as an accountant.
Nef'i attempted to gain the sultan's favor for his poetry, but was unsuccessful with Ahmet I (r. 1603-1617) and Osman II (r. 1618-1622). However, finally, Sultan Murad IV (r. 1623-1640) recognized his skill and granted him a stipend.
Because of his vicious literary attacks on government officials, he was executed by strangulation in 1635 at the request of Grand Vizier Bayram Pasha.
The following story is told about the execution of Nef'i:
Nefi's execution was decided due to his satirical verses on Grand Vizier Bayram Pasha.
As Nef'i went to Topkapı Palace to present his newly written satire book "Sihâm-ı Kazâ" (English: Arrows of Misfortune) to Sultan Murad IV, lightning struck the dome of the palace. The sultan ordered him away yelling "You evil! Take your book and get off so that we get rid of the arrows of misfortune".
After leaving sultan's audience, Nef'i asked the palace master (Ottoman Turkish: Dâr-üs Saâde Ağası) to mediate for his pardoning. The black master of African origin started to write an application to the grand vizier while Nef'i stood nearby and watched. A short while after, a drop of black ink fell onto the white paper, and Nef'i promptly commented in sarcasm "Sir, your sweat dripped." The palace master tore the paper in anger, and Nef'i was delivered to the executioner. He was courageous until the last moment as he said to his executioner "Go man, you slacker!" After he was strangled with an oiled rope in the woodshed of the palace, his corpse was thrown into the sea.
Nef'i was strongly influenced by classical Persian poetry, but developed the Turkish kaside form. In addition to odes, especially about Sultan Murad IV, Nef'i wrote sarcastic and often vitriolic verse about the failings of specific governmental officials.
'Omer Efendi see Nef‘i
Negm, Ahmed Fouad
Ahmed Fouad Negm (Arabic: احمد فؤاد نجم) (b. May 22, 1929 – d. December 3, 2013), popularly known as el-Fagommi (الفاجومي), was an Egyptian vernacular poet. Negm is well known for his work with Egyptian composer Sheikh Imam, as well as his patriotic and revolutionary Egyptian Arabic poetry. Negm has been regarded as "a bit of a folk hero in Egypt."
Ahmed Fouad Negm was born in Sharqia, Egypt, to a family of fellahin. His mother, Hanem Morsi Negm, was a housewife, and his father Mohammed Ezat Negm, a police officer. Negm was one of seventeen brothers. Like many poets and writers of his generation, he received his education at the religious Kutaab schools managed by El-Azhar.
When his father died, Ahmed went to live with his uncle Hussein in Zagazig, but was placed in an orphanage in 1936 where he first met the famous singer Abdel Halim Hafez. In 1945, at the age of 17, he left the orphanage and returned to his village to work as a shepherd. Later, he moved to Cairo to live with his brother who eventually kicked him out only to return to his village again to work in one of the English camps while helping with guerilla operations.
After the agreement between Egypt and Britain, the Egyptian National Workers’ Movement asked everyone in the English camps to quit their job. Negm was then appointed by the Egyptian government as a laborer in mechanical workshops. He was imprisoned for 3 years for counterfeiting form, during which he participated and won first place in a writing competition organized by the Supreme Council for the Arts. He then published his first collection “Pictures from Life and Prison” in vernacular Egyptian Arabic and became famous after Suhair El-Alamawi introduced his book while he was still in prison. After he was released, he was appointed as a clerk in the organization for Asian and African peoples. He also became a regular poet on Egyptian radio.
Negm lived in a small room on the rooftop of a house in the Boulaq el-Dakror neighborhood. When he met singer and composer Sheikh Imam in the Khosh Adam neighborhood, they became roommates and formed a famous signing duet. Negm was also imprisoned several times due to his political views, particularly his harsh criticism of Egyptian presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak.
The residence of Ahmed Fouad Negm in the poorest neighborhoods of Cairo, Egypt, exposed him to the most talented professionals such as Sheikh Imam Issa, and impoverished poets and artists. It was Sheikh Imam in particular who compensated Negm for the earlier rejection by his orphanage-mate Abdel Halim Hafez.
In 1962, Negm was introduced to Sheikh Imam by a friend who believed that the two, poet Negm and composer Imam, could make a perfect duo. On the first occasion, Negm noticed that Imam took over an hour to tweak the strings of the Oud before starting his first demonstration to the new guest. Negm shouted "Allah" upon listening to Imam's singing and playing the Oud. The blind Sheikh was equally longing for inspiring words of the sort Negm had. That was the spark that lasted 30 years of concerted writing by Negm, composing by Imam, and singing by the two combined.
Negm was quick enough to sense that the blind Sheikh was a hidden treasure of Islamic literacy and music talent, and with his physical handicap, he could use the help of Negm's eyes and words. Hence, Negm proposed to stay in Imam's residence. As he recounted, his other rented room had property worth 6 Egyptian pounds, thus if he threw away the key for his other room, the landlord was required to take three months before breaking into the room and possessing its contents. Negm took the risk, abandoned his rented room with its contents and stuck with Sheikh Imam from 1962 throughout 1995.
In the early hours of 3 December 2013, Negm died at the age of 84 in Cairo.
In 2007, Negm was chosen by the United Nations Poverty Action as Ambassador of the poor.
Ahmed Fouad Negm won the 2013 Prince Claus Award for ‘Unwavering Integrity’.
Neguib
Neguib (Muhammad Najib). See Nagib, Muhammed.
Neguib (Muhammad Najib). See Nagib, Muhammed.
Negus
Negus. See Najashi, al-.
Negus. See Najashi, al-.
Neoplatonist
Neoplatonist. Term which refers to a supporter of the philosophical system founded in the third century. The philosophy of the Neoplatonist was based on Plato’s ideas and was common in the Middle East up to the Arab conquests.
Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century of the Christian calendar, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. The term - neuplatonisch - was coined by a German historian. Neoplatonists would have considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantially different from what Plato wrote and believed. The Neoplatonism of Plotinus and Porphyry has been referred to as really being orthodox Platonic philosophy by some scholars. This distinction provides a contrast with later movements of Neoplatonism, such as those of Iamblichus and Proclus, which embraced magical practices or theurgy as part of the soul's development in the process of the soul's return to the Source. This could also be due to one possible motive of Plotinus, being to clarify some of the traditions in the teachings of Plato that had been misrepresented before Iamblichus (see Neoplatonism and Gnosticism).
Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have received his teachings from Ammonius Saccas, a philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius of Apamea. Plotinus's student Porphyry assembled his teachings into the six sets of nine tractates, or Enneads. Subsequent Neoplatonic philosophers included Iamblichus, Hypatia of Alexandria, Hierocles of Alexandria, Proclus (by far the most influential of later Neoplatonists), Damascius (last head of Neoplatonist School at Athens), Olympiodorus the Younger, and Simplicius of Cilicia.
Neoplatonism was the most dominant intellectual movement of the time within the Roman Empire, and thinkers from the Neoplatonic school cross-pollinated with the thinkers of other intellectual schools. For instance, certain strands of Neoplatonism influenced Christian thinkers (such as Augustine, Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, and Bonaventure), while Christian thought influenced (and sometimes converted) Neoplatonic philosophers (such as Justin Martyr and Dionysius the Areopagite). In the Middle Ages, Neoplatonistic arguments were taken seriously in the thought of medieval Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Moses Maimonides (Ibn Maymun), and experienced a revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition and translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonic texts.
Neoplatonist. Term which refers to a supporter of the philosophical system founded in the third century. The philosophy of the Neoplatonist was based on Plato’s ideas and was common in the Middle East up to the Arab conquests.
Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century of the Christian calendar, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. The term - neuplatonisch - was coined by a German historian. Neoplatonists would have considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantially different from what Plato wrote and believed. The Neoplatonism of Plotinus and Porphyry has been referred to as really being orthodox Platonic philosophy by some scholars. This distinction provides a contrast with later movements of Neoplatonism, such as those of Iamblichus and Proclus, which embraced magical practices or theurgy as part of the soul's development in the process of the soul's return to the Source. This could also be due to one possible motive of Plotinus, being to clarify some of the traditions in the teachings of Plato that had been misrepresented before Iamblichus (see Neoplatonism and Gnosticism).
Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have received his teachings from Ammonius Saccas, a philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius of Apamea. Plotinus's student Porphyry assembled his teachings into the six sets of nine tractates, or Enneads. Subsequent Neoplatonic philosophers included Iamblichus, Hypatia of Alexandria, Hierocles of Alexandria, Proclus (by far the most influential of later Neoplatonists), Damascius (last head of Neoplatonist School at Athens), Olympiodorus the Younger, and Simplicius of Cilicia.
Neoplatonism was the most dominant intellectual movement of the time within the Roman Empire, and thinkers from the Neoplatonic school cross-pollinated with the thinkers of other intellectual schools. For instance, certain strands of Neoplatonism influenced Christian thinkers (such as Augustine, Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, and Bonaventure), while Christian thought influenced (and sometimes converted) Neoplatonic philosophers (such as Justin Martyr and Dionysius the Areopagite). In the Middle Ages, Neoplatonistic arguments were taken seriously in the thought of medieval Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Moses Maimonides (Ibn Maymun), and experienced a revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition and translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonic texts.
Neo-Wafd
Neo-Wafd. Egyptian political party established in 1978. The Neo-Wafd was based on the original Wafd party that was outlawed in 1953. Neo-Wafd was established by Serag al-Din, a veteran of the original party.
The politics of Neo-Wafd naturally had a different focus than the original Wafd party, since Egypt had gained its independence in the meantime. Neo-Wafd focused on secularism, private enterprise and close ties with the United States and other Western powers, compared to close relations with the Soviet Union.
Neo-Wafd proved to become very popular among the Copts but it never gained more than ten percent support from the total Egyptian population.
A chronology of the Neo-Wafd reads as follows:
In February 1978, when Serag al-Din won the loyalty of twenty-two parliamentarians, he established the Neo-Wafd. This was made possible with President Sadat’s legalization of political parties. In September 1978, a law from the parliament made the Neo-Wafd indirectly responsible for alleged crimes with the 1952 revolution. This made the leaders of Neo-Wafd disband the party.
In 1981, Serag al-Din was arrested.
In August 1983, after Egypt’s new President, Hosni Mubarak, liberalized Egyptian politics, the Neo-Wafd re-emerged.
In 1984, general elections where the Wafd cooperated with the Muslim Brotherhood, but without giving them the influence promised. Neo-Wafd won 58 seats in the parliament.
In 1987, Neo-Wafd won 36 seats in the parliament.
In 1990, Neo-Wafd boycotted the elections, as a protest against the continuing state of emergency in Egypt.
Early in December 2005, the party appeared in crisis following the parliamentary elections, when party chairman Numan Gumaa dismissed prominent party leader and vice chairman Monir Fakhri Abdel Nour following the poor performance the party showed during the elections.
Abdel Nour was also the leader of the opposition bloc in the outgoing parliament before losing his seat in the first stage of elections. Abdel Nour told the media before his dismissal, that the only way the party could improve would be by "changing its leadership". He also continued that there was much support within the party for such a change.
After a poor showing in the 2005 Egyptian Presidential elections, the Wafd Party split into two camps, with one group demanding that Numan Gumaa leave his post as chairman. That demand became even more pronounced after the party also did poorly in the parliamentary elections.
Later in December 2005, the party's higher political board reversed Gumaa's decisions on firing Abdel Nour as well as other members. The higher board also held elections for its membership and amended its internal by-laws and rules, especially those that gave the party's chairman vast authority. This was done in an aim to trim the chairman's political powers, all of which Gumaa had agreed to support.
On January 18, 2006 the supreme committee for the party ousted its chairman Numan Gumaa from the party and from the presidency of the board of al-Wafd newspaper. The committee attributed its decision to Gumaa's tyrannical behavior and abuse of authority.
It also appointed his deputy Mahmoud Abaza as an interim Chairman for a period of 60 days after which the General Assembly of the party would be invited for an emergency meeting to choose a new chairman.
However, Gumaa contended that this decision contradicted the party's statute and that he was the legitimate chairman who could be dismissed only by a decision of the party's General Assembly. He responded by filing a complaint with Egypt's Prosecutor General who ruled that Gumaa should be allowed access to party's headquarters. Abaza filed an urgent lawsuit asking that the Prosecutor General’s ruling be overturned.
The party's newspaper, Al-Wafd, was suspended for thirteen days (from January 27 until February 8, 2006) after Gumaa asked Al Ahram publishing house to stop printing the paper and fire its editor and some journalists, complaining of their allegiance to Abaza's group.
On February 10, 2006, the party's General Assembly agreed to dismiss Gumaa from the Wafd presidency and appointed Mustafa al-Taweel (a member of al-Wafd supreme committee) as an interim president until the next elections on July 2006. Gumaa argued the decision was due to an earlier ruling by Giza's court of first instance to stop the General Assembly meeting.
On April 1, Gumaa and his supporters occupied the party's headquarters to reclaim control and opened fire on supporters of the rival faction who responded by throwing stones. Twenty three people were injured and fire broke out in the building but was brought under control. Egyptian authorities arrested Gumaa and some of his supporters.
In May 2010, the party's deputy chairman, Fouad Badrawi, the grandson of Wafd's late leader Fouad Serageddin announced that he was withdrawing his name from the nominations for party presidency to allow El-Sayyed El-Badawi, a member of the party's supreme authority and the party's former secretary-general, to run instead in the party elections scheduled by the end of the month.
In a rare occurrence in Egyptian partisan life, the elections were conducted in a transparent, peaceful manner and characterized by integrity. At its end, it was announced that El-Sayyed El-Badawi would be the new party chairman, with the outgoing president standing beside him.
After his election, El-Badawi met with many prominent figures in Egyptian life, ranging from politicians, current members of parliament, Muslim and Coptic religious figures and even actors, actresses and football players.
To many observers, the Wafd merged as a much stronger party after this election. It was asserted thatthe party would once again attract liberals who were losing grip in the then current political map to Islamists and other extremists.
After the 2011 Egyptian revolution forced President Hosni Mubarak to announce that he would step down in the coming elections, the government invited opposition parties to participate in dialogue. The Wafd party's secretary-general accepted on condition that protesters would not be attacked.
Representatives of the Al-Wafd Party joined anti-Mubarak protesters in Tahrir Square and vowed not to have a dialogue with government officials until President Mubarak relinquished his office.
On June 13, 2011, the Wafd Party announced an alliance (the National Democratic Alliance for Egypt) with the Freedom and Justice Party, the political wing of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, to present a joint list of candidates for the parliamentary election in September of 2011. Executive members of Wafd criticized the cooperation of the secular party with the Islamists.
In in an interview with The Washington Times in July 2011, Wafd Party vice chairman Ahmed Ezz el-Arab dismissed the Holocaust as a "lie", and the Diary of Anne Frank as a "forgery". Moreover, he claimed that the September 11 attacks were in reality perpetrated by Mossad, the CIA and America's "military-industrial complex", and that Osama bin Laden was an "American agent".
Neo-Wafd. Egyptian political party established in 1978. The Neo-Wafd was based on the original Wafd party that was outlawed in 1953. Neo-Wafd was established by Serag al-Din, a veteran of the original party.
The politics of Neo-Wafd naturally had a different focus than the original Wafd party, since Egypt had gained its independence in the meantime. Neo-Wafd focused on secularism, private enterprise and close ties with the United States and other Western powers, compared to close relations with the Soviet Union.
Neo-Wafd proved to become very popular among the Copts but it never gained more than ten percent support from the total Egyptian population.
A chronology of the Neo-Wafd reads as follows:
In February 1978, when Serag al-Din won the loyalty of twenty-two parliamentarians, he established the Neo-Wafd. This was made possible with President Sadat’s legalization of political parties. In September 1978, a law from the parliament made the Neo-Wafd indirectly responsible for alleged crimes with the 1952 revolution. This made the leaders of Neo-Wafd disband the party.
In 1981, Serag al-Din was arrested.
In August 1983, after Egypt’s new President, Hosni Mubarak, liberalized Egyptian politics, the Neo-Wafd re-emerged.
In 1984, general elections where the Wafd cooperated with the Muslim Brotherhood, but without giving them the influence promised. Neo-Wafd won 58 seats in the parliament.
In 1987, Neo-Wafd won 36 seats in the parliament.
In 1990, Neo-Wafd boycotted the elections, as a protest against the continuing state of emergency in Egypt.
Early in December 2005, the party appeared in crisis following the parliamentary elections, when party chairman Numan Gumaa dismissed prominent party leader and vice chairman Monir Fakhri Abdel Nour following the poor performance the party showed during the elections.
Abdel Nour was also the leader of the opposition bloc in the outgoing parliament before losing his seat in the first stage of elections. Abdel Nour told the media before his dismissal, that the only way the party could improve would be by "changing its leadership". He also continued that there was much support within the party for such a change.
After a poor showing in the 2005 Egyptian Presidential elections, the Wafd Party split into two camps, with one group demanding that Numan Gumaa leave his post as chairman. That demand became even more pronounced after the party also did poorly in the parliamentary elections.
Later in December 2005, the party's higher political board reversed Gumaa's decisions on firing Abdel Nour as well as other members. The higher board also held elections for its membership and amended its internal by-laws and rules, especially those that gave the party's chairman vast authority. This was done in an aim to trim the chairman's political powers, all of which Gumaa had agreed to support.
On January 18, 2006 the supreme committee for the party ousted its chairman Numan Gumaa from the party and from the presidency of the board of al-Wafd newspaper. The committee attributed its decision to Gumaa's tyrannical behavior and abuse of authority.
It also appointed his deputy Mahmoud Abaza as an interim Chairman for a period of 60 days after which the General Assembly of the party would be invited for an emergency meeting to choose a new chairman.
However, Gumaa contended that this decision contradicted the party's statute and that he was the legitimate chairman who could be dismissed only by a decision of the party's General Assembly. He responded by filing a complaint with Egypt's Prosecutor General who ruled that Gumaa should be allowed access to party's headquarters. Abaza filed an urgent lawsuit asking that the Prosecutor General’s ruling be overturned.
The party's newspaper, Al-Wafd, was suspended for thirteen days (from January 27 until February 8, 2006) after Gumaa asked Al Ahram publishing house to stop printing the paper and fire its editor and some journalists, complaining of their allegiance to Abaza's group.
On February 10, 2006, the party's General Assembly agreed to dismiss Gumaa from the Wafd presidency and appointed Mustafa al-Taweel (a member of al-Wafd supreme committee) as an interim president until the next elections on July 2006. Gumaa argued the decision was due to an earlier ruling by Giza's court of first instance to stop the General Assembly meeting.
On April 1, Gumaa and his supporters occupied the party's headquarters to reclaim control and opened fire on supporters of the rival faction who responded by throwing stones. Twenty three people were injured and fire broke out in the building but was brought under control. Egyptian authorities arrested Gumaa and some of his supporters.
In May 2010, the party's deputy chairman, Fouad Badrawi, the grandson of Wafd's late leader Fouad Serageddin announced that he was withdrawing his name from the nominations for party presidency to allow El-Sayyed El-Badawi, a member of the party's supreme authority and the party's former secretary-general, to run instead in the party elections scheduled by the end of the month.
In a rare occurrence in Egyptian partisan life, the elections were conducted in a transparent, peaceful manner and characterized by integrity. At its end, it was announced that El-Sayyed El-Badawi would be the new party chairman, with the outgoing president standing beside him.
After his election, El-Badawi met with many prominent figures in Egyptian life, ranging from politicians, current members of parliament, Muslim and Coptic religious figures and even actors, actresses and football players.
To many observers, the Wafd merged as a much stronger party after this election. It was asserted thatthe party would once again attract liberals who were losing grip in the then current political map to Islamists and other extremists.
After the 2011 Egyptian revolution forced President Hosni Mubarak to announce that he would step down in the coming elections, the government invited opposition parties to participate in dialogue. The Wafd party's secretary-general accepted on condition that protesters would not be attacked.
Representatives of the Al-Wafd Party joined anti-Mubarak protesters in Tahrir Square and vowed not to have a dialogue with government officials until President Mubarak relinquished his office.
On June 13, 2011, the Wafd Party announced an alliance (the National Democratic Alliance for Egypt) with the Freedom and Justice Party, the political wing of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, to present a joint list of candidates for the parliamentary election in September of 2011. Executive members of Wafd criticized the cooperation of the secular party with the Islamists.
In in an interview with The Washington Times in July 2011, Wafd Party vice chairman Ahmed Ezz el-Arab dismissed the Holocaust as a "lie", and the Diary of Anne Frank as a "forgery". Moreover, he claimed that the September 11 attacks were in reality perpetrated by Mossad, the CIA and America's "military-industrial complex", and that Osama bin Laden was an "American agent".
Nergisi
Nergisi (Nergisi-zade Mehmed Efendi) (b. c.1592, Sarajevo - d.1634, Gebze). Ottoman stylist, poet and calligrapher from Sarajevo. His fame is based on his love stories and stories of liberality, legends, a mirror of princes, and the wars of religion waged by the Umayyad Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik. He also wrote a historical work on the Bosniak Murtada Pasha, governor of Ofen (d. 1628).
After his education at a Madrassah in Istanbul, Nergisi worked as Müderris and Kadi in different cities in Roumelia. After he was promoted to Reich historian , he died on his first campaign in Gebze , after falling from his horse.
Nergisi-zade Mehmed Efendi see Nergisi
Nergisi (Nergisi-zade Mehmed Efendi) (b. c.1592, Sarajevo - d.1634, Gebze). Ottoman stylist, poet and calligrapher from Sarajevo. His fame is based on his love stories and stories of liberality, legends, a mirror of princes, and the wars of religion waged by the Umayyad Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik. He also wrote a historical work on the Bosniak Murtada Pasha, governor of Ofen (d. 1628).
After his education at a Madrassah in Istanbul, Nergisi worked as Müderris and Kadi in different cities in Roumelia. After he was promoted to Reich historian , he died on his first campaign in Gebze , after falling from his horse.
Nergisi-zade Mehmed Efendi see Nergisi
Nesh’et Khoja Suleyman
Nesh’et Khoja Suleyman (1735-1807). Ottoman poet from Edirne. He was an admirable teacher, Ghalib Dede being one of his pupils, and was known for his devotion to Persian.
Suleyman, Nesh’et Khoja see Nesh’et Khoja Suleyman
Nesh’et Khoja Suleyman (1735-1807). Ottoman poet from Edirne. He was an admirable teacher, Ghalib Dede being one of his pupils, and was known for his devotion to Persian.
Suleyman, Nesh’et Khoja see Nesh’et Khoja Suleyman
Neshri, Mehmed
Neshri, Mehmed (Mehmed Neshri) (d.1520). Ottoman historian. He owes his fame to a history of the world in six parts. Only the sixth part, dealing with Ottoman history down to the period of Bayazid II, seems to have survived.
Mehmed Neshiri see Neshri, Mehmed
Neshri, Mehmed (Mehmed Neshri) (d.1520). Ottoman historian. He owes his fame to a history of the world in six parts. Only the sixth part, dealing with Ottoman history down to the period of Bayazid II, seems to have survived.
Mehmed Neshiri see Neshri, Mehmed
Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din (Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din Nesimi) (‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī) (1373-1417, Aleppo). Ottoman poet and mystic. Equally versed in Arabic and Turkish, he was an enthusiastic follower of Fadl Allah Hurufi. His poems were made popular by the wandering Qalandar dervishes.
‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī was a 14th-century Azerbaijani Turkic Ḥurūfī poet. Known mostly by his pen name (or takhallus) of Nesîmî, he composed one Divan in Azerbaijani Turkic, one in Persian, and a number of poems in Arabic. He is considered one of the greatest Turkic mystical poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries and one of the most prominent early Divan masters in Turkic literary history.
Very little is known for certain about Nesîmî's life, including his real name. Most sources indicate that his name was İmâdüddîn, but it is also claimed that his name may have been Alî or Ömer. It is also possible that he was descended from Muhammad, since he has sometimes been accorded the title of sayyid that is reserved for people claimed to be in Muhammad's line of descent.
Nesîmî's birthplace, like his real name, is wrapped in mystery: some claim that he was born in a province called Nesîm — hence the pen name — located either near Aleppo in modern-day Syria, or near Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, but no such province has been found to exist. There are also claims that he was born in Shamakhi or Bursa as well as Tabriz, Shiraz, or Diyarbakır.
From his poetry, it's evident that Nesîmî was an adherent of the Ḥurūfī movement, which was founded by Nesîmî's teacher Fażlullāh Astarābādī of Astarābād, who was condemned for heresy and executed in Alinja near Nakhchivan. The center of Fażlullāh's influence was Baku and most of his followers came from Shirvan.
Nesîmî became one of the most influential advocates of the Ḥurūfī doctrine and the movement's ideas were spread to a large extent through his poetry. While Fażlullāh believed that he himself was the manifestation of God, for Nesîmî, at the center of Creation there was God, who bestowed His Light on man. Through sacrifice and self perfection, man can become one with God.
Around 1417, as a direct result of his beliefs — which were considered blasphemous by contemporary religious authorities — Nesîmî was seized and, according to most accounts, skinned alive in Aleppo.
A number of legends later grew up around Nesimi's execution, such as the story that he mocked his executioners with improvised verse and, after the execution, draped his flayed skin around his shoulders and departed. A rare historical account of the event — the Tarih-i Heleb of Akhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Halabi — relates that the court, which was of the Maliki school of religious law, was unwilling to convict Nesîmî of apostasy, and that the order of execution instead came from the secular power of the emir of Aleppo, who was hoping to avoid open rebellion.
Nesîmî's tomb in Aleppo remains an important place of pilgrimage to this day.
Nesîmî's collected poems, or dîvân, number about 300, and include ghazals, qasidas (“lyrics”), and rubâ'îs (“quatrains”) in Azerbaijani Turkic, Persian, and Arabic. His Turkish Divan is considered his most important work, contains 250–300 ghazals and more than 150 rubâ'îs. A large body of Bektashi and Alevi poetry is also attributed to Nesîmî, largely as a result of Hurûfî ideas' influence upon those two groups. Shah Ismail I, the founder of Safavid dynasty in Iran, who himself composed a divan in Azerbaijani Turkic under the pen name of Khatai, praised Nesimi in his poems.
Nesîmî's work represents an important stage in the development of poetry not only in the Azerbaijani language vernacular, but also in the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition. After his death, Nesîmî's work continued to exercise a great influence on many Turkic language poets, and authors such as Fuzûlî (1483?–1556), Khata'i (1487–1524), and Pir Sultan Abdal (1480–1550) can be counted among his followers
Nesîmî is venerated in the modern Republic of Azerbaijan, and one of the districts of the capital city, Baku, bears his name. There is also a monument to him in the city. Furthermore, the Institute of Linguistics at the Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan is named after him, and there was also a 1973 Azerbaijani film, Nasimi (the Azerbaijani language spelling of his name), made about him. The 600th anniversary of Nesîmî's birthday was celebrated worldwide in 1973 by the decision of UNESCO, and representatives from many countries took part in the celebrations held both in Azerbaijan and in Moscow, Russia.
Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din Nesimi see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
Nasimi, 'Ali 'Imadu d-Din see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din (Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din Nesimi) (‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī) (1373-1417, Aleppo). Ottoman poet and mystic. Equally versed in Arabic and Turkish, he was an enthusiastic follower of Fadl Allah Hurufi. His poems were made popular by the wandering Qalandar dervishes.
‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī was a 14th-century Azerbaijani Turkic Ḥurūfī poet. Known mostly by his pen name (or takhallus) of Nesîmî, he composed one Divan in Azerbaijani Turkic, one in Persian, and a number of poems in Arabic. He is considered one of the greatest Turkic mystical poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries and one of the most prominent early Divan masters in Turkic literary history.
Very little is known for certain about Nesîmî's life, including his real name. Most sources indicate that his name was İmâdüddîn, but it is also claimed that his name may have been Alî or Ömer. It is also possible that he was descended from Muhammad, since he has sometimes been accorded the title of sayyid that is reserved for people claimed to be in Muhammad's line of descent.
Nesîmî's birthplace, like his real name, is wrapped in mystery: some claim that he was born in a province called Nesîm — hence the pen name — located either near Aleppo in modern-day Syria, or near Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, but no such province has been found to exist. There are also claims that he was born in Shamakhi or Bursa as well as Tabriz, Shiraz, or Diyarbakır.
From his poetry, it's evident that Nesîmî was an adherent of the Ḥurūfī movement, which was founded by Nesîmî's teacher Fażlullāh Astarābādī of Astarābād, who was condemned for heresy and executed in Alinja near Nakhchivan. The center of Fażlullāh's influence was Baku and most of his followers came from Shirvan.
Nesîmî became one of the most influential advocates of the Ḥurūfī doctrine and the movement's ideas were spread to a large extent through his poetry. While Fażlullāh believed that he himself was the manifestation of God, for Nesîmî, at the center of Creation there was God, who bestowed His Light on man. Through sacrifice and self perfection, man can become one with God.
Around 1417, as a direct result of his beliefs — which were considered blasphemous by contemporary religious authorities — Nesîmî was seized and, according to most accounts, skinned alive in Aleppo.
A number of legends later grew up around Nesimi's execution, such as the story that he mocked his executioners with improvised verse and, after the execution, draped his flayed skin around his shoulders and departed. A rare historical account of the event — the Tarih-i Heleb of Akhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Halabi — relates that the court, which was of the Maliki school of religious law, was unwilling to convict Nesîmî of apostasy, and that the order of execution instead came from the secular power of the emir of Aleppo, who was hoping to avoid open rebellion.
Nesîmî's tomb in Aleppo remains an important place of pilgrimage to this day.
Nesîmî's collected poems, or dîvân, number about 300, and include ghazals, qasidas (“lyrics”), and rubâ'îs (“quatrains”) in Azerbaijani Turkic, Persian, and Arabic. His Turkish Divan is considered his most important work, contains 250–300 ghazals and more than 150 rubâ'îs. A large body of Bektashi and Alevi poetry is also attributed to Nesîmî, largely as a result of Hurûfî ideas' influence upon those two groups. Shah Ismail I, the founder of Safavid dynasty in Iran, who himself composed a divan in Azerbaijani Turkic under the pen name of Khatai, praised Nesimi in his poems.
Nesîmî's work represents an important stage in the development of poetry not only in the Azerbaijani language vernacular, but also in the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition. After his death, Nesîmî's work continued to exercise a great influence on many Turkic language poets, and authors such as Fuzûlî (1483?–1556), Khata'i (1487–1524), and Pir Sultan Abdal (1480–1550) can be counted among his followers
Nesîmî is venerated in the modern Republic of Azerbaijan, and one of the districts of the capital city, Baku, bears his name. There is also a monument to him in the city. Furthermore, the Institute of Linguistics at the Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan is named after him, and there was also a 1973 Azerbaijani film, Nasimi (the Azerbaijani language spelling of his name), made about him. The 600th anniversary of Nesîmî's birthday was celebrated worldwide in 1973 by the decision of UNESCO, and representatives from many countries took part in the celebrations held both in Azerbaijan and in Moscow, Russia.
Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din Nesimi see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
‘Alī ‘Imādu d-Dīn Nasīmī see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
Nasimi, 'Ali 'Imadu d-Din see Nesimi, Seyyid ‘Imad al-Din
Nestorians
Nestorians (Nasturiyyan) (Nasatira). Members of a Christian sect originating in Asia Minor and Syria out of the condemnation of Nestorius and his teachings by the councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). Nestorians stressed the independence of the divine and human natures of Christ and, in effect, suggested that they were two persons loosely united. In modern times they are represented by the Church of the East, or Persian Church, usually referred to in the West as the Assyrian, or Nestorian, Church. Most of its members—numbering about 170,000—live in Iraq, Syria, and Iran.
Christianity in Persia faced intermittent persecution until the Persian Church in 424 formally proclaimed its full independence for Christian churches elsewhere, thereby freeing itself of suspicions about foreign links. Under the influence of Barsumas, the metropolitan of Nisibis, the Persian Church acknowledged Theodore of Mopsuestia, the chief Nestorian theological authority, as guardian of right faith, in February 486. This position was reaffirmed under the patriarch Babai (497–502), and since that time the church has been Nestorian.
Nestorius had been anathematized at Ephesus in 431 for denouncing the use of the title Theotokos (“God-Bearer”) for the Blessed Virgin, insisting that this compromised the reality of Christ’s human nature. When supporters of Nestorius gathered at the theological school of Edessa, it was closed by imperial order in 489, and a vigorous Nestorian remnant migrated to Persia.
The Persian Church’s intellectual center then became the new school in Nisibis, which carried on the venerable traditions of Edessa. By the end of the 5th century there were seven metropolitan provinces in Persia and several bishoprics in Arabia and India. The church survived a period of schism (c. 521–c. 537/539) and persecution (540–545) through the leadership of the patriarch Mar Aba I (r. 540–552), a convert from Zoroastrianism, and also through the renewal of monasticism by Abraham of Kashkar (501–586), the founder of the monastery on Mount Izala, near Nisibis.
After the Arab conquest of Persia (637), the Caliphate recognized the Church of the East as a millet, or separate religious community, and granted it legal protection. Nestorian scholars played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture, and patriarchs occasionally gained influence with rulers. For more than three centuries the church prospered under the Caliphate, but it became worldly and lost leadership in the cultural sphere. By the end of the 10th century, there were 15 metropolitan provinces in the Caliphate and 5 abroad, including India and China. Nestorians also spread to Egypt, where Monophysite Christianity acknowledged only one nature in Christ. In China, a Nestorian community flourished from the 7th to the 10th century. In Central Asia certain Tatar tribes were almost entirely converted, Christian expansion reaching almost to Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia. Western travelers to the Mongol realm found Nestorian Christians well-established there, even at the court of the Great Khan, though they commented on the ignorance and superstition of the clergy. When during the 14th century the Church of the East was virtually exterminated by the raids of the Turkic leader Timur, Nestorian communities lingered on in a few towns in Iraq but were concentrated mainly in Kurdistan, between the Tigris River and Lakes Van and Urmia, partly in Turkey and partly in Iran.
In 1551 a number of Nestorians reunited with Rome and were called Chaldeans, the original Nestorians having been termed Assyrians. The Nestorian Church in India, part of the group known as the Christians of St. Thomas, allied itself with Rome (1599), then split, half of its membership transferring allegiance to the Syrian Jacobite (Monophysite) patriarch of Antioch (1653). In 1898 in Urmia, Iran, a group of Nestorians, headed by a bishop, were received in the communion of the Russian Orthodox church.
The Nestorians are also called “Assyrians”, even though many Assyrians are not Nestorian Christians. There are historical ties between the Nestorians and the Chaldean Catholics in Iraq, Syrian and Iran who joined the Roman Catholic Church some 450 years ago.
The core teaching of the Nestorius, the founder of the Nestorian Church, is that there was a clear division between Jesus’ qualities as god and human and that these two natures
were morally united through their will. The opposing view, which came to be adopted by the Catholic Church, was that these two qualities were unified in the same character of Jesus.
The Nestorian doctrine was condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, was declared a heretic by the Council. The term Nestorians is derived from Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, whose Christological doctrine was condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431.
In 489, a large group of supporters of Nestorius’ theology fled the areas under control of the Roman Catholic (and hence the Catholic Church), and came to Persia. From this time onward, the Nestorians developed into their own church. However, even in this new country, they faced persecution from the Zoroastrian majority of the country.
In 496, the Persian churches became independent of the churches in the Byzantine empire, and the Nestorian patriarchate eventually was established in Baghdad.
Although rooted in Persian soil, the Nestorian church employed Syriac for its scriptures and other writings. Nestorian missionaries spread throughout Central Asia, penetrating the Chinese Tang Empire and settling in the capital Xi’an in 635. From there they moved into six other important cities of the empire. In 751, some of its members erected a handsome stele, inscribed in Syriac and Chinese, near Xi‘an. It was later buried, possibly in the persecution of 845. Discovered in 1625, the stele became the subject of great interest to Roman Catholic missionaries, who translated the inscriptions.
The Nestorian church, banned in 845, returned to China under the Mongols. Its members established an archbishopric in Beijing (1275) and churches in three cities in the lower Yangtze River valley and elsewhere. In 1281, a pilgrim from the capital to Jerusalem was elected patriarch, and an envoy was sent to Rome and Paris. By the end of the Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty (1279-1368), however, the Nestorian church had disappeared from China.
The Prophet Muhammad is said to have met Nestorians and is supposed to have signed a treaty with Abu’l-Harith, the Nestorian bishop of Najran. The Nestorians in Mesopotamia seem to have welcomed the Arab conquerors as liberators from Sasanian persecutions. Dissension within the Church was a contributory cause of the increasing number of conversions to Islam, another being the persecutions which broke out from time to time. In general, however, relations between the Catholicate and the Caliph’s court were close, especially after the establishment of the ‘Abbasid caliphate in 750. One of the reasons may have been the outstanding role which the Nestorians played in the field of medicine, science and philosophy. The Shi‘i Fatimids and Buyids were rather more tolerant than the Sunnis towards the Christians. However, for some seven centuries, the Nestorians were able to conduct extensive missionary campaigns some of which reached as far as China.
After the devastating invasions of Timur, those Nestorians who had survived fled into the Hakkari Mountains to the west of Lake Urmiya. The invasions of Timur destroyed most of the Nestorian Church’s infrastructure, leaving only smaller pockets of believers, often without contact with Christians in other regions. Indeed, in the nineteenth century, Westerners regarded these Nestorians as descendants of the ancient Assyrians, and called them Assyrians, an epithet which the Nestorians themselves generally accepted.
In the sixteenth century, the Nestorian community of India joined the Roman Catholic Church, after the influence of Portuguese traders and colonists.
In 1551, many Nestorian congregations rejoined with the Roman Catholic Church, and became known as Chaldeans, or Chaldean Catholics, or East Syriacs (since referring to the heretic Nestorius would not have been acceptable to the Roman Catholic Church). The congregation which chose not to join the Roman Catholic Church became known as Assyrian Christians or Nestorians.
In 1912, many Nestorians of Iran joined the Russian Orthodox Church.
During World War I, the Nestorians were suspected of supporting the British, and about one-third of them died in the massacres. A new massacre followed in Iraq in 1933 when the British mandate ended.
Nasturiyyan see Nestorians
Nasatira see Nestorians
Assyrian Christians see Nestorians
The Nestorian doctrine was condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, was declared a heretic by the Council. The term Nestorians is derived from Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, whose Christological doctrine was condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431.
In 489, a large group of supporters of Nestorius’ theology fled the areas under control of the Roman Catholic (and hence the Catholic Church), and came to Persia. From this time onward, the Nestorians developed into their own church. However, even in this new country, they faced persecution from the Zoroastrian majority of the country.
In 496, the Persian churches became independent of the churches in the Byzantine empire, and the Nestorian patriarchate eventually was established in Baghdad.
Although rooted in Persian soil, the Nestorian church employed Syriac for its scriptures and other writings. Nestorian missionaries spread throughout Central Asia, penetrating the Chinese Tang Empire and settling in the capital Xi’an in 635. From there they moved into six other important cities of the empire. In 751, some of its members erected a handsome stele, inscribed in Syriac and Chinese, near Xi‘an. It was later buried, possibly in the persecution of 845. Discovered in 1625, the stele became the subject of great interest to Roman Catholic missionaries, who translated the inscriptions.
The Nestorian church, banned in 845, returned to China under the Mongols. Its members established an archbishopric in Beijing (1275) and churches in three cities in the lower Yangtze River valley and elsewhere. In 1281, a pilgrim from the capital to Jerusalem was elected patriarch, and an envoy was sent to Rome and Paris. By the end of the Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty (1279-1368), however, the Nestorian church had disappeared from China.
The Prophet Muhammad is said to have met Nestorians and is supposed to have signed a treaty with Abu’l-Harith, the Nestorian bishop of Najran. The Nestorians in Mesopotamia seem to have welcomed the Arab conquerors as liberators from Sasanian persecutions. Dissension within the Church was a contributory cause of the increasing number of conversions to Islam, another being the persecutions which broke out from time to time. In general, however, relations between the Catholicate and the Caliph’s court were close, especially after the establishment of the ‘Abbasid caliphate in 750. One of the reasons may have been the outstanding role which the Nestorians played in the field of medicine, science and philosophy. The Shi‘i Fatimids and Buyids were rather more tolerant than the Sunnis towards the Christians. However, for some seven centuries, the Nestorians were able to conduct extensive missionary campaigns some of which reached as far as China.
After the devastating invasions of Timur, those Nestorians who had survived fled into the Hakkari Mountains to the west of Lake Urmiya. The invasions of Timur destroyed most of the Nestorian Church’s infrastructure, leaving only smaller pockets of believers, often without contact with Christians in other regions. Indeed, in the nineteenth century, Westerners regarded these Nestorians as descendants of the ancient Assyrians, and called them Assyrians, an epithet which the Nestorians themselves generally accepted.
In the sixteenth century, the Nestorian community of India joined the Roman Catholic Church, after the influence of Portuguese traders and colonists.
In 1551, many Nestorian congregations rejoined with the Roman Catholic Church, and became known as Chaldeans, or Chaldean Catholics, or East Syriacs (since referring to the heretic Nestorius would not have been acceptable to the Roman Catholic Church). The congregation which chose not to join the Roman Catholic Church became known as Assyrian Christians or Nestorians.
In 1912, many Nestorians of Iran joined the Russian Orthodox Church.
During World War I, the Nestorians were suspected of supporting the British, and about one-third of them died in the massacres. A new massacre followed in Iraq in 1933 when the British mandate ended.
Nasturiyyan see Nestorians
Nasatira see Nestorians
Assyrian Christians see Nestorians
Neturei Karta
Neturei Karta ("Guardians of the City"). Orthodox sect in Judaism, with its supporters living in Israel. While some would categorize them as extremist, they have views more humanistic than the majority of the population of Israel in fields like anti-racism and anti-war attitudes.
The points of view of the Neturei Karta are somewhat different from what is normally expected from conservative Jewish groups, as they opposed any involvement in the Zionist movement, and they have never recognized Israel as a proper Jewish state. According to their views, a Jewish state can only be established by the Messiah. Furthermore, the Neturei Karta consider the Zionist movement to be an atheist ideology.
The Neturei Karta sometimes resort to violent actions, like throwing stones at cars passing by their neighborhood during the Sabbath. Still they strongly emphasize that they do not want any form of confrontation with the Arab people, and blame the Zionists for the wars fought in Southwest Asia and North Africa since the creation of Israel. In Neturei Karta’s view, it was illegal to retake the Holy land by force of arms. They also believe that “all Palestine should be returned to the Palestinians.”
Neturei Karta also accuse the Zionists of being responsible for the many lives lost during the Holocaust. According to them, there were German offers in 1941 and 1942 to deport European Jews to Spain, but the Zionists rejected these offers.
The Neturei Karta had 6,000 members in 1980. These members were concentrated in two main communities, one near Jerusalem (Mea Shearim) and the other near Tel Aviv (Bene Brak).
A brief history of the Neturei Karta would read as follows:
In 1935, the Neturei Karta was established after many members of the political party Agudat Israel protested against the line of cooperation with the World Zionist Organization.
In 1945, the Neturei Karta was elected to represent the Ashkenazi community in Jerusalem.
In 1948, the Neturei Karta opposed the establishment of the state of Israel, as the Messiah had not yet come.
In 1993, the leader of the Neturei Karta, Rabbi Moshe Hirsch, had talks with Yassir Arafat.
In July of 1994, Rabbi Moshe Hirsch was appointed by Palestine to deal with Jewish affairs on the occupied lands.
Guardians of the City see Neturei Karta
Neturei Karta ("Guardians of the City"). Orthodox sect in Judaism, with its supporters living in Israel. While some would categorize them as extremist, they have views more humanistic than the majority of the population of Israel in fields like anti-racism and anti-war attitudes.
The points of view of the Neturei Karta are somewhat different from what is normally expected from conservative Jewish groups, as they opposed any involvement in the Zionist movement, and they have never recognized Israel as a proper Jewish state. According to their views, a Jewish state can only be established by the Messiah. Furthermore, the Neturei Karta consider the Zionist movement to be an atheist ideology.
The Neturei Karta sometimes resort to violent actions, like throwing stones at cars passing by their neighborhood during the Sabbath. Still they strongly emphasize that they do not want any form of confrontation with the Arab people, and blame the Zionists for the wars fought in Southwest Asia and North Africa since the creation of Israel. In Neturei Karta’s view, it was illegal to retake the Holy land by force of arms. They also believe that “all Palestine should be returned to the Palestinians.”
Neturei Karta also accuse the Zionists of being responsible for the many lives lost during the Holocaust. According to them, there were German offers in 1941 and 1942 to deport European Jews to Spain, but the Zionists rejected these offers.
The Neturei Karta had 6,000 members in 1980. These members were concentrated in two main communities, one near Jerusalem (Mea Shearim) and the other near Tel Aviv (Bene Brak).
A brief history of the Neturei Karta would read as follows:
In 1935, the Neturei Karta was established after many members of the political party Agudat Israel protested against the line of cooperation with the World Zionist Organization.
In 1945, the Neturei Karta was elected to represent the Ashkenazi community in Jerusalem.
In 1948, the Neturei Karta opposed the establishment of the state of Israel, as the Messiah had not yet come.
In 1993, the leader of the Neturei Karta, Rabbi Moshe Hirsch, had talks with Yassir Arafat.
In July of 1994, Rabbi Moshe Hirsch was appointed by Palestine to deal with Jewish affairs on the occupied lands.
Guardians of the City see Neturei Karta
Neva’i
Neva’i. See Nawa’i.
Neva’i. See Nawa’i.
New‘i, Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali
New‘i, Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali (Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali New‘i) (1533-1599). Ottoman theologian and poet. He is known for his extensive encyclopedia on the twelve most important branches of learning.
Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali New‘i see New‘i, Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali
New‘i, Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali (Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali New‘i) (1533-1599). Ottoman theologian and poet. He is known for his extensive encyclopedia on the twelve most important branches of learning.
Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali New‘i see New‘i, Yahya ibn Pir ‘Ali
New‘i-zade ‘Ata’i
New‘i-zade ‘Ata’i (1583-1634). Ottoman author and poet. His fame rests on his biography of scholars and dervish shaykhs from the time of Sultan Suleyman II down to the reign of Sultan Murad IV.
'Ata'i, New‘i-zade see New‘i-zade ‘Ata’i
New‘i-zade ‘Ata’i (1583-1634). Ottoman author and poet. His fame rests on his biography of scholars and dervish shaykhs from the time of Sultan Suleyman II down to the reign of Sultan Murad IV.
'Ata'i, New‘i-zade see New‘i-zade ‘Ata’i
New Ottomans
New Ottomans. Refers to the Turkish political movement of the 1870s whose adherents demanded a constitution, parliamentary government, and other Ottoman westernizing reforms.
New Ottomans. Refers to the Turkish political movement of the 1870s whose adherents demanded a constitution, parliamentary government, and other Ottoman westernizing reforms.
Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq (‘Abd al-Razzaq Newres) (Newres-i Qadim) (d. 1762). Ottoman poet known for his daring and malicious chronograms.
‘Abd al-Razzaq Newres see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Newres-i Qadim see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Qadim, Newres-i see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq (‘Abd al-Razzaq Newres) (Newres-i Qadim) (d. 1762). Ottoman poet known for his daring and malicious chronograms.
‘Abd al-Razzaq Newres see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Newres-i Qadim see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Qadim, Newres-i see Newres, ‘Abd al-Razzaq
Nezzar, Khaled
Khaled Nezzar (b. December 25, 1937, Seriana, Batna, French Algeria – d. December 29, 2023, Algiers, Algeria) was an Algerian general and a member of the High Council of State of Algeria. He was born in the douar of Thlet, in Seriana in the Batna region of French Algeria. His father, Rahal Nezzar, was a former non-commissioned officer in the French army who had turned to farming after World War II. His mother died in 1941.
After studying in the local native school (école indigène), Nezzar was transferred to a school for troops' children at Kolea, and then joined the French army, studying at the Strasbourg military school in Algiers where non-commissioned officers were trained. He was one of a number of Algerian professional soldiers who gained their initial training and experience serving with the French forces before defecting to the nationalist FLN (Front de Liberation Nationale - National Liberation Front) forces during the final years of the War of Indepencence.
After independence in 1962, Nezzar remained in the new Algerian army, and started rising through the ranks. He went to Moscow in 1964 to receive military training at the M.V. Frunze Military Academy. Upon his return in 1965, Nezzar was named Director of Materiel in the Ministry of National Defense. Soon after Houari Boumedienne's coup, he was put in charge of the Saharan 2nd Motorized Infantry, based around Ain Sefra. In 1968, he was sent to Egypt to help guard the Egypt–Israel line of control, which at the time (just after the Six-Day War) witnessed regular artillery bombardments and aerial bombings. After returning from Egypt, he was put in charge of training Algeria's first paratroopers, with Soviet help, at Biskra.
In 1975, Nezzar went through further training at the Ecole superieure de guerre in Paris. At this point, he was a Lieutenant-Colonel. He returned in his second year without finishing his studies, having been summoned back to command troops in Tindouf at the height of the Moroccan-Algerian conflict over the Western Sahara issue. He spent the next seven years in the Bechar-Tindouf area.
After Chadli Bendjedid took power, Nezzar was sent away from Tindouf to the east, a decision which he resented. He rose rapidly through the ranks, and, by 1988, he was a ground forces commander at Ain Naadja in Algiers, where he played a significant role in suppressing the "Black October" riots.
Nezzar became Minister of Defense in July 1990. In his memoirs, he recounts his hostility during this period to the interim prime minister Mouloud Hamrouche and president Chadli Bendjedid, whom he accuses of effectively "conniving" with the Islamic Salvation Front for the sake of increasing their power.
After the Islamic Salvation Front's electoral victory in 1991, Nezzar, along with Larbi Belkheir, was among the leading generals who decided to depose then-President Chadli Bendjedid and annul the elections, marking the beginning of the Algerian Civil War. Nezzar became a member of the new provisional governing body, the High Council of State (HCS), when it was established in January 1991. Nezzar survived an assassination attempt in February 1993 in El Biar (Algiers), and gave up his position five months later, when the HCS's mandate terminated. In 1999, Nezzar (unusual for an Algerian general) published his memoirs, written in French and translated into Arabic.
In October 2001, Khaled Nezzar's son Lotfi violently attacked a Le Matin reporter, Sid Ahmed Semiane, for having criticized his father. Lotfi had already threatened Semiane several times. Nezzar apologized for his son's actions three days later. Lotfi was eventually found guilty in court and paid a fine of 12 euros.
In 2002, Nezzar sued the dissident officer Habib Souaidia in Paris for defamation. Souaidia had accused Nezzar of "being responsible for the assassination of thousands of people", and blamed him and other generals for starting the war and committing massacres attributed to the Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Arme). As the trial began, nine Algerians in Paris filed complaints against Nezzar for torture and inhumane treatment. Nezzar left Paris before these could be evaluated, saying he did not want to risk a diplomatic incident. The court found Souaidia innocent.
Khalid Nezzar died in Algiers on December 29, 2023.
Ngindo
Ngindo. Term which is ascribed to an ethnic group from Tanzania (near Kilwa, in the back country). The Ngindo led the Maji-Maji anti-colonial insurrection from 1905-1907. Afterwards, they converted to Islam.
The Ngindo are an ethnic and linguistic group based in east-central Tanzania, south of the Rufiji River. In 1987 the Ngindo population was estimated to number 220,000
Ngindo. Term which is ascribed to an ethnic group from Tanzania (near Kilwa, in the back country). The Ngindo led the Maji-Maji anti-colonial insurrection from 1905-1907. Afterwards, they converted to Islam.
The Ngindo are an ethnic and linguistic group based in east-central Tanzania, south of the Rufiji River. In 1987 the Ngindo population was estimated to number 220,000
Niani Mansa Mamadu
Niani Mansa Mamadu (Mansa Mahmud) (Mansa Mamadou III) (Mali Mansa Mamadou) (d. c. 1610). Last ruler of the Mali Empire. Mali had reached its zenith in the 14th century and afterwards lost much of its territory to Songhay. Traditions of the ruling Keita clan identify Niani Mansa Mamadu as the last king of Mali before its breakup into numerous small chiefdoms (kafu). He was probably the same person as Mansa Mahmud, who the Ta’rikh al-Sudan says attempted to take the city of Jenne from the Moroccans in 1599. The attack failed, largely because he could no longer compel Mali’s former vassal states to ally with him. The event marked the last mention of Mali in the Arabic records, as the empire ceased to be an important political entity. It was probably during Niani Mansa Mamadu’s reign that Mali lost the goldfields of Bambuk, sometime between 1590 and 1600.
Mamadu, Niani Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mansa Mahmud see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mahmud, Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mansa Mamadou III see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mali Mansa Mamadou see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mamadou, Mali Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Niani Mansa Mamadu (Mansa Mahmud) (Mansa Mamadou III) (Mali Mansa Mamadou) (d. c. 1610). Last ruler of the Mali Empire. Mali had reached its zenith in the 14th century and afterwards lost much of its territory to Songhay. Traditions of the ruling Keita clan identify Niani Mansa Mamadu as the last king of Mali before its breakup into numerous small chiefdoms (kafu). He was probably the same person as Mansa Mahmud, who the Ta’rikh al-Sudan says attempted to take the city of Jenne from the Moroccans in 1599. The attack failed, largely because he could no longer compel Mali’s former vassal states to ally with him. The event marked the last mention of Mali in the Arabic records, as the empire ceased to be an important political entity. It was probably during Niani Mansa Mamadu’s reign that Mali lost the goldfields of Bambuk, sometime between 1590 and 1600.
Mamadu, Niani Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mansa Mahmud see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mahmud, Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mansa Mamadou III see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mali Mansa Mamadou see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Mamadou, Mali Mansa see Niani Mansa Mamadu
Niffari, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-
Niffari, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al- (Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-Niffari) (d.965). Mystic. His most characteristic contribution to mysticism is his doctrine of waqfa, a term which implies a condition in the mystic which is accompanied by direct divine audition, and perhaps even automatic writing.
Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-Niffari see Niffari, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-
Niffari, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al- (Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-Niffari) (d.965). Mystic. His most characteristic contribution to mysticism is his doctrine of waqfa, a term which implies a condition in the mystic which is accompanied by direct divine audition, and perhaps even automatic writing.
Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-Niffari see Niffari, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Jabbar al-
No comments:
Post a Comment