‘Abd ar-Rahman
‘Abd ar-Rahman (Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi) ('Abd er Rahman) (Abdderrahman Abderame) (Abderame) ('Abd el-Rahman) (d. 732). Arab soldier and the emir of Spain from 731 to 732. 'Abd ar-Rahman became governor of southern France in 721. In 732, when the growth of Frankish power menaced the Muslim position in Spain, 'Abd ar-Rahman led an army across the Pyrenees Mountains into the dominions of the Franks. His army met the Franks, led by Charles Martel, near Tours, France, later that year. The battle was indecisive, but the Muslims turned back after 'Abd ar-Rahman was killed.
From the Yemeni tribe of Ghafiq, 'Abd ar-Rahman relocated to Ifriqiya (now Tunisia), then to the Maghrib (now Morocco), where he became acquainted with Musa ibn Nusair and his son Abdul Aziz, the governors of al-Andalus. After al-Samh ibn Malik was killed at the Battle of Toulouse in 721 by the forces of Odo of Aquitane, 'Abd ar-Rahman took over the command of Eastern Andalus. He was briefly relieved of his command when 'Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi was appointed in 721. After 'Anbasa was killed in battle in 726 in Gaul, several successive commanders were put in place, none of whom lasted very long.
In 730, the Caliph Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik appointed 'Abd ar-Rahman as governor/ commander of al-Andalus. He prepared to invade Gaul and called for recruits from Yemen and the Levant. Many arrived, and he crossed the Pyrenees range, with an army of approximately 80,000 cavalry composed primarily of Arabs and Berbers. 'Abd ar-Rahman made his way through Gascony and Aquitaine. His army went through these places like a desolating storm, sacking and capturing the city of Bordeaux, after defeating Odo of Aquitaine in battle outside the city, and then again defeating a second army of Odo of Aquitaine at the Battle of the River Garonne.
Odo, with his remaining nobility, fled to Charles Martel, seeking help. Unlike Toulouse, where Odo had won by achieving complete surprise over the Muslim forces when he relieved the city in 721, this time his forces were forced to face the Muslim cavalry in open battle and were utterly destroyed. Also, the Muslim forces he had faced at the Battle of Toulouse were primarily light infantry, and while good fighters, were not close to the caliber of the Arab and Berber cavalry brought by 'Abd ar-Rahman for this invasion of Gaul.
However, the Frankish Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Charles Martel, had a core of seasoned professional infantry that had campaigned with him for many years, in addition to the levies of militia the Franks normally called up to buttress their forces. Charles Martel formed and army of Gauls and Germans approximately 30,000 strong. The invading forces, having no reasosn to believe the Franks were anything more than one of the various barbarian tribes that had ravaged Europe after Rome's fall, failed to scout their strength in advance. They also misjudged Charles Martel, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Caliphate over the Pyrenees into the heart of Christian Europe. This was a disastrous mistake which led to the defeat of 'Abd ar-Rahman in 732 at the Battle of Tours, near Poitiers, south of the Loire River.
One reason for the defeat of the Muslim army was its preoccupation with war booty. Another was the squabbles between the various ethnic and tribal factions, which led to the surviving generals being unable to agree on a single commander to take 'Abd ar-Rahman's place. After all, 'Abd ar-Rahman alone had a fatwa from the Caliph and, thus, he alone had the absolute authority over the faithful under arms.
Additional reasons for the defeat were found in the strategy employed by Charles Martel. He trained his men specifically to fight in a large square, similar to the ancient Greek phalanx formation, to withstand the dreaded Muslim heavy cavalry. The Frankish leader chose the battlefield. Moving his army over the mountains and avoiding the old Roman roads, he escaped detection until he had position his men on a high, wooded plain.
For seven days, the two armies skirmished and maneuvered, with the Islamic forces recalling all their raiding parties, so on the seventh day, their army was a full size. Martel also received some reinforcements, though most historians still believe the was badly outnumbered at the onset of the battle. The Franks held their defensive formation all day, and repulsed repeated cavalry charges. The charges of the Arab and Berber cavalry were impeded by the sloping and wooded terrain.
Late on the first day of battle, Martel sent his scouts to slip into 'Abd ar-Rahman's camp and free prisoners held by the Arab forces. Believing that their booty was being stolen, a large contingent of 'Abd ar-Rahman's forces broke away from the battle to save their property. 'Abd ar-Rahman was exposed to the Frankish forces and killed while he attempted to stop his men from leaving the field.
Political factions, racial and ethnic rivalries, and personality clashes arose following 'Abd ar-Rahman's death. The varied nationalities and ethnicities present in the army drawn from all over the Caliphate, and the surviving generals, bickered among themselves, unable to agree on a commander to lead them the following day. The inability to select anyone to lead certainly contributed to the wholesale retreat of an army that possibly could have defeated the Franks.
Arab historians generally praise 'Abd ar-Rahman as a just and able administrator and commander, and bestow upon him the honor of being the best governor of al-Andalus. Also, 'Abd ar-Rahman did not take sides in the ethnic and tribal divisions that plagued al-Andalus under other rulers. Evidence of his fairness and importance as a ruler was demonstrated in the aftermath of his death at the Battle of Tours. Without his leadership and guidance, the other commanders were unable to even agree on a commander to lead them back into battle the following morning. The impact of the death of 'Abd ar-Rahman on both Islamic and world history is, undeniably, quite profound.
Rahman, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Ghafiqi, Abdul Rahman al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abdderrahman Abderame see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abderame Abdderrahman see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abderame see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
‘Abd ar-Rahman (Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi) ('Abd er Rahman) (Abdderrahman Abderame) (Abderame) ('Abd el-Rahman) (d. 732). Arab soldier and the emir of Spain from 731 to 732. 'Abd ar-Rahman became governor of southern France in 721. In 732, when the growth of Frankish power menaced the Muslim position in Spain, 'Abd ar-Rahman led an army across the Pyrenees Mountains into the dominions of the Franks. His army met the Franks, led by Charles Martel, near Tours, France, later that year. The battle was indecisive, but the Muslims turned back after 'Abd ar-Rahman was killed.
From the Yemeni tribe of Ghafiq, 'Abd ar-Rahman relocated to Ifriqiya (now Tunisia), then to the Maghrib (now Morocco), where he became acquainted with Musa ibn Nusair and his son Abdul Aziz, the governors of al-Andalus. After al-Samh ibn Malik was killed at the Battle of Toulouse in 721 by the forces of Odo of Aquitane, 'Abd ar-Rahman took over the command of Eastern Andalus. He was briefly relieved of his command when 'Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi was appointed in 721. After 'Anbasa was killed in battle in 726 in Gaul, several successive commanders were put in place, none of whom lasted very long.
In 730, the Caliph Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik appointed 'Abd ar-Rahman as governor/ commander of al-Andalus. He prepared to invade Gaul and called for recruits from Yemen and the Levant. Many arrived, and he crossed the Pyrenees range, with an army of approximately 80,000 cavalry composed primarily of Arabs and Berbers. 'Abd ar-Rahman made his way through Gascony and Aquitaine. His army went through these places like a desolating storm, sacking and capturing the city of Bordeaux, after defeating Odo of Aquitaine in battle outside the city, and then again defeating a second army of Odo of Aquitaine at the Battle of the River Garonne.
Odo, with his remaining nobility, fled to Charles Martel, seeking help. Unlike Toulouse, where Odo had won by achieving complete surprise over the Muslim forces when he relieved the city in 721, this time his forces were forced to face the Muslim cavalry in open battle and were utterly destroyed. Also, the Muslim forces he had faced at the Battle of Toulouse were primarily light infantry, and while good fighters, were not close to the caliber of the Arab and Berber cavalry brought by 'Abd ar-Rahman for this invasion of Gaul.
However, the Frankish Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Charles Martel, had a core of seasoned professional infantry that had campaigned with him for many years, in addition to the levies of militia the Franks normally called up to buttress their forces. Charles Martel formed and army of Gauls and Germans approximately 30,000 strong. The invading forces, having no reasosn to believe the Franks were anything more than one of the various barbarian tribes that had ravaged Europe after Rome's fall, failed to scout their strength in advance. They also misjudged Charles Martel, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Caliphate over the Pyrenees into the heart of Christian Europe. This was a disastrous mistake which led to the defeat of 'Abd ar-Rahman in 732 at the Battle of Tours, near Poitiers, south of the Loire River.
One reason for the defeat of the Muslim army was its preoccupation with war booty. Another was the squabbles between the various ethnic and tribal factions, which led to the surviving generals being unable to agree on a single commander to take 'Abd ar-Rahman's place. After all, 'Abd ar-Rahman alone had a fatwa from the Caliph and, thus, he alone had the absolute authority over the faithful under arms.
Additional reasons for the defeat were found in the strategy employed by Charles Martel. He trained his men specifically to fight in a large square, similar to the ancient Greek phalanx formation, to withstand the dreaded Muslim heavy cavalry. The Frankish leader chose the battlefield. Moving his army over the mountains and avoiding the old Roman roads, he escaped detection until he had position his men on a high, wooded plain.
For seven days, the two armies skirmished and maneuvered, with the Islamic forces recalling all their raiding parties, so on the seventh day, their army was a full size. Martel also received some reinforcements, though most historians still believe the was badly outnumbered at the onset of the battle. The Franks held their defensive formation all day, and repulsed repeated cavalry charges. The charges of the Arab and Berber cavalry were impeded by the sloping and wooded terrain.
Late on the first day of battle, Martel sent his scouts to slip into 'Abd ar-Rahman's camp and free prisoners held by the Arab forces. Believing that their booty was being stolen, a large contingent of 'Abd ar-Rahman's forces broke away from the battle to save their property. 'Abd ar-Rahman was exposed to the Frankish forces and killed while he attempted to stop his men from leaving the field.
Political factions, racial and ethnic rivalries, and personality clashes arose following 'Abd ar-Rahman's death. The varied nationalities and ethnicities present in the army drawn from all over the Caliphate, and the surviving generals, bickered among themselves, unable to agree on a commander to lead them the following day. The inability to select anyone to lead certainly contributed to the wholesale retreat of an army that possibly could have defeated the Franks.
Arab historians generally praise 'Abd ar-Rahman as a just and able administrator and commander, and bestow upon him the honor of being the best governor of al-Andalus. Also, 'Abd ar-Rahman did not take sides in the ethnic and tribal divisions that plagued al-Andalus under other rulers. Evidence of his fairness and importance as a ruler was demonstrated in the aftermath of his death at the Battle of Tours. Without his leadership and guidance, the other commanders were unable to even agree on a commander to lead them back into battle the following morning. The impact of the death of 'Abd ar-Rahman on both Islamic and world history is, undeniably, quite profound.
Rahman, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Ghafiqi, Abdul Rahman al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abdderrahman Abderame see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abderame Abdderrahman see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
Abderame see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
‘Abd ar-Rahman I
‘Abd ar-Rahman I (al-Dakhil) ('Abd al-Rahman I) (Abderraman I) ("Falcon of Andalus") ("Falcon of the Quraish") (731-788). First Umayyad emir of Spain and the founder of the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba (r. 756-788). Having narrowly escaped the massacre in 750 of the Umayyads in Damascus, 'Abd ar-Rahman wandered through North Africa until 755. With the backing of Umayyad sympathizers in Spain and Ceuta, 'Abd ar-Rahman then intervened between feuding Muslims in Spain. He disembarked at Almunecar in August 755; entered Seville in 756; and captured Cordoba in 756 where he was recognized as emir of al-Andalus. Until 769, he suppressed rebellions by the Spanish neo-Muslims, the Berbers and the Arabs. A coalition of Arab chiefs sought the aid of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, who in 778 laid siege to Saragossa (Sarakusta) but had to return to the Rhine. ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s realm was not fully pacified until the defeat of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles (Roncevaux) in 778. This is the famous battle associated with the memory of Roland. In 780, ‘Abd ar-Rahman subdued the Basques, and occupied Saragossa for a short time.
'Abd ar-Rahman I was the grandson of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik, the tenth Umayyad Caliph. He was a prince and was groomed from an early age to be a caliph. More specifically, he was the son of Mu'awiyah, son of Hisham, grandson of 'Abd al-Malik. The child-prince was said to be tall and slender. His mother was a Christian Berber slave, and from her he inherited red hair.
'Abd ar-Rahman was about eighteen when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by a popular revolt known as the 'Abbasid Revolution, occurring in the year 749. 'Abd ar-Rahman and a small selection of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been. After barely escaping Syria with their lives, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his former Greek slave Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai and into Egypt. It would take several years 'Abd ar-Rahman to slowly make his way into the west. In 755, 'Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. He then dispatched Bedr to Iberia with a message in which he proclaimed himself the rightful Umayyad heir to the land of al-Andalus.
At the invitation of loyal Umayyad followers, 'Abd ar-Rahman was told to go to al-Andalus. 'Abd ar-Rahman landed at Almunecar to the east of Malaga in August of 755. 'Abd ar-Rahman was greeted by local chieftains upon landing in al-Andalus. During his brief time in Malaga, 'Abd ar-Rahman quickly amassed local support. Waves of people made their way to Malaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians.
While the ruler of al-Andalus, al-Fihri, and the commander of his army, al-Sumayl, pondered what to do about the arrival of 'Abd ar-Rahman and the threat he posed to their power, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Sarakusta (Zaragoza), an important trade city on al-Andalus' Upper March made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to squash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for 'Abd ar-Rahman, as he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March of 756, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his growing following were able to take Sevilla without violence. After putting down the rebellion in Sarakusta, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face 'Abd ar-Rahman. The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Cordova on the plains of Musarah.
Both armies lined on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. 'Abd ar-Rahman had no banner, so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. 'Abd ar-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight, 'Abd ar-Rahman obtained a complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy. 'Abd ar-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Cordova.
'Abd ar-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of 'Abd ar-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Cordova itself! However, 'Abd ar-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition. As he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus.
Sarakusta (Saragossa) proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only 'Abd ar-Rahman, but also, his predecessors as well.
In the year 777-778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Saragossa, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. Charlemagne's army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Saragossa against the Umayyad emir in Cordoba. Essentially, Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. However, after Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Saragossa, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees named Roncesvalles (Roncevaux), where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels. This disaster was noted in the epic Chanson de Roland.
During his reign, 'Abd ar-Rahman strove to improve the infrastructure of al-Andalus. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Cordova. Construction on the mosque was started around the year 786. It would in time become world famous and deemed a major holy site for many Muslims, later to be known as the Mezquita de Cordoba. 'Abd ar-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. 'Abd ar-Rahman felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army. He, therefore, bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. 'Abd ar-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians to retain and practice their faiths. They did, however, have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege. 'Abd ar-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus. Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes, the bulk of the country's population soon became Muslim.
Around 788, 'Abd ar-Rahman died in his adopted city of Cordova. He was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. 'Abd ar-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. 'Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of 'Abd ar-Rahman III.
Dakhil, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Rahman I, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of Andalus see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of the Quraish see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
'Abd al-Rahman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Abderraman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
‘Abd ar-Rahman I (al-Dakhil) ('Abd al-Rahman I) (Abderraman I) ("Falcon of Andalus") ("Falcon of the Quraish") (731-788). First Umayyad emir of Spain and the founder of the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba (r. 756-788). Having narrowly escaped the massacre in 750 of the Umayyads in Damascus, 'Abd ar-Rahman wandered through North Africa until 755. With the backing of Umayyad sympathizers in Spain and Ceuta, 'Abd ar-Rahman then intervened between feuding Muslims in Spain. He disembarked at Almunecar in August 755; entered Seville in 756; and captured Cordoba in 756 where he was recognized as emir of al-Andalus. Until 769, he suppressed rebellions by the Spanish neo-Muslims, the Berbers and the Arabs. A coalition of Arab chiefs sought the aid of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, who in 778 laid siege to Saragossa (Sarakusta) but had to return to the Rhine. ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s realm was not fully pacified until the defeat of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles (Roncevaux) in 778. This is the famous battle associated with the memory of Roland. In 780, ‘Abd ar-Rahman subdued the Basques, and occupied Saragossa for a short time.
'Abd ar-Rahman I was the grandson of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik, the tenth Umayyad Caliph. He was a prince and was groomed from an early age to be a caliph. More specifically, he was the son of Mu'awiyah, son of Hisham, grandson of 'Abd al-Malik. The child-prince was said to be tall and slender. His mother was a Christian Berber slave, and from her he inherited red hair.
'Abd ar-Rahman was about eighteen when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by a popular revolt known as the 'Abbasid Revolution, occurring in the year 749. 'Abd ar-Rahman and a small selection of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been. After barely escaping Syria with their lives, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his former Greek slave Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai and into Egypt. It would take several years 'Abd ar-Rahman to slowly make his way into the west. In 755, 'Abd ar-Rahman and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. He then dispatched Bedr to Iberia with a message in which he proclaimed himself the rightful Umayyad heir to the land of al-Andalus.
At the invitation of loyal Umayyad followers, 'Abd ar-Rahman was told to go to al-Andalus. 'Abd ar-Rahman landed at Almunecar to the east of Malaga in August of 755. 'Abd ar-Rahman was greeted by local chieftains upon landing in al-Andalus. During his brief time in Malaga, 'Abd ar-Rahman quickly amassed local support. Waves of people made their way to Malaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians.
While the ruler of al-Andalus, al-Fihri, and the commander of his army, al-Sumayl, pondered what to do about the arrival of 'Abd ar-Rahman and the threat he posed to their power, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Sarakusta (Zaragoza), an important trade city on al-Andalus' Upper March made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to squash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for 'Abd ar-Rahman, as he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March of 756, 'Abd ar-Rahman and his growing following were able to take Sevilla without violence. After putting down the rebellion in Sarakusta, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face 'Abd ar-Rahman. The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Cordova on the plains of Musarah.
Both armies lined on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. 'Abd ar-Rahman had no banner, so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. 'Abd ar-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight, 'Abd ar-Rahman obtained a complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy. 'Abd ar-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Cordova.
'Abd ar-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of 'Abd ar-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Cordova itself! However, 'Abd ar-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition. As he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus.
Sarakusta (Saragossa) proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only 'Abd ar-Rahman, but also, his predecessors as well.
In the year 777-778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Saragossa, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. Charlemagne's army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Saragossa against the Umayyad emir in Cordoba. Essentially, Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. However, after Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Saragossa, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees named Roncesvalles (Roncevaux), where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels. This disaster was noted in the epic Chanson de Roland.
During his reign, 'Abd ar-Rahman strove to improve the infrastructure of al-Andalus. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Cordova. Construction on the mosque was started around the year 786. It would in time become world famous and deemed a major holy site for many Muslims, later to be known as the Mezquita de Cordoba. 'Abd ar-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. 'Abd ar-Rahman felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army. He, therefore, bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. 'Abd ar-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians to retain and practice their faiths. They did, however, have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege. 'Abd ar-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus. Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes, the bulk of the country's population soon became Muslim.
Around 788, 'Abd ar-Rahman died in his adopted city of Cordova. He was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. 'Abd ar-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. 'Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of 'Abd ar-Rahman III.
Dakhil, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Rahman I, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of Andalus see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Falcon of the Quraish see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
'Abd al-Rahman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman I
Abderraman I see ‘Abd ar-Rahman
'Abd ar-Rahman II
‘Abd ar-Rahman II (b. 792, Toledo - d. 852, Cordoba). The fourth Umayyad Emir of Cordoba (r. 822-852) in Al-Andalus Iberia. He dealt with the revolt of Mozarab Christians of Toledo and Cordoba and with the raiding Northmen -- the Vikings. He was a builder and patron of letters and arts.
The son of Emir al-Hakam I, 'Abd ar-Rahman II was born in Toledo. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch" when at least 700 people who had come to pay homage to the princes were killed by order of Al-Hakam.
The son of Emir al-Hakam I, 'Abd ar-Rahman II was born in Toledo. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch" when at least 700 people who had come to pay homage to the princes were killed by order of Al-Hakam.
(Al-Hakam spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida. The uprisings twice reached Cordoba. An attempt was made to dethrone Al-Hakam and replace him with his cousin, Mohammed ibn al-Kasim, but the plot was discovered. On November16, 806, 72 nobles and their attendants (accounts talk of at least 700 up to 5,000) were massacred at a banquet, crucified and displayed along the banks of the river Guadalquivir. Such displays of cruelty were not unusual during this period, with the heads of rebel leaders or Christian foes killed in expeditions to the north being put on show at the gates of Cordoba.)
'Abd ar-Rahman II became Emir of Cordoba in 822 and engaged in nearly continuous warfare (from 822 to 842) against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Merida by having a large internal fortress built. Again, in 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christian and Jews in Toledo via the same measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, 'Abd ar-Rahman sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids.
In 844, 'Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. In response to the Viking menace, 'Abd ar-Rahman constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He may have sent al-Ghazal on a second embassy to the Vikings in Ireland after this.
He responded to William of Septimania's requests for assistance in William's struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.
'Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the "Martyrs of Cordoba".
'Abd ar-Rahman is also best remembered for his patronage of the great composer and cultural innovator, Ziryab.
Rahman II, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman II
‘Abd ar-Rahman III
‘Abd ar-Rahman III ('Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah) (January 11, 889 - October 15, 961). The eighth (and arguably the greatest) Umayyad emir of Spain. He ruled from 912 to 961. He ascended to the throne when he was twenty-two years of age and reigned for half a century as the most powerful prince of the Umayyad dynasty in Iberia.
Called al-Nasir, or the Defender (of the Faith), he was born at Cordoba, and was the son of Prince Muhammad. Succeeding to an emirate diminished by provincial governors who acted like independent rulers, ‘Abd ar-Rahman at once set out to assert Umayyad authority over all his territories. Initially, he had to suppress the dangerous revolt led by 'Umar ibn Hafsun. In 913, he attacked Seville, a city that had allied with Hafsun, conquering it on December 20. The following year, he campaigned in the Rayya mountains near Malaga, where his mild treatment gained him the surrender of most of the Christian castles. In 917, Hafsun died, but the struggle was continued by his son, who surrendered only after the fall of Malaga on January 21, 928.
Seville and Cremona submitted in 917, Bobastro was captured in 928 and Toledo, the last of the wayward cities, surrendered in 932. The emir checked the advance of the Christian prince Ordono II of Leon (d. 951) in 920.
Once having al-Andalus firmly under his rule, 'Abd ar-Rahman restarted his war against King Ordono II of Leon, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some bondary areas and to menace the Umayyad territory. In 920, the emir's troops gained a first victory at Junquera (Valdejunquera). This was one of several defeats ‘Abd ar-Rahman inflicted on the Christian kingdoms of Leon and Navarre, checking their expansion.
In 924, Abd 'ar Rahman sacked the Basque capital of Pamplona of King Sancho I. An attempt by Ramiro, the son of Ordono II, to help Toledo was repulsed in 932.
During this time, ‘Abd ar-Rahman built up a navy unmatched anywhere in the world. With this navy, ‘Abd ar-Rahman proceeded to seize part of Morocco from the Fatimids. In 923, Ceuta was captured and the whole of the central Maghrib subdued, with the exception of the region of Tahert. This period also saw the formation of parties which were in the end to cause the greatest disorder: the Slav party and the Berber party. The Slavs were prisoners from eastern Europe, Italy and northern Spain and soon formed a large class in Cordoban society. The Berber party was to play a part in the early tenth century (of the Christian calendar).
By 929, ‘Abd ar-Rahman felt confident enough to assume the title of amir al-mu'minin (“Commander of the Believers”). On January 16, 929, he declared himself as the Caliph of Cordoba, effectively breaking all ties with the Fatimid and 'Abbasid caliphs, thereby restoring in Spain the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba. His ancestors in Iberia had been content with the title of emir. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. However, the force of this tradition had been so weakened that 'Abd ar-Rahman could proclaim himself caliph, and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. 'Abd ar-Rahman based his claim to the caliphate on his Ummayyad ancestry. The Umayyads had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the 'Abbasids.
In 930, Ibn Marwan surrendered, and in 932, Toledo was captured. At this point all Arabs, Iberians and Berbers submitted to 'Abd ar-Rahman. In 931, in order to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, the caliph had helped Berbers to conquer Ceuta and other territories, which accepted his suzerainty. This was, however, lost a few years later.
In 934, after reassuring his supremacy over Pamplona and Alava, 'Abd ar-Rahman forced Ramiro, the son of Ordono of Leon, to retreat up to Burgos. In 937, he conquered some thirthy castles in Leon and then compelled again the Navarese queen, Toda, to submit to him as a vassal. Then came the time for Muhammad ibn Hashim at-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the captured of his city.
Despite their early defeats, Ramiro II and Toda were able to crush the caliphate army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, most likely due to treason from Arabic elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, 'Abd ar-Rahman stopped taking part in person in the military campaigns. His cause was however helped by Fernan Gonzalez of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who declared war against Ramiro, only to be defeated after a while. Ramiro's victory at Simancas enabled the advance of the Leonine border from the Duero to the Tormes.
In 951, he signed a peace with the new king of Leon, Ordono III, in order to have free hand against the Fatimids in North Africa. He was, however, able only to launch an expedition against Ifriqiya, in the area of Tunis.
In 954, the Fatimids made a raid on the Spanish shore near Almeria. As a reprisal, ‘Abd ar-Rahman burned Marsa ‘l-Kharaz on the North African coast. About 955, ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s help was invoked by King Sancho and Queen Tota of Navarre against Ordono IV, an event without precedent in the annals of Muslim Spain. Ordono III's son and successor, Sancho I, had been deposed by his cousin Ordono IV. Sancho, together with Toda of Navarre, sued for an alliance with Cordoba. In exchange for some castles, 'Abd ar-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora in 959 and Oviedo in 960 and to overthrow Ordono IV.
'Abd ar-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Cordoba. He died in October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.
‘Abd ar-Rahman constructed near Cordoba the town of Madinat al-Zahra’ (Medina Azahara) for his own residence. Ultimately, ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s greatest legacy was the transformation of Cordoba into the greatest cultural center in the Western world, a distinction Cordoba would hold for over two centuries. 'Abd ar-Rahman expanded the city's library, which would help make Cordoba the intellectual center of Western Europe.
By the end of ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s reign, the splendor of Cordoba rivaled that of Baghdad and Constantinople, the great cultural centers of the East. Under 'Abd ar-Rahman, Islamic Cordoba became a city of beauty and enlightenment.
Rahman, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
Nasir, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
Defender of the Faith see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
‘Abd ar-Rahman III ('Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah) (January 11, 889 - October 15, 961). The eighth (and arguably the greatest) Umayyad emir of Spain. He ruled from 912 to 961. He ascended to the throne when he was twenty-two years of age and reigned for half a century as the most powerful prince of the Umayyad dynasty in Iberia.
Called al-Nasir, or the Defender (of the Faith), he was born at Cordoba, and was the son of Prince Muhammad. Succeeding to an emirate diminished by provincial governors who acted like independent rulers, ‘Abd ar-Rahman at once set out to assert Umayyad authority over all his territories. Initially, he had to suppress the dangerous revolt led by 'Umar ibn Hafsun. In 913, he attacked Seville, a city that had allied with Hafsun, conquering it on December 20. The following year, he campaigned in the Rayya mountains near Malaga, where his mild treatment gained him the surrender of most of the Christian castles. In 917, Hafsun died, but the struggle was continued by his son, who surrendered only after the fall of Malaga on January 21, 928.
Seville and Cremona submitted in 917, Bobastro was captured in 928 and Toledo, the last of the wayward cities, surrendered in 932. The emir checked the advance of the Christian prince Ordono II of Leon (d. 951) in 920.
Once having al-Andalus firmly under his rule, 'Abd ar-Rahman restarted his war against King Ordono II of Leon, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some bondary areas and to menace the Umayyad territory. In 920, the emir's troops gained a first victory at Junquera (Valdejunquera). This was one of several defeats ‘Abd ar-Rahman inflicted on the Christian kingdoms of Leon and Navarre, checking their expansion.
In 924, Abd 'ar Rahman sacked the Basque capital of Pamplona of King Sancho I. An attempt by Ramiro, the son of Ordono II, to help Toledo was repulsed in 932.
During this time, ‘Abd ar-Rahman built up a navy unmatched anywhere in the world. With this navy, ‘Abd ar-Rahman proceeded to seize part of Morocco from the Fatimids. In 923, Ceuta was captured and the whole of the central Maghrib subdued, with the exception of the region of Tahert. This period also saw the formation of parties which were in the end to cause the greatest disorder: the Slav party and the Berber party. The Slavs were prisoners from eastern Europe, Italy and northern Spain and soon formed a large class in Cordoban society. The Berber party was to play a part in the early tenth century (of the Christian calendar).
By 929, ‘Abd ar-Rahman felt confident enough to assume the title of amir al-mu'minin (“Commander of the Believers”). On January 16, 929, he declared himself as the Caliph of Cordoba, effectively breaking all ties with the Fatimid and 'Abbasid caliphs, thereby restoring in Spain the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba. His ancestors in Iberia had been content with the title of emir. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. However, the force of this tradition had been so weakened that 'Abd ar-Rahman could proclaim himself caliph, and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. 'Abd ar-Rahman based his claim to the caliphate on his Ummayyad ancestry. The Umayyads had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the 'Abbasids.
In 930, Ibn Marwan surrendered, and in 932, Toledo was captured. At this point all Arabs, Iberians and Berbers submitted to 'Abd ar-Rahman. In 931, in order to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, the caliph had helped Berbers to conquer Ceuta and other territories, which accepted his suzerainty. This was, however, lost a few years later.
In 934, after reassuring his supremacy over Pamplona and Alava, 'Abd ar-Rahman forced Ramiro, the son of Ordono of Leon, to retreat up to Burgos. In 937, he conquered some thirthy castles in Leon and then compelled again the Navarese queen, Toda, to submit to him as a vassal. Then came the time for Muhammad ibn Hashim at-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the captured of his city.
Despite their early defeats, Ramiro II and Toda were able to crush the caliphate army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, most likely due to treason from Arabic elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, 'Abd ar-Rahman stopped taking part in person in the military campaigns. His cause was however helped by Fernan Gonzalez of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who declared war against Ramiro, only to be defeated after a while. Ramiro's victory at Simancas enabled the advance of the Leonine border from the Duero to the Tormes.
In 951, he signed a peace with the new king of Leon, Ordono III, in order to have free hand against the Fatimids in North Africa. He was, however, able only to launch an expedition against Ifriqiya, in the area of Tunis.
In 954, the Fatimids made a raid on the Spanish shore near Almeria. As a reprisal, ‘Abd ar-Rahman burned Marsa ‘l-Kharaz on the North African coast. About 955, ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s help was invoked by King Sancho and Queen Tota of Navarre against Ordono IV, an event without precedent in the annals of Muslim Spain. Ordono III's son and successor, Sancho I, had been deposed by his cousin Ordono IV. Sancho, together with Toda of Navarre, sued for an alliance with Cordoba. In exchange for some castles, 'Abd ar-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora in 959 and Oviedo in 960 and to overthrow Ordono IV.
'Abd ar-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Cordoba. He died in October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.
‘Abd ar-Rahman constructed near Cordoba the town of Madinat al-Zahra’ (Medina Azahara) for his own residence. Ultimately, ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s greatest legacy was the transformation of Cordoba into the greatest cultural center in the Western world, a distinction Cordoba would hold for over two centuries. 'Abd ar-Rahman expanded the city's library, which would help make Cordoba the intellectual center of Western Europe.
By the end of ‘Abd ar-Rahman’s reign, the splendor of Cordoba rivaled that of Baghdad and Constantinople, the great cultural centers of the East. Under 'Abd ar-Rahman, Islamic Cordoba became a city of beauty and enlightenment.
Rahman, 'Abd ar- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
Nasir, al- see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
Defender of the Faith see ‘Abd ar-Rahman III
'Abdel Kader
'Abdel Kader. See ‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din.
Kader, 'Abdel see 'Abdel Kader.
'Abdel Kader. See ‘Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhyi al-Din.
Kader, 'Abdel see 'Abdel Kader.
‘Abd el-Krim
‘Abd el-Krim ('Abdul Karim) (Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi) (Mulay Abdelkrim) (c.1882 - February 6, 1963). Leader of the Riffians, an Arab tribe of Morocco. He became the leader of a wide scale armed resistance movement against French and Spanish colonial rule in North Africa. His guerrilla tactics are known to have inspired Ho Chi Minh, Mao Zedong, and Che Guevara.
'Abd el-Krim was born in Ajdir, Morocco, around 1882, to 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi, a qadi (Islamic judge) of the Ait Yusuf clan of the Aith Uriaghel (or Warayaghar) tribe. ‘Abd el-Krim was the eldest son of ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Muhammad al-Khattabi, a notable of the Ait Warayaghar, a Tamazight speaking Berber tribe of the Rif Mountains in northeastern Morocco.
'Abd el-Krim was educated both in traditional zaouias and in Spanish schools, continuing his education at the ancient University of Qarawiyin in Fez. After his studies, in 1906, 'Abd el-Krim was sent to Mellila by his father. He worked there as a teacher and translator (until 1913) and became journalist for the Spanish newspaper Telegrama del Rif (1906-1915). Working for the newspaper 'Abd el-Krim, following the ideas of his father, pleaded for intervention by Spain in the Rif. He insisted that this intervention would not be a colonization or submission to the Christians. He made a distinction between two kinds of Moroccans, those who understood that intervention was necessary and those who opposed it. He praised the many benefits Spain would bring to the region.
'Abd el-Krim entered Spanish governmental service and was appointed chief qadi for Melilla in 1914. During the World War I, 'Abd el-Krim was punished by the Spanish government for pro-German activities and imprisoned for a short period. At the end of the war, he briefly resumed his duties at the newspaper, but soon, fearful of extradition to the French for punishment, he returned to his home at Ajdir in January 1919. He was alarmed by the appearance of Spanish agents in Beni Waryaghil territory and was determined to fight for tribal independence. A more immediate provocation was the loss of his pension and his exclusion by the Spanish from an informal mining consortium. The following year, 'Abd el-Krim, together with his father and brother, began a war of rebellion against the Spanish. His goal was now to unite the tribes of the Rif into an independent Republic of the Rif. He made it clear that this Republic was strictly provisional, confirming his allegiance to the Moroccan throne and the royal family.
In 1921, as a by-product of their efforts to destroy the power of a local brigand, Raisuli, Spanish troops approached the unoccupied areas of the Rif. 'Abd el-Krim sent their General, Manuel Fernandez Silvestre, a warning that if they crossed the Amekran River he would consider it an act of war. Silvestre ignored the warning, and shortly afterwards set up a military post across the river to establish an outpost at the hills of Abaran. In June 1921, a sizable Riffian force attacked this post killing 179 Spanish troops of the estimated 250. Soon afterwards, 'Abd el-Krim directed his forces to attack the Spanish lines an Anual (Morocco). ‘Abd el-Krim achieved great success. In three weeks, 8,000 Spanish troops were killed, and the Spanish Army of 13,000 was forced to retreat to the coast by only 3,000 Riffians. During the attack on Anual, General Silvestre either committed suicide or was killed while defending his post. All told, the Spanish losses at the Battle of Anual may have numbered as many as nineteen thousand killed, making this battle the greatest defeat suffered by a European force in one battle in the colonial history of North Africa. This seminal victory established 'Abd el-Krim as a genius of guerrilla warfare, and thus began the Rif Rebellion, a major insurrection against the Spanish and French protectorate authorities in Morocco.
The embarrassing defeat of Spanish forces at Anual created a political crisis in Spain that subsequently led to General Miguel Primo de Rivera's coup d'etat of September 13, 1923, the installation of a military dictatorship (1923-1930), and the eventual collapse of the Spanish Monarchy in April 1931.
By 1924, the Spanish were forced to retreat to their holdings along the coast of Morocco. Meanwhile, France laid claim to territory in southern Er Rif. The French realized that allowing another North African colonial power to be defeated by indigenous forces would set a dangerous precedent for their own territories, and after 'Abd el-Krim invaded French Morocco in April 1925, the French entered the fray. A French force under Marshal Henri Philippe Petain and a Spanish army began operations against the Riffians. Hard fighting continued for a year, but finally the combined European armies totalling 250,000 soldiers, and using such weapons as mustard gas, defeated the forces of ‘Abd el-Krim. On May 26, 1926, 'Abd el-Krim surrendered to the French at his then headquarters of Targuist.
'Abd el-Krim was exiled to the French island of Reunion (an island in the Indian Ocean) from 1926 to 1947. In 1947, he was granted permission to live in southern France. He left the ship carrying him to France and, accepting an offer of protection from the king of Egypt, became a resident of that country. In Egypt, 'Abd el-Krim came to preside over the Liberation Committee for the Arab Maghreb, a North African nationalist opposition to European rule. He died in 1963 in Cairo, just after seeing his hopes of a Maghreb independent of colonial powers fulfilled by the independence of Algeria.
The Rif Rebellion was the most important anti-colonial uprising in Morocco until the emergence of the Istiqlal party and modern mass nationalism in 1943. In retrospect, it can be seen as a transitional political phenomenon, at once the last jihad and the first modern political movement. The Rif Rebellion and the ripublik established by 'Abd el-Krim were a major political and strategic challenge to colonial rule. To understand its significance, the history of the family of 'Abd el-Krim and of Morocco from 1900 to 1925 must be examined.
Between 1900 and 1912, when the French and Spanish protectorates were established, large areas of Morocco, including the Rif Mountains, escaped the rule of the makhzan (the central government). In the early twentieth century, makhzan control of northern Morocco was shaken by a series of rebellions, culminating in the uprising of Abu Himarah (1902-1909) in northern Morocco. In 1907 and 1908, a popular insurgency overthrew ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, the French supported sultan, and brought to power his brother, ‘Abd al-Hafiz. From 1909, until the establishment of the French and Spanish protectorates in 1912, Morocco was in many respects already a colonized territory. This was especially the case in the Moroccan Rif area around the Spanish enclave of Melilla, which became the center for ambitious mining schemes by Spanish and German capitalists. By 1912, the Spanish presidio of Melilla had become one of the largest port cities in Morocco. For Riffians, these changes created enormous risks as well as opportunities.
The family of 'Abd el-Krim was well placed to take advantage of this rapidly changing situation. 'Abd el-Krim himself was the scion of a successful a‘yan (notable) family based in Ajdir, a community on the Mediterranean near the Spanish base at Alhuecemas. Around 1902, both 'Abd el-Krim and his brother studied for several years at the Qarawiyin mosque university in Fez, where they received a thorough grounding in Islamic law. After his return to the Rif around 1906, Abd el-Krim was employed by the Spanish government in Melilla as a teacher and subsequently as editor of the Arabic language page in the Spanish newspaper, El Telegrama del Rif. While his father served as a Moroccan government appointed amin (customs agent) and (after 1912) as representative of the Spanish protectorate authorities in the district around Melilla, 'Abd el-Krim held an appointment from the Moroccan sultan as qadi (religious judge) for the same district, and his brother was studying to be a mining engineer in Spain. By playing off the makhzan, the local tribes, and the Spanish and French imperialists in the preceding decade, 'Abd el-Krim and his family were well positioned by 1912 to gain from the gradual collapse of the Moroccan state.
'Abd el-Krim was able to increase his power and influence after 1912, following the simultaneous establishment of Spanish and French protectorates in northern Morocco. After the outbreak of World War I, his balancing act became more difficult to sustain. Although 'Abd el-Krim secretly supported the efforts of the Ottomans to foment a rebellion, he was denounced by some Moroccans as a collaborator because of his public role as a Spanish functionary. By 1921, in response to the increasing harshness of Spanish policy, 'Abd el-Krim launched his rebellion.
The Rif Rebellion was accompanied by the proclamation of a ripublik in 1923 by 'Abd el-Krim. It sought a far-reaching transformation of Riffian society based on the suppression of the feud, which was endemic, and the application of shari‘a in place of Berber customary law. Religiously, 'Abd el-krim sought to present his rebellion as a modern state, a Dawlat al-Jumhuriyah al-Rifiyah, or Rifian Republic. The ripublik invoked the language of national self-determination and human rights in an effort to win support among European liberals. Headed by 'Abd el-Krim as president, it had a national assembly composed of the heads of the Berber tribal councils.
At its height, the Riffian state embraced most of the Spanish protectorate zone, excluding the cities of Melilla, Alhuecemas, and Tetouan, and a portion of the French protectorate zone north of Fez. New methods of military organization, added to exceptional fighting qualities, made the Ait Warayaghar a formidable opponent even to modern European armies. Only in 1926, after the full military might of France and Spain was brought to bear (including massive artillery and aerial bombardments), was 'Abd el-Krim defeated.
The legacy of 'Abd el Krim is an ambiguous one. His brave and resourceful struggle served as an inspiration to Moroccan contemporaries, notably the young nationalists, but the idea of a Riffian republic has also been seen as a potentially divisive one in independent Morocco. Perhaps because of this, 'Abd el-Krim played no direct role in the nationalist movement that overthrew the Spanish and French protectorates in 1956.
Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi see ‘Abd el-Krim
'Abdul Karim see ‘Abd el-Krim
Krim, 'Abd el- see ‘Abd el-Krim
Karim, 'Abdul see ‘Abd el-Krim
Khattabi, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karim al- see ‘Abd el-Krim
Mulay Abdelkrim see ‘Abd el-Krim
‘Abd el-Krim ('Abdul Karim) (Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi) (Mulay Abdelkrim) (c.1882 - February 6, 1963). Leader of the Riffians, an Arab tribe of Morocco. He became the leader of a wide scale armed resistance movement against French and Spanish colonial rule in North Africa. His guerrilla tactics are known to have inspired Ho Chi Minh, Mao Zedong, and Che Guevara.
'Abd el-Krim was born in Ajdir, Morocco, around 1882, to 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi, a qadi (Islamic judge) of the Ait Yusuf clan of the Aith Uriaghel (or Warayaghar) tribe. ‘Abd el-Krim was the eldest son of ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Muhammad al-Khattabi, a notable of the Ait Warayaghar, a Tamazight speaking Berber tribe of the Rif Mountains in northeastern Morocco.
'Abd el-Krim was educated both in traditional zaouias and in Spanish schools, continuing his education at the ancient University of Qarawiyin in Fez. After his studies, in 1906, 'Abd el-Krim was sent to Mellila by his father. He worked there as a teacher and translator (until 1913) and became journalist for the Spanish newspaper Telegrama del Rif (1906-1915). Working for the newspaper 'Abd el-Krim, following the ideas of his father, pleaded for intervention by Spain in the Rif. He insisted that this intervention would not be a colonization or submission to the Christians. He made a distinction between two kinds of Moroccans, those who understood that intervention was necessary and those who opposed it. He praised the many benefits Spain would bring to the region.
'Abd el-Krim entered Spanish governmental service and was appointed chief qadi for Melilla in 1914. During the World War I, 'Abd el-Krim was punished by the Spanish government for pro-German activities and imprisoned for a short period. At the end of the war, he briefly resumed his duties at the newspaper, but soon, fearful of extradition to the French for punishment, he returned to his home at Ajdir in January 1919. He was alarmed by the appearance of Spanish agents in Beni Waryaghil territory and was determined to fight for tribal independence. A more immediate provocation was the loss of his pension and his exclusion by the Spanish from an informal mining consortium. The following year, 'Abd el-Krim, together with his father and brother, began a war of rebellion against the Spanish. His goal was now to unite the tribes of the Rif into an independent Republic of the Rif. He made it clear that this Republic was strictly provisional, confirming his allegiance to the Moroccan throne and the royal family.
In 1921, as a by-product of their efforts to destroy the power of a local brigand, Raisuli, Spanish troops approached the unoccupied areas of the Rif. 'Abd el-Krim sent their General, Manuel Fernandez Silvestre, a warning that if they crossed the Amekran River he would consider it an act of war. Silvestre ignored the warning, and shortly afterwards set up a military post across the river to establish an outpost at the hills of Abaran. In June 1921, a sizable Riffian force attacked this post killing 179 Spanish troops of the estimated 250. Soon afterwards, 'Abd el-Krim directed his forces to attack the Spanish lines an Anual (Morocco). ‘Abd el-Krim achieved great success. In three weeks, 8,000 Spanish troops were killed, and the Spanish Army of 13,000 was forced to retreat to the coast by only 3,000 Riffians. During the attack on Anual, General Silvestre either committed suicide or was killed while defending his post. All told, the Spanish losses at the Battle of Anual may have numbered as many as nineteen thousand killed, making this battle the greatest defeat suffered by a European force in one battle in the colonial history of North Africa. This seminal victory established 'Abd el-Krim as a genius of guerrilla warfare, and thus began the Rif Rebellion, a major insurrection against the Spanish and French protectorate authorities in Morocco.
The embarrassing defeat of Spanish forces at Anual created a political crisis in Spain that subsequently led to General Miguel Primo de Rivera's coup d'etat of September 13, 1923, the installation of a military dictatorship (1923-1930), and the eventual collapse of the Spanish Monarchy in April 1931.
By 1924, the Spanish were forced to retreat to their holdings along the coast of Morocco. Meanwhile, France laid claim to territory in southern Er Rif. The French realized that allowing another North African colonial power to be defeated by indigenous forces would set a dangerous precedent for their own territories, and after 'Abd el-Krim invaded French Morocco in April 1925, the French entered the fray. A French force under Marshal Henri Philippe Petain and a Spanish army began operations against the Riffians. Hard fighting continued for a year, but finally the combined European armies totalling 250,000 soldiers, and using such weapons as mustard gas, defeated the forces of ‘Abd el-Krim. On May 26, 1926, 'Abd el-Krim surrendered to the French at his then headquarters of Targuist.
'Abd el-Krim was exiled to the French island of Reunion (an island in the Indian Ocean) from 1926 to 1947. In 1947, he was granted permission to live in southern France. He left the ship carrying him to France and, accepting an offer of protection from the king of Egypt, became a resident of that country. In Egypt, 'Abd el-Krim came to preside over the Liberation Committee for the Arab Maghreb, a North African nationalist opposition to European rule. He died in 1963 in Cairo, just after seeing his hopes of a Maghreb independent of colonial powers fulfilled by the independence of Algeria.
The Rif Rebellion was the most important anti-colonial uprising in Morocco until the emergence of the Istiqlal party and modern mass nationalism in 1943. In retrospect, it can be seen as a transitional political phenomenon, at once the last jihad and the first modern political movement. The Rif Rebellion and the ripublik established by 'Abd el-Krim were a major political and strategic challenge to colonial rule. To understand its significance, the history of the family of 'Abd el-Krim and of Morocco from 1900 to 1925 must be examined.
Between 1900 and 1912, when the French and Spanish protectorates were established, large areas of Morocco, including the Rif Mountains, escaped the rule of the makhzan (the central government). In the early twentieth century, makhzan control of northern Morocco was shaken by a series of rebellions, culminating in the uprising of Abu Himarah (1902-1909) in northern Morocco. In 1907 and 1908, a popular insurgency overthrew ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, the French supported sultan, and brought to power his brother, ‘Abd al-Hafiz. From 1909, until the establishment of the French and Spanish protectorates in 1912, Morocco was in many respects already a colonized territory. This was especially the case in the Moroccan Rif area around the Spanish enclave of Melilla, which became the center for ambitious mining schemes by Spanish and German capitalists. By 1912, the Spanish presidio of Melilla had become one of the largest port cities in Morocco. For Riffians, these changes created enormous risks as well as opportunities.
The family of 'Abd el-Krim was well placed to take advantage of this rapidly changing situation. 'Abd el-Krim himself was the scion of a successful a‘yan (notable) family based in Ajdir, a community on the Mediterranean near the Spanish base at Alhuecemas. Around 1902, both 'Abd el-Krim and his brother studied for several years at the Qarawiyin mosque university in Fez, where they received a thorough grounding in Islamic law. After his return to the Rif around 1906, Abd el-Krim was employed by the Spanish government in Melilla as a teacher and subsequently as editor of the Arabic language page in the Spanish newspaper, El Telegrama del Rif. While his father served as a Moroccan government appointed amin (customs agent) and (after 1912) as representative of the Spanish protectorate authorities in the district around Melilla, 'Abd el-Krim held an appointment from the Moroccan sultan as qadi (religious judge) for the same district, and his brother was studying to be a mining engineer in Spain. By playing off the makhzan, the local tribes, and the Spanish and French imperialists in the preceding decade, 'Abd el-Krim and his family were well positioned by 1912 to gain from the gradual collapse of the Moroccan state.
'Abd el-Krim was able to increase his power and influence after 1912, following the simultaneous establishment of Spanish and French protectorates in northern Morocco. After the outbreak of World War I, his balancing act became more difficult to sustain. Although 'Abd el-Krim secretly supported the efforts of the Ottomans to foment a rebellion, he was denounced by some Moroccans as a collaborator because of his public role as a Spanish functionary. By 1921, in response to the increasing harshness of Spanish policy, 'Abd el-Krim launched his rebellion.
The Rif Rebellion was accompanied by the proclamation of a ripublik in 1923 by 'Abd el-Krim. It sought a far-reaching transformation of Riffian society based on the suppression of the feud, which was endemic, and the application of shari‘a in place of Berber customary law. Religiously, 'Abd el-krim sought to present his rebellion as a modern state, a Dawlat al-Jumhuriyah al-Rifiyah, or Rifian Republic. The ripublik invoked the language of national self-determination and human rights in an effort to win support among European liberals. Headed by 'Abd el-Krim as president, it had a national assembly composed of the heads of the Berber tribal councils.
At its height, the Riffian state embraced most of the Spanish protectorate zone, excluding the cities of Melilla, Alhuecemas, and Tetouan, and a portion of the French protectorate zone north of Fez. New methods of military organization, added to exceptional fighting qualities, made the Ait Warayaghar a formidable opponent even to modern European armies. Only in 1926, after the full military might of France and Spain was brought to bear (including massive artillery and aerial bombardments), was 'Abd el-Krim defeated.
The legacy of 'Abd el Krim is an ambiguous one. His brave and resourceful struggle served as an inspiration to Moroccan contemporaries, notably the young nationalists, but the idea of a Riffian republic has also been seen as a potentially divisive one in independent Morocco. Perhaps because of this, 'Abd el-Krim played no direct role in the nationalist movement that overthrew the Spanish and French protectorates in 1956.
Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi see ‘Abd el-Krim
'Abdul Karim see ‘Abd el-Krim
Krim, 'Abd el- see ‘Abd el-Krim
Karim, 'Abdul see ‘Abd el-Krim
Khattabi, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karim al- see ‘Abd el-Krim
Mulay Abdelkrim see ‘Abd el-Krim
Abdel-Meguid, Ahmed Asmat
Ahmed Asmat Abdel-Meguid (Arabic: أحمد عصمت عبد المجيد) (b. March 1924) is an Egyptian diplomat. He served as the Foreign Minister of Egypt between 1984 and 1991, and as the Secretary-General of the Arab League from 1991 until 2001.
Born in Alexandria in March 1924, Abdel Meguid received a law degree from Alexandria University in 1944 before going on to obtain a doctorate of international law from the University of Paris in 1947. He joined the Egyptian foreign ministry in 1950 and worked in several departments, notably the British and French sections. He became ambassador to France in 1970, deputy foreign minister in 1970, and Egypt's high representative to the United Nations in 1972. He served in that position until 1983, and was then foreign minister from 1984 to 1991, when he was elected secretary-general of the Arab League.
'Abdel Rahman, Omar
'Abdel Rahman, Omar (Omar 'Abdel Rahman) (Omar Ahmed 'Ali 'Abdel Rahman) ('Umar 'Abd al-Rahman) (b. May 3, 1938, Al Gammaliyyah, Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt - d. February 18, 2017, Granville County, North Carolina). An Egyptian religious scholar and an Islamic fundamentalist leader. Born to a poor rural family in the village of al-Jamaliyah in Lower Egypt, Omar Ahmed 'Ali 'Abdel Rahman was accidentally blinded at ten months of age. He studied a Braille version of the Qur'an as a child and developed an interest in the works of the Islamic purists. He received a traditional religious education in regional urban centers, memorizing the Qur’an. In 1960, he entered the faculty of Fundamentals of Religion at al-Azhar University in Cairo, where he graduated first in his class in 1965. Although he had hoped to become a teaching assistant at the university, he was appointed by the state as a mosque preacher in a poor rural village in the Fayyum, Upper Egypt. He soon returned to al-Azhar, however, obtaining a master’s degree in 1967 and a faculty appointment in 1968. He continued both his graduate studies and occasional preaching in the Fayyum.
'Abdel Rahman made the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1968 and there met Sa‘id Ramadan, an expatriate leader of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood who opposed the government of Gamal 'Abdel Nasser. Ramadan persuaded him to transport funds back to Egypt for the families of jailed brotherhood members. 'Abdel Rahman was arrested in the process and, although he was soon released, he lost his faculty position. He was appointed to a bureaucratic post later in 1969, but he saw this as a shameful demotion.
'Abdel Rahman continued to preach in the Fayyum. At a public ceremony after Nasser’s death on September 28, 1970, he condemned Nasser as an infidel and prohibited prayers for him. As a consequence, he was detained by the government for eight months.
The new regime of Anwar el-Sadat declared an amnesty for jailed Islamic fundamentalists with the aim of enlisting them as a counterweight to leftist forces. 'Abdel Rahman was re-appointed as a teaching assistant at the Azhari Institute in Fayyum, but he was still the subject of controversy among university administrators. After completing his doctorate in 1972, he briefly held a professorship at al-Azhar before being transferred to the religious faculty in Asyut, a center of Islamic fundamentalist activity. Both the regional and national governments supported the establishment there of the Jama‘ah (Jama'at) al-Islamiyah ("The Islamic Group"), the Muslim Brotherhood’s student organization, to which 'Abdel Rahman was strongly sympathetic.
In 1977, 'Abdel Rahman married ‘Isha’ Hasan Judah, the daughter of a brotherhood member, and left Egypt to spend four years in Saudi Arabia as a professor of Qur’anic interpretation at Saud University. Soon after his return, he was arrested for his involvement in the fundamentalist Jihad Organization accused of assassinating President Sadat. He was accused of leading the organization and of participating in the assassination but was acquitted on both counts and released in 1984.
While he was imprisoned in the Egyptian jails, 'Abdel Rahman was severely tortured as he awaited trial on charges of issuing a fatwa resulting in Sadat's assassination by Egyptian Islamic Jihad. Although 'Abdel Rahman was not convicted of conspiracy in the Sadat assassination, he was expelled from Egypt following his acquittal.
During this protracted trial (1981-1984), three factors led to 'Abdel Rahman’s emergence as the leading figure in his Islamist movement. The first was his book Mithaq al-‘amil al-Islami (“Charter of Islamic Action”), an explanation of his view of correct Islamic life. It marked his departure from the more moderate wing of the brotherhood and affiliation with the radical forces informed by the concept of jihad and the necessity to overthrow the secular state in order to restore the principles of the Qur’an. Second, he married again, this time to Fatin Shu‘ayb, a kinswoman of several important activists, affirming his solidarity with the Jama‘ah al-Islamiyah in Upper Egypt and lending weight to his religious status as mufti al-jihad. Third, most of the major leaders of the jihad organization were executed or imprisoned for life, leaving a power vacuum that 'Abdel Rahman readily filled.
During the decade that followed, 'Abdel Rahman came to be portrayed by his political opponents and the media as the high priest of radical fundamentalism both in and outside Egypt. After leaving Egypt, he made his way to Afghanistan in the mid-1980s where he contacted his former professor, 'Abdullah Azzam, co-founder of Maktab al-Khadamat (MAK) along with Osama bin Laden. 'Abdel Rahman built a strong rapport with bin Laden during the Afghan war against the Soviets, and following Azzam's murder in 1989, 'Abdel Rahman assumed control of the international jihadists arm of MAK/Al Qaeda.
In July 1990, 'Abdel Rahman emigrated to New York City in the United States to gain control of MAK's financial and organizational infrastructure in the United States. He was issued a tourist visa to visit the United States despite his name being listed on a United States State Department terrorist watch list. Rahman entered the United States via Saudi Arabia, Peshawar, and Sudan.
'Abdel Rahman traveled widely in the United States and Canada. Despite the United States support for the mujahideen in Afghanistan, 'Abdel Rahman was deeply anti-American and spoke out against America, safe in the knowledge that he was speaking Arabic and was unmonitored by any law enforcement agency. He issued a fatwa in the United States that declared lawful the robbing of banks and killing of Jews in America. His sermons condemned Americans and called on Muslims to assail the West.
In March 1992, 'Abdel Rahman was stripped of his green card and was subsequently summoned to a federal hearing on charges that he lied on his visa application. An INS administrative judge ordered that 'Abdel Rahman be deported from the United States, but 'Abdel Rahman successfully fought the deportation ruling.
Preaching at three mosques in the New York City area, 'Abdel-Rahman was soon surrounded by a core group of devoted followers that included persons who became responsible for the World Trade Center bombings in 1993. The 1993 bombing utilized a powerful car bomb and was detonated at New York's World Trade Center. Six people were killed and more than a thousand were wounded. 'Abdel Rahman had intended to cause the bombed tower to fall onto its twin, causing both towers to collapse and killing tens of thousands.
After the first World Trade Center bombing in February 1993, the FBI began to investigate 'Abdel Rahman and his followers more closely. With the assistance of an Egyptian informant wearing a listening device, the FBI managed to record Rahman issuing a fatwa encouraging acts of violence against United States civilian targets, particularly in the New York and New Jersey metropolitan area.
The most startling plan, the government charged, was to set off five bombs in ten minutes, blowing up the United Nations, the Lincoln and Holland tunnels, the George Washington Bridge and a federal building housing the FBI. Government prosecutors showed videotapes of defendants mixing bomb ingredients in a garage before their arrest in 1993. 'Abdel Rahman was arrested on June 24, 1993, along with nine of his followers. On October 1, 1995, he was convicted of seditious conspiracy, and in 1996 was sentenced to life in prison. Abdel-Rahman began serving his life sentence at the FMC Rochester in Minnesota. After the September 11 attacks, he was transferred to the FMC Butner in North Carolina. He died there on February 18, 2017 at the age of 78 due to complications from diabetes and coronary arterial disease.
One of Rahman's followers, El Sayyid Nosair, was also linked to the 1990 assassination of Israeli nationalist Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the militant Jewish Defense League. Nosair was subsequently acquitted of murder but was convicted on gun possession charges. Nosair later stood trial as a co-conspirator of Rahman. Both men received life sentences for the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.
After 1993, 'Abdel Rahman became, in fact, the acknowledged spiritual guide of the Jama‘ah al-Islamiyah, and he assumed great importance to radical Islamists in much of the Muslim world. His imprisonment became a rallying point for Islamic militants around the world, including Al Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. In 1997, members of his group Jama'ah al-Islamiyah conducted two attacks against European visitors to Egypt, including the massacre of 58 tourists at Deir el-Bahri in Luxor. In addition to killing women and children, the attackers mutilated a number of bodies and distributed leaflets throughout the scene demanding the release of 'Abdel Rahman.
In 2005, members of Rahman's legal team were convicted of facilitating communication between the imprisoned 'Abdel Rahman and members of Jama'ah al-Islamiyah in Egypt. As for 'Abdel Rahman, he was incarcerated at the Butner Medical Center which is part of the Butner Federal Correctional Institution in Butner, North Carolina, United States.
‘Umar ‘Abd al-Rahman see 'Abdel Rahman, Omar
Omar Ahmed 'Ali 'Abdel Rahman see 'Abdel Rahman, Omar
Omar 'Abdel Rahman see 'Abdel Rahman, Omar
'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed (Mohamed 'Abd el-Wahaab) (Mohammed Abdel Wahab) (Muhammad 'Abdul Wahaab) (1907 - May 3, 1991). Egyptian singer and composer. Known as the "artist of generations," 'Abd el-Wahaab was the last remaining figure from the old guard and the most controversial and respected member of the musicial fraternity. His achievements span a long career from the 1920s as a singer, to film star and eventually composer, a talent crowned when Umm Kalthum agreed to sing his "Enta Omri", a 1964 song which featured an electric guitar for the first time.
Born in the Bab El-Sheriyah area of Cairo, Egypt, 'Abd el-Wahaab played oud before the Prince of Poets, Ahmed Shawqi.
As a composer, 'Abd el-Wahaab is remembered as the modernizer of Arabic music, liberating it, as his supporters see it, from the limitations of the takht ensemble and allowing it to embrace western-style tangos, waltzes and instrumentation. Others criticize his music for overt plagiarism. He stood by his vision for modernization of the music all his life, demanding that "the artist is the creator and has the full right to introduce new elements into his music as he sees fit. We must always be open to new ideas and not resist change. Change is inevitable in everything."
It is ironic that in his later years 'Abd el-Wahaab became so contemptuous of other modernizers that he took his initiative a step further. In 1990, he released a classical song into a market awash with the synthesizers of the new Egyptian pop. This was the first occasion in 32 years that he sang his own composition. "Minrear Ley" ("Without Why") set out to test popular loyalty, but was viewed by many as the final gasp of a wounded musical genre. Its immediate success, however, went a long way to proving that, despite ending his life in the knowledge that he had failed to pass on his musical tradition to a new generation, his vision for Arab music still lives on.
'Abd el-Wahaab died on May 3, 1991. He is still considered one of the five greats of Arabic music, along with Umm Kalthoum, Farid Al Attrach, Fayrouz, and Abdel Halim Hafez.
Mohamed 'Abd el-Wahaab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Muhammad Abdul Wahaab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Artist of Generations see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Wahaab, Mohamed 'Abd el- see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Mohammed Abdel Wahab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Wahab, Mohammed Abdel see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed (Mohamed 'Abd el-Wahaab) (Mohammed Abdel Wahab) (Muhammad 'Abdul Wahaab) (1907 - May 3, 1991). Egyptian singer and composer. Known as the "artist of generations," 'Abd el-Wahaab was the last remaining figure from the old guard and the most controversial and respected member of the musicial fraternity. His achievements span a long career from the 1920s as a singer, to film star and eventually composer, a talent crowned when Umm Kalthum agreed to sing his "Enta Omri", a 1964 song which featured an electric guitar for the first time.
Born in the Bab El-Sheriyah area of Cairo, Egypt, 'Abd el-Wahaab played oud before the Prince of Poets, Ahmed Shawqi.
As a composer, 'Abd el-Wahaab is remembered as the modernizer of Arabic music, liberating it, as his supporters see it, from the limitations of the takht ensemble and allowing it to embrace western-style tangos, waltzes and instrumentation. Others criticize his music for overt plagiarism. He stood by his vision for modernization of the music all his life, demanding that "the artist is the creator and has the full right to introduce new elements into his music as he sees fit. We must always be open to new ideas and not resist change. Change is inevitable in everything."
It is ironic that in his later years 'Abd el-Wahaab became so contemptuous of other modernizers that he took his initiative a step further. In 1990, he released a classical song into a market awash with the synthesizers of the new Egyptian pop. This was the first occasion in 32 years that he sang his own composition. "Minrear Ley" ("Without Why") set out to test popular loyalty, but was viewed by many as the final gasp of a wounded musical genre. Its immediate success, however, went a long way to proving that, despite ending his life in the knowledge that he had failed to pass on his musical tradition to a new generation, his vision for Arab music still lives on.
'Abd el-Wahaab died on May 3, 1991. He is still considered one of the five greats of Arabic music, along with Umm Kalthoum, Farid Al Attrach, Fayrouz, and Abdel Halim Hafez.
Mohamed 'Abd el-Wahaab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Muhammad Abdul Wahaab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Artist of Generations see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Wahaab, Mohamed 'Abd el- see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Mohammed Abdel Wahab see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Wahab, Mohammed Abdel see 'Abd el-Wahaab, Mohamed
Abderrahmane Taleb
Abderrahmane Taleb (b. March 5, 1930, Casbah of Algiers, Algiers - d. April 24, 1958, Barberousse Prison [now Serkadji Prison], Algiers) also known by his wartime pseudonym Mohand Akli, was the artificer (a service member skilled in working on artillery devices in the field) of the Autonomous Zone of Algiers during the Battle of Algiers. He was guillotined on April 24, 1958, at the Barberousse Prison (now Serkadji Prison) in Algiers.
Born in Sidi Ramdane in the Casbah of Algiers of a family originating from Azeffoun in Kabylie, Taleb Abderrahmane attended the Fateh school, then the Sarrouy school in Soustara where he had Mohand Lechani as a teacher, among others, before joining the Guillemin college, currently the Okba high school, in Bab El Oued, where the prevailing racial discrimination forced him to leave the school and continue his studies in private institutions.
Taleb applied as a free candidate to the University of Algiers. He was accepted and enrolled in the Faculty of Sciences in order to pursue studies in chemistry.
At the call of the FLN (National Liberation Front (Arabic: Jabhatu l-Taḥrīri l-Waṭanī; French: Front de libération nationale, FLN), Taleb left the faculty benches to devote himself to the national cause and joined the maquis in 1956, in the wilaya III.
Following the attack of August 10, 1956, in the street of Thèbes in the Casbah of Algiers perpetrated by ultras of the French Algeria against the Algerian civil populations, the chemistry student was assigned to the Autonomous zone of Algiers to manufacture explosives in makeshift laboratories.
In the company of Taleb's friend, Rachid Kaouche, Taleb set up a clandestine workshop at the impasse de la grenade in the Casbah, then another at the Villa des Roses in El Biar. However, on October 11, 1956, a spark caused an explosion that killed his friend and drew the attention of the French military to their activities.
Taleb Abderrahmane found refuge with his combat brothers in the mountains of Chrea.
Actively sought, Taleb was apprehended in June 1957 south of Blida by the 3rd Regiment of Marine Infantry Parachutists. Considered as the artificer of the Bombing network of Yacef Saadi during the Battle of Algiers, he was sentenced to death by the Permanent Court of the Armed Forces of Algiers on December 7, 1957, at the same time as Djamila Bouhired, Djamila Bouazza and Abdelghani Marsali.
Taleb Abderrahmane was executed on April 24, 1958, at dawn. On the day of his execution, he told the imam appointed by the colonial administration to read the Fatiha: "Take a weapon and join the maquis!"
‘Abdillaahi, Muuse
‘Abdillaahi, Muuse (b. c. 1880). Somali oral poet and man of religion. Known for his wisdom and piety, ‘Abdillaahi is the author of various topical and didactic poems. He is particularly remembered for the saying used in one of his poems: "He who speaks to termite hills will not get any sense out of them."
Muuse 'Abdillaahi see ‘Abdillaahi, Muuse
‘Abdillaahi, Muuse (b. c. 1880). Somali oral poet and man of religion. Known for his wisdom and piety, ‘Abdillaahi is the author of various topical and didactic poems. He is particularly remembered for the saying used in one of his poems: "He who speaks to termite hills will not get any sense out of them."
Muuse 'Abdillaahi see ‘Abdillaahi, Muuse
‘Abduh, Muhammad
‘Abduh, Muhammad (Muhammad 'Abduh) (Muhammed 'Abduh) (1849 - July 11, 1905). Egyptian scholar and reformer who is regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad ‘Abduh coincided with the death of Muhammad ‘Ali, the Albanian adventurer and creator of modern Egypt. ‘Ali’s regime, in political terms, generated the issues of modern change associated in intellectual terms with ‘Abduh’s pioneer leadership as a journalist, theologian, jurist and – in the last six years of his life – grand mufti of Egypt. The initial factors in his career were his traditional studies at al-Azhar University and an early commitment to Sufism with the Shadhili order of mystical discipline and the practice of dhikr and ta‘widh. His university studies ensured not only his grounding in the skills of an ‘alim but also his awareness of the inhibitions of taqlid (adherence to tradition), against which his reforming energies were later directed. Although he intellectually renounced his Sufi background, it continued to impart a quality of piety to his academic concerns for liberation from the harmful effects of taqlid.
The crucial influence in his development was the impact of Jalal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897), a strenuous advocate of a unitary Islam who emphasized the concept of umma (community) against the regionalism that in the twentieth century of the Christian calendar was to break up allegiance to the Ottoman empire into nationalism and the nation state. Pan-Islam was al-Afghani’s response to British rule in Egypt and to European domination in general. ‘Abduh was drawn into the cause and became editor of the journal Al-‘urwah al-wuthqa (“Firm Handhold” or "The Firmest Bond"), which took its title from a Qur’anic phrase (Suras 2:256 and 31:22). Despite the brevity of its publication in the 1880s, the journal kindled the enthusiasm of a generation of writers, including Rashid Rida, ultimately ‘Abduh’s biographer and his chief literary legatee.
‘Abduh was exiled from Egypt between 1882 and 1888, when he made wide contact with kindred minds in Syria and North Africa, with a short sojourn also in France. After his return to Cairo, his thoughts and efforts were drawn increasingly toward education and a renewal of Islamic theology. Given the ambiguities implicit in Arab Ottomanism and the actualities of British power in Egypt, he sensed that political activism had to be accompanied, if not overtaken, by the invigoration of the Muslim mind. Western influences had taken hold ever since Napoleon’s intrusion into the Arab East, but largely in practical forms – arms, trade, travel, and finance. A response to modernity had to be made in the way Islam perceived itself. ‘Abduh’s training in the familiar scholastic patterns of tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis or commentary) and fiqh (jurisprudence) had made him aware of the impediment to critical self-awareness in those habits and attitudes. The zest he had acquired from al-Afghani he now harnessed to intellectual ends. The attitude and training of the ‘ulama’, as he saw them, had entrenched them in the citation of authority, the appeal to sacrosanct exegesis, and a supine satisfaction with static norms. This taqlid, or “hideboundness” (to adopt a harsh translation), had its origins in the bases of Islam’s concept of wahy (“revelation”) in the Qur’an and in the assumption of isnad (“reliance”) on which its handling of tradition had long relied. Once an instinct of loyalty to the past and as such characteristic of Muslim scholarship, taqlid had come to sap the genuine articulation of Islam’s meaning and quality.
To achieve emancipation from the mentality of taqlid and yet retain Islamic authenticity was therefore a formidable task. ‘Abduh shouldered it with admirable tenacity, patience, and resilience, corroborating his scholarly credentials by earning increasing personal stature, despite the toll on his health and resources caused by pressure from reactionary forces. The idea that the shari‘a could be subject to wise discretion and that even theology could be flexible within limits served to enliven theological education, to increase student initiative, and to give scope to existing ideas of istihsan and istislah (considerations of equity through appeal to well-being and good sense).
The main ground of ‘Abduh’s “liberal-loyal” equation was the conviction that revelation and reason, each rightly perceived, were inherently harmonious. In Risalat al-tawhid ("The Theology of Unity" or "On Monotheism"), his most popular work, ‘Abduh expounded his conviction that “every sound speculation led to a belief in God as He is described in the Qur’an.” ‘Abduh held that the premise on which this belief rested was such as to make proof unnecessary. There were things about which it was not permissable to inquire, where curiosity could lead only to “confusion of belief.” Nevertheless, what was given in revelation should be rationally possessed – a task incumbent on every generation. There was no need to raise questions of theodicy, but sound exegesis should avoid crudely reading into the Qur’an anticipations of new discoveries and inventions. The purpose of revelation was essentially religious. What reason as science could achieve on its own, God had left it to do, and faith must respect its methods. ‘Abduh sustained the traditional case for the ‘ijaz (matchlessness) of the Qur’an as conclusive evidence of its divine origin. He identified as a form of shirk (“associationalism,” or more broadly “not letting God be God”) any reluctance to apply rationality to issues of society or to refuse its scientific fruits. Such reluctance would be a disavowal of divine creation. Shari‘a law was to be interpreted by the same principle of divinely created status and human custody in harmony.
At the time of his death, ‘Abduh was in his middle fifties. The bitter opposition he suffered from both academic and legal foes was proof of the measure of his influence and the range of his vision for a renewed Islam. His ideas found some continuing expression through the pages of the influential journal Al-manar (“Lighthouse”), but his disciples lacked his stature, and there is evidence of an adverse reaction to his legacy soon after his demise. From a historical perspective, however, he came to epitomize an incipient modernism, opening up a fresh viewpoint yet leaving many issues unresolved.
He died on July 11, 1905 in Alexandria, Egypt.
Muhammad ‘Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Muhammed 'Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Architect of Islamic Modernism see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
‘Abduh, Muhammad (Muhammad 'Abduh) (Muhammed 'Abduh) (1849 - July 11, 1905). Egyptian scholar and reformer who is regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism. The birth year of Muhammad ‘Abduh coincided with the death of Muhammad ‘Ali, the Albanian adventurer and creator of modern Egypt. ‘Ali’s regime, in political terms, generated the issues of modern change associated in intellectual terms with ‘Abduh’s pioneer leadership as a journalist, theologian, jurist and – in the last six years of his life – grand mufti of Egypt. The initial factors in his career were his traditional studies at al-Azhar University and an early commitment to Sufism with the Shadhili order of mystical discipline and the practice of dhikr and ta‘widh. His university studies ensured not only his grounding in the skills of an ‘alim but also his awareness of the inhibitions of taqlid (adherence to tradition), against which his reforming energies were later directed. Although he intellectually renounced his Sufi background, it continued to impart a quality of piety to his academic concerns for liberation from the harmful effects of taqlid.
The crucial influence in his development was the impact of Jalal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897), a strenuous advocate of a unitary Islam who emphasized the concept of umma (community) against the regionalism that in the twentieth century of the Christian calendar was to break up allegiance to the Ottoman empire into nationalism and the nation state. Pan-Islam was al-Afghani’s response to British rule in Egypt and to European domination in general. ‘Abduh was drawn into the cause and became editor of the journal Al-‘urwah al-wuthqa (“Firm Handhold” or "The Firmest Bond"), which took its title from a Qur’anic phrase (Suras 2:256 and 31:22). Despite the brevity of its publication in the 1880s, the journal kindled the enthusiasm of a generation of writers, including Rashid Rida, ultimately ‘Abduh’s biographer and his chief literary legatee.
‘Abduh was exiled from Egypt between 1882 and 1888, when he made wide contact with kindred minds in Syria and North Africa, with a short sojourn also in France. After his return to Cairo, his thoughts and efforts were drawn increasingly toward education and a renewal of Islamic theology. Given the ambiguities implicit in Arab Ottomanism and the actualities of British power in Egypt, he sensed that political activism had to be accompanied, if not overtaken, by the invigoration of the Muslim mind. Western influences had taken hold ever since Napoleon’s intrusion into the Arab East, but largely in practical forms – arms, trade, travel, and finance. A response to modernity had to be made in the way Islam perceived itself. ‘Abduh’s training in the familiar scholastic patterns of tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis or commentary) and fiqh (jurisprudence) had made him aware of the impediment to critical self-awareness in those habits and attitudes. The zest he had acquired from al-Afghani he now harnessed to intellectual ends. The attitude and training of the ‘ulama’, as he saw them, had entrenched them in the citation of authority, the appeal to sacrosanct exegesis, and a supine satisfaction with static norms. This taqlid, or “hideboundness” (to adopt a harsh translation), had its origins in the bases of Islam’s concept of wahy (“revelation”) in the Qur’an and in the assumption of isnad (“reliance”) on which its handling of tradition had long relied. Once an instinct of loyalty to the past and as such characteristic of Muslim scholarship, taqlid had come to sap the genuine articulation of Islam’s meaning and quality.
To achieve emancipation from the mentality of taqlid and yet retain Islamic authenticity was therefore a formidable task. ‘Abduh shouldered it with admirable tenacity, patience, and resilience, corroborating his scholarly credentials by earning increasing personal stature, despite the toll on his health and resources caused by pressure from reactionary forces. The idea that the shari‘a could be subject to wise discretion and that even theology could be flexible within limits served to enliven theological education, to increase student initiative, and to give scope to existing ideas of istihsan and istislah (considerations of equity through appeal to well-being and good sense).
The main ground of ‘Abduh’s “liberal-loyal” equation was the conviction that revelation and reason, each rightly perceived, were inherently harmonious. In Risalat al-tawhid ("The Theology of Unity" or "On Monotheism"), his most popular work, ‘Abduh expounded his conviction that “every sound speculation led to a belief in God as He is described in the Qur’an.” ‘Abduh held that the premise on which this belief rested was such as to make proof unnecessary. There were things about which it was not permissable to inquire, where curiosity could lead only to “confusion of belief.” Nevertheless, what was given in revelation should be rationally possessed – a task incumbent on every generation. There was no need to raise questions of theodicy, but sound exegesis should avoid crudely reading into the Qur’an anticipations of new discoveries and inventions. The purpose of revelation was essentially religious. What reason as science could achieve on its own, God had left it to do, and faith must respect its methods. ‘Abduh sustained the traditional case for the ‘ijaz (matchlessness) of the Qur’an as conclusive evidence of its divine origin. He identified as a form of shirk (“associationalism,” or more broadly “not letting God be God”) any reluctance to apply rationality to issues of society or to refuse its scientific fruits. Such reluctance would be a disavowal of divine creation. Shari‘a law was to be interpreted by the same principle of divinely created status and human custody in harmony.
At the time of his death, ‘Abduh was in his middle fifties. The bitter opposition he suffered from both academic and legal foes was proof of the measure of his influence and the range of his vision for a renewed Islam. His ideas found some continuing expression through the pages of the influential journal Al-manar (“Lighthouse”), but his disciples lacked his stature, and there is evidence of an adverse reaction to his legacy soon after his demise. From a historical perspective, however, he came to epitomize an incipient modernism, opening up a fresh viewpoint yet leaving many issues unresolved.
He died on July 11, 1905 in Alexandria, Egypt.
Muhammad ‘Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Muhammed 'Abduh see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
Architect of Islamic Modernism see ‘Abduh, Muhammad
'Abdulaziz
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abdul Bubakar
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
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