Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man (al-Imam al-A'zam) ("The Greatest Imam") (Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan) (c. 699-767). A theologian and religious lawyer. He is the eponym -- the person for whom something is named -- of the school of the Hanafites, one of the four orthodox schools (madhhab) of Islamic jurisprudence. His grandfather is said to have been taken prisoner in Kabul and transported to Kufa, an early Arab town on the Euphrates River in present day Iraq, where Abu Hanifa was born. He studied at Kufa and gradually gained influence as an authority on legal questions, founding a rationalist school which was named after him. Afghanistan adheres to the Hanafite interpretation of Islamic law which has the largest in number of adherents; is the most liberal of the four schools; and permits a certain amount of personal reasoning and free judgment in arriving at legal decisions.
Abu Hanifa was born in Kufa during the reign of the powerful Umayyad caliph 'Abdul Malik bin Marwan. Acclaimed as al-Imam al-A'zam, or al-A'dham (the Great Imam), Nu'man bin Thabit Zuta bin Mah was better known by his kunya Abu Hanifa. It was not a true kunya, as he did not have a son called Hanifa, but an epithetical one meaning pure in monotheistic belief. His father, Thabit bin Zuta, a trader from Kabul, part of Khorasan in Persia (the capital of modern day Afghanistan), was 40 years old at the time of Abu Hanifa's birth.
Abu Hanifa's ancestry is generally accepted as being of non-Arab origin as suggested by the etymology of the names of his grandfather (Zuta) and great-grandfather (Mah). The historian, al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, records a statement from Abu Hanifa's grandson, Ismail bin Hammad, who gave Abu Hanifa's lineage as Thabit bin Numan bin Marzban and claiming to be of Persian origin. The discrepancy in the names, as given by Ismail of Abu Hanifa's grandfather and great-grandfather are thought to be due to Zuta's adoption of a Muslim name (Numan) upon his acceptance of Islam and that Mah and Marzban were titles or official designations in Persia. Further differences of opinion exist on his ancestry. Abu Muti, for example, describes Abu Hanifa as an Arab citing his ancestry as Numan bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Yahya bin Zaid bin Asad. The widely accepted opinion, however, is that he was of Persian ancestry.
Abu Hanifa grew up in a period of oppression during the caliphates of Abdul Malik bin Marwan and his son Walid bin Abdul Malik. The governorship of Iraq was under the control of Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, a loyal follower of Abdul Malik. During his governorship, leaders in religion and learning were especially targeted by Hajjaj as they were proving to be an obstacle to Abdul Malik's establishment of his rule across Arabia and Iraq. Consequently, Abu Hanifa had no interest nor the opportunity to acquire any education in his early childhood. He was simply content with following in the footsteps of his ancestors as a businessman.
Abu Hanifa set up a silk weaving business where he showed scrupulous honesty and fairness. Once his agent in another country, sold some silk cloth on his behalf but forgot to point out a slight defect to the purchasers. When Abu Hanifa learned this, he was greatly distressed as he had no means of refunding their money. He immediately ordered the entire proceeds of the sale of the consignment of silk to be distributed to the poor.
Following the deaths of Hajjaj in 95 A.H. and Walid in 96 A.H., justice and good administration began to make a comeback with the caliphates of Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik and thereafter Umar bin Abdul Aziz. Umar encouraged education to such an extent that every home became a madrasa. Abu Hanifa also began to take an interest in education which was heightened further by the unexpected advice of as-Sha'bi (d. 722), one of Kufa's most well-known scholars.
While running an errand for his mother, he happened to pass the home of as-Sha'bi. Sha'bi, mistaking him for a student, asked him whose classes he attended. When Abu Hanifa responded that he did not attend any classes, Sha'bi said, "I see signs of intelligence in you. You should sit in the company of learned men." Taking Sha'bi's advice, Abu Hanifa embarked on a prolific quest for knowledge that would in due course have a profound impact on the history of Islam. His early education was achieved through madrasas and it is here that he learned the Qur'an and Hadith, doing exceptionally well in his studies. He spent a great deal of time in the tutelage of Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman, a great jurist of Kufa.
Abu Hanifa was one of the distinguished students of Ja'far al-Sadiq, as has been confirmed by Ibn Hajar al Makki in his Sawaiq al Muhriqa, Allamah Shiblinji in his Nur al Absar, Abdul Haleem Jindi and Mohaqiq Abu Zohra and various other Muhadatheen and Ulema have clarified that Abu Hanifa was a student of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Abu Hanifa's initial chain of knowledge was with Imam Baqar and he subsequently expanded this chain of knowledge with Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Abu Hanifa was born 67 years after the death of Muhammad, but during the time of the companions of Muhammad, some of whom lived on until Abu Hanifa's youth. Anas bin Malik, Muhammad's personal attendant, died in 712 and another companion, Abu Tufayl Amir bin Wathilah, died in 719, when Abu Hanifa was 20 years old. No evidence exists, however, to indicate Abu Hanifa had narrated any hadith from the companions although there is no doubt that he was a "tabi'i" (one who had met a companion of Muhammad) and had met Anas bin Malik.
It is perceived this is due to the strict age requirements for learning the discipline of hadith that existed at the time of Kufa where no one below the age of 20 was admitted to a hadith school. The scholars of the time felt that anyone below the age of 20 would not have attained the maturity required to be able to understand the meaning of the narrations.
In 763, al-Mansur, the 'Abbasid monarch offered Abu Hanifa the post of Chief Judge of the State, but he declined to accept the offer, choosing to remain independent. His student Abu Yusuf was appointed Qadi al-Qadat (Chief Judge of the State) of al-Mansur regime instead of himself.
In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa excused himself by saying that he did not regard himself fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post, lost his temper and accused Abu Hanifa of lying.
"If I am lying," Abu Hanifa said, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of a Chief Qadi (Judge)?"
Incensed by this reply, al-Mansur had Abu Hanifa arrested and put in prison where he was tortured. Even there, the indomitable jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to come to him.
In 767, Abu Hanifa died in prison. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000 people who had amassed before he was actually buried.
Nu'man, Abu Hanifa al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Hanifa, Abu see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Imam al-A'zam, al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
"The Greatest Imam" see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man (al-Imam al-A'zam) ("The Greatest Imam") (Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan) (c. 699-767). A theologian and religious lawyer. He is the eponym -- the person for whom something is named -- of the school of the Hanafites, one of the four orthodox schools (madhhab) of Islamic jurisprudence. His grandfather is said to have been taken prisoner in Kabul and transported to Kufa, an early Arab town on the Euphrates River in present day Iraq, where Abu Hanifa was born. He studied at Kufa and gradually gained influence as an authority on legal questions, founding a rationalist school which was named after him. Afghanistan adheres to the Hanafite interpretation of Islamic law which has the largest in number of adherents; is the most liberal of the four schools; and permits a certain amount of personal reasoning and free judgment in arriving at legal decisions.
Abu Hanifa was born in Kufa during the reign of the powerful Umayyad caliph 'Abdul Malik bin Marwan. Acclaimed as al-Imam al-A'zam, or al-A'dham (the Great Imam), Nu'man bin Thabit Zuta bin Mah was better known by his kunya Abu Hanifa. It was not a true kunya, as he did not have a son called Hanifa, but an epithetical one meaning pure in monotheistic belief. His father, Thabit bin Zuta, a trader from Kabul, part of Khorasan in Persia (the capital of modern day Afghanistan), was 40 years old at the time of Abu Hanifa's birth.
Abu Hanifa's ancestry is generally accepted as being of non-Arab origin as suggested by the etymology of the names of his grandfather (Zuta) and great-grandfather (Mah). The historian, al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, records a statement from Abu Hanifa's grandson, Ismail bin Hammad, who gave Abu Hanifa's lineage as Thabit bin Numan bin Marzban and claiming to be of Persian origin. The discrepancy in the names, as given by Ismail of Abu Hanifa's grandfather and great-grandfather are thought to be due to Zuta's adoption of a Muslim name (Numan) upon his acceptance of Islam and that Mah and Marzban were titles or official designations in Persia. Further differences of opinion exist on his ancestry. Abu Muti, for example, describes Abu Hanifa as an Arab citing his ancestry as Numan bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Yahya bin Zaid bin Asad. The widely accepted opinion, however, is that he was of Persian ancestry.
Abu Hanifa grew up in a period of oppression during the caliphates of Abdul Malik bin Marwan and his son Walid bin Abdul Malik. The governorship of Iraq was under the control of Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, a loyal follower of Abdul Malik. During his governorship, leaders in religion and learning were especially targeted by Hajjaj as they were proving to be an obstacle to Abdul Malik's establishment of his rule across Arabia and Iraq. Consequently, Abu Hanifa had no interest nor the opportunity to acquire any education in his early childhood. He was simply content with following in the footsteps of his ancestors as a businessman.
Abu Hanifa set up a silk weaving business where he showed scrupulous honesty and fairness. Once his agent in another country, sold some silk cloth on his behalf but forgot to point out a slight defect to the purchasers. When Abu Hanifa learned this, he was greatly distressed as he had no means of refunding their money. He immediately ordered the entire proceeds of the sale of the consignment of silk to be distributed to the poor.
Following the deaths of Hajjaj in 95 A.H. and Walid in 96 A.H., justice and good administration began to make a comeback with the caliphates of Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik and thereafter Umar bin Abdul Aziz. Umar encouraged education to such an extent that every home became a madrasa. Abu Hanifa also began to take an interest in education which was heightened further by the unexpected advice of as-Sha'bi (d. 722), one of Kufa's most well-known scholars.
While running an errand for his mother, he happened to pass the home of as-Sha'bi. Sha'bi, mistaking him for a student, asked him whose classes he attended. When Abu Hanifa responded that he did not attend any classes, Sha'bi said, "I see signs of intelligence in you. You should sit in the company of learned men." Taking Sha'bi's advice, Abu Hanifa embarked on a prolific quest for knowledge that would in due course have a profound impact on the history of Islam. His early education was achieved through madrasas and it is here that he learned the Qur'an and Hadith, doing exceptionally well in his studies. He spent a great deal of time in the tutelage of Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman, a great jurist of Kufa.
Abu Hanifa was one of the distinguished students of Ja'far al-Sadiq, as has been confirmed by Ibn Hajar al Makki in his Sawaiq al Muhriqa, Allamah Shiblinji in his Nur al Absar, Abdul Haleem Jindi and Mohaqiq Abu Zohra and various other Muhadatheen and Ulema have clarified that Abu Hanifa was a student of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Abu Hanifa's initial chain of knowledge was with Imam Baqar and he subsequently expanded this chain of knowledge with Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Abu Hanifa was born 67 years after the death of Muhammad, but during the time of the companions of Muhammad, some of whom lived on until Abu Hanifa's youth. Anas bin Malik, Muhammad's personal attendant, died in 712 and another companion, Abu Tufayl Amir bin Wathilah, died in 719, when Abu Hanifa was 20 years old. No evidence exists, however, to indicate Abu Hanifa had narrated any hadith from the companions although there is no doubt that he was a "tabi'i" (one who had met a companion of Muhammad) and had met Anas bin Malik.
It is perceived this is due to the strict age requirements for learning the discipline of hadith that existed at the time of Kufa where no one below the age of 20 was admitted to a hadith school. The scholars of the time felt that anyone below the age of 20 would not have attained the maturity required to be able to understand the meaning of the narrations.
In 763, al-Mansur, the 'Abbasid monarch offered Abu Hanifa the post of Chief Judge of the State, but he declined to accept the offer, choosing to remain independent. His student Abu Yusuf was appointed Qadi al-Qadat (Chief Judge of the State) of al-Mansur regime instead of himself.
In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa excused himself by saying that he did not regard himself fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post, lost his temper and accused Abu Hanifa of lying.
"If I am lying," Abu Hanifa said, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of a Chief Qadi (Judge)?"
Incensed by this reply, al-Mansur had Abu Hanifa arrested and put in prison where he was tortured. Even there, the indomitable jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to come to him.
In 767, Abu Hanifa died in prison. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000 people who had amassed before he was actually buried.
Nu'man, Abu Hanifa al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Hanifa, Abu see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Imam al-A'zam, al- see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
"The Greatest Imam" see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Nu'man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan see Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man
Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi
Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi ('Ali ibn Muhammad Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi) (c.930-1023). A man of letters and philosopher of the tenth century. Al-Tawhidi was an Arabic litterateur and philosopher, probably of Persian origin, and author of numerous books which reflect all the main thems of debate and reflection in the cultivated circles of his time. His basic outlook could be defined as a kind of simplified and vulgarized Neoplatonism, influenced by Gnostic elements, with four hypostases: God, Intellect, Soul and Nature. He also had a strong interest in moral questions on both the individual and social level.
Al-Tawhidi compiled a record of 37 sessions, held by Ibn Sa‘dan, the vizier of the Buyid Samsam al-Dawla Abu Kalijar, on the most varied topics. Another work of his is a collection of 106 conversations on various philosophical subjects. He was a master of Arabic literary style.
Al-Tawhidi was probably of Persian origin. However, Arabic is the only language he is known to have used, and most of his life was spent in Baghdad and in Rayy (Tehran) at the court of the Buyid princes and their ministers, in particular the famous Ibn Sa'dan. It is in the latter's presence that the discussions recorded in al-Imta' wa'-mu'anasa (Enjoyment and Conviviality) took place. His last years were spent in Shiraz, where he died in 1023.
Al-Tawhidi is a representative of Arabic belles-lettres (adab) rather than a philosopher in the strict sense. However, some of his main works report discussions devoted to philosophical themes and shed interesting sidelights on questions dealt with in a more systematic fashion by the great Arab philosophers. It goes with the genre adopted by al-Tawhidi that he rarely expresses his own opinions; his main authority wa0s his master, Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani. He also appears to make extensive use of the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa' (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity), although their name is rarely cited. Another source of inspiration is the ethical thinker Ibn Miskawayh, with whom al-Tawhidi exchanged a philosophical correspondence, al-Hawamil wal-shawamil (Rambling and Comprehensive Questions). Among Greek philosophers, Aristotle is by far the most commonly invoked authority.
Al-Tawhidi's main philosophical work is al-Muqabasat (Borrowed Lights). Al-Imta' wa'-mu'anasa also contains some philosophical material, besides some which is predominantly literary or grammatical. In metaphysics, he follows the basic Neoplatonic scheme of emanation. The First, frequently called the Creator, is the source of the world of nature which emanates continuously from him. God is thus also characterized by his generosity. Intellect, Soul and Nature are the three main levles of being, or hypostases, emanating from the First. The process is sometimes expressed in terms of illumination. The Intellect receives its light from the First, the Soul from the Intellect, and Nature from the Soul. Elsewhere, the Soul is considered as being pure light. Conversely, the First is said to encompass the Intellect, which in turn encompasses the Soul and so forth.
Many paragraphs in al-Tawhidi's works are devoted to the human soul. Al-Tawhidi takes up positions that can be defined as Platonic. The soul subsists by itself and is not tied down to the body. On the contrary, it uses the body as an instrument. The sould does not arise from the mixture of the elements. Thus, the Galenic theory is implicitly rejected, although it is ascribed in one passage to Zeno. The union with the body is described as a kind of fall in a way which has clear antecedents in some conceptions of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. In the course of the soul's descent from the heavenly realm it became covered in scales or veils, which it will cast off after physical death, that is, when it relinquishes the body. The soul becomes like a rusty mirror. Just as the latter is no longer capable of reflecting external objects, the soul forgot what it knew in the intelligible world. Its true nature is also more fully active in sleep. In our ordinary waking life, we do not remember the world where our sould originated because we have b een overcome by matter. These two states of the soul, incarnate and immaterial, correspond to the two realms of intellection and sense-perception. Intellection is an immediate form of apprehension, devoid of reflection and deliberation, whereas sense-perception is linked to discursive and inductive modes of thought, such as syllogism.
For al-Tawhidi, humanity is thus in an intermediate position between the world of intellect and the world of nature. The latter is integrated into the emanationist scheme more neatly than is the case in Greek Neoplatonism. Nature is a life force which emanates from the First Principle and penetrates all bodies, giving thme their forms and linking them together. The Aristotelian definition of nature as principle of motion and rest is also quoted more than once.
Al-Tawhidi evinces a keen interest in linguistic questions. He predictably maintains the superiority of Arabic over other languages, but also discusses such topics as the respective place and function of prose and verse. It is thanks to al-Tawhidi that we have a report of the controversy between the partisans of logic and Greek culture and those of traditional Arabic grammar. Another discussion tackles the sensitive problem of the relationship between philosophy and religion. Among the current themes of his time, that of the characters and respective merits of the nations is taken up on several occasions. In the field of ethics, he devoted an entire epistle to friendship, and this is one of his more personal and interesting works.
Tawhidi, Abu Hayyan al- see Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi
'Ali ibn Muhammad Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi see Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi
Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi ('Ali ibn Muhammad Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi) (c.930-1023). A man of letters and philosopher of the tenth century. Al-Tawhidi was an Arabic litterateur and philosopher, probably of Persian origin, and author of numerous books which reflect all the main thems of debate and reflection in the cultivated circles of his time. His basic outlook could be defined as a kind of simplified and vulgarized Neoplatonism, influenced by Gnostic elements, with four hypostases: God, Intellect, Soul and Nature. He also had a strong interest in moral questions on both the individual and social level.
Al-Tawhidi compiled a record of 37 sessions, held by Ibn Sa‘dan, the vizier of the Buyid Samsam al-Dawla Abu Kalijar, on the most varied topics. Another work of his is a collection of 106 conversations on various philosophical subjects. He was a master of Arabic literary style.
Al-Tawhidi was probably of Persian origin. However, Arabic is the only language he is known to have used, and most of his life was spent in Baghdad and in Rayy (Tehran) at the court of the Buyid princes and their ministers, in particular the famous Ibn Sa'dan. It is in the latter's presence that the discussions recorded in al-Imta' wa'-mu'anasa (Enjoyment and Conviviality) took place. His last years were spent in Shiraz, where he died in 1023.
Al-Tawhidi is a representative of Arabic belles-lettres (adab) rather than a philosopher in the strict sense. However, some of his main works report discussions devoted to philosophical themes and shed interesting sidelights on questions dealt with in a more systematic fashion by the great Arab philosophers. It goes with the genre adopted by al-Tawhidi that he rarely expresses his own opinions; his main authority wa0s his master, Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani. He also appears to make extensive use of the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa' (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity), although their name is rarely cited. Another source of inspiration is the ethical thinker Ibn Miskawayh, with whom al-Tawhidi exchanged a philosophical correspondence, al-Hawamil wal-shawamil (Rambling and Comprehensive Questions). Among Greek philosophers, Aristotle is by far the most commonly invoked authority.
Al-Tawhidi's main philosophical work is al-Muqabasat (Borrowed Lights). Al-Imta' wa'-mu'anasa also contains some philosophical material, besides some which is predominantly literary or grammatical. In metaphysics, he follows the basic Neoplatonic scheme of emanation. The First, frequently called the Creator, is the source of the world of nature which emanates continuously from him. God is thus also characterized by his generosity. Intellect, Soul and Nature are the three main levles of being, or hypostases, emanating from the First. The process is sometimes expressed in terms of illumination. The Intellect receives its light from the First, the Soul from the Intellect, and Nature from the Soul. Elsewhere, the Soul is considered as being pure light. Conversely, the First is said to encompass the Intellect, which in turn encompasses the Soul and so forth.
Many paragraphs in al-Tawhidi's works are devoted to the human soul. Al-Tawhidi takes up positions that can be defined as Platonic. The soul subsists by itself and is not tied down to the body. On the contrary, it uses the body as an instrument. The sould does not arise from the mixture of the elements. Thus, the Galenic theory is implicitly rejected, although it is ascribed in one passage to Zeno. The union with the body is described as a kind of fall in a way which has clear antecedents in some conceptions of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. In the course of the soul's descent from the heavenly realm it became covered in scales or veils, which it will cast off after physical death, that is, when it relinquishes the body. The soul becomes like a rusty mirror. Just as the latter is no longer capable of reflecting external objects, the soul forgot what it knew in the intelligible world. Its true nature is also more fully active in sleep. In our ordinary waking life, we do not remember the world where our sould originated because we have b een overcome by matter. These two states of the soul, incarnate and immaterial, correspond to the two realms of intellection and sense-perception. Intellection is an immediate form of apprehension, devoid of reflection and deliberation, whereas sense-perception is linked to discursive and inductive modes of thought, such as syllogism.
For al-Tawhidi, humanity is thus in an intermediate position between the world of intellect and the world of nature. The latter is integrated into the emanationist scheme more neatly than is the case in Greek Neoplatonism. Nature is a life force which emanates from the First Principle and penetrates all bodies, giving thme their forms and linking them together. The Aristotelian definition of nature as principle of motion and rest is also quoted more than once.
Al-Tawhidi evinces a keen interest in linguistic questions. He predictably maintains the superiority of Arabic over other languages, but also discusses such topics as the respective place and function of prose and verse. It is thanks to al-Tawhidi that we have a report of the controversy between the partisans of logic and Greek culture and those of traditional Arabic grammar. Another discussion tackles the sensitive problem of the relationship between philosophy and religion. Among the current themes of his time, that of the characters and respective merits of the nations is taken up on several occasions. In the field of ethics, he devoted an entire epistle to friendship, and this is one of his more personal and interesting works.
Tawhidi, Abu Hayyan al- see Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi
'Ali ibn Muhammad Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi see Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi
Abu Hurayra
Abu Hurayra (Abu Hurairah) ('Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi) (Abu Horaira) (603-681). Companion of the Prophet and a well-known transmitter of hadith (traditions).
Abu Hurayra was born in Baha, Yemen, into the Banu Daws tribe from the region of Tihamah on the coast of the Red Sea. He was a child with only a mother and no other known relatives. His name at birth was Abd al-Shams ("servant of the sun"). However, as a child, he had a cat and became known as "Abu Hurayra" (which literally means "Father of the Kitten"). As a young man, he worked for Bushra bint Ghazwan.
Abu Hurayra embraced Islam through Tufayl ibn Amr the chieftain of his tribe. Tufayl had returned to his village after meeting Muhammad and becoming a Muslim in the early years of his mission. Abu Hurayra was one of the first to respond to his call, unlike the majority of Tufayl's tribesmen.
Abu Hurayra accompanied Tufayl to Mecca to meet Muhammad who, according to Sunni tradition, renamed him 'Abd al-Rahman (servant of the Merciful, one of the 99 names of God). Hurayra then returned to his tribe for several years.
In 629, Abu Hurayra went to Medina with some others from his tribe. Since Muhammad was absent due to the Battle of Khaybar, Abu Hurayra stayed in the masjid. At the time, Abu Hurayra was single without a wife or child. His mother, who was still a polytheist, was with him. He prayed for her to become a Muslim, but she refused. Sunni sources report that one day, Abu Hurayra again invited his mother to believe in the One God and His Prophet. She answered with some bad words about the Prophet. Abu Hurayra went to the Prophet with tears in his eyes. "Why are you crying, Abu Hurayra?" asked the Prophet. "I always invite my mother to Islam, and she always refuses," said Abu Hurayra. "I asked her again today. But she said some things about you that made me sad. Can you pray to God for her to turn to Islam?" The Prophet prayed for Abu Hurayra's mother to accept Islam. When Abu Hurayra went home, he found the door closed. He heard the splashing of water. He tried to enter the house, but his mother said, "Wait a minute. Don't come in yet." Then she got dressed and said, "You can come in now." When Abu Hurayra went inside, his mother said, "I declare that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger." Abu Hurayra again went to the Prophet crying. However, this time his tears were tears of joy. "I have good news, Rasul Allah," he said. "God has answered your prayer and guided my mother to Islam."
Abu Hurayra died in 681 at the age of 78. Of the hadith held as authentic by the majority of Sunnis, Abu Hurayra is the most quoted person. Next to him comes the names of such companions as Abdullah ibn Umar, Anas ibn Malik, Aisha, Jabir ibn Abdullah and Abu Said al-Khudri all of whom transmitted over a thousand sayings of Muhammad.
A majority of Sunni scholars consider Abu Hurayra to be one of the major narrators of hadith, and like all of the sahaba (companions), trustworthy. On the other hand, Shi'a tradition almost always rejects the authenticity of Abu Hurayra's hadith, accepting his hadith only when there are similar hadith narrated by sahaba that the Shi'a deem to be reliable. The Shi'a consider Abu Hurayra to be an enemy of 'Ali due to his having found favor with Mu'awiya.
Today, Abu Hurayra is consider one of the most important narrator of hadith in Islam. He was very close to the Prophet. Accordingly, he is considered the most revered companion of Holy Prophet. Although Shi'as criticize Abu Hurayra, this criticism is subjective. Ultimately, the role played by Abu Hurayra in the early days of Islam simply cannot be ignored.
Hurayra, Abu see Abu Hurayra
Abu Hurairah see Abu Hurayra
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi see Abu Hurayra
Abu Horaira see Abu Hurayra
Abu Hurayra (Abu Hurairah) ('Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi) (Abu Horaira) (603-681). Companion of the Prophet and a well-known transmitter of hadith (traditions).
Abu Hurayra was born in Baha, Yemen, into the Banu Daws tribe from the region of Tihamah on the coast of the Red Sea. He was a child with only a mother and no other known relatives. His name at birth was Abd al-Shams ("servant of the sun"). However, as a child, he had a cat and became known as "Abu Hurayra" (which literally means "Father of the Kitten"). As a young man, he worked for Bushra bint Ghazwan.
Abu Hurayra embraced Islam through Tufayl ibn Amr the chieftain of his tribe. Tufayl had returned to his village after meeting Muhammad and becoming a Muslim in the early years of his mission. Abu Hurayra was one of the first to respond to his call, unlike the majority of Tufayl's tribesmen.
Abu Hurayra accompanied Tufayl to Mecca to meet Muhammad who, according to Sunni tradition, renamed him 'Abd al-Rahman (servant of the Merciful, one of the 99 names of God). Hurayra then returned to his tribe for several years.
In 629, Abu Hurayra went to Medina with some others from his tribe. Since Muhammad was absent due to the Battle of Khaybar, Abu Hurayra stayed in the masjid. At the time, Abu Hurayra was single without a wife or child. His mother, who was still a polytheist, was with him. He prayed for her to become a Muslim, but she refused. Sunni sources report that one day, Abu Hurayra again invited his mother to believe in the One God and His Prophet. She answered with some bad words about the Prophet. Abu Hurayra went to the Prophet with tears in his eyes. "Why are you crying, Abu Hurayra?" asked the Prophet. "I always invite my mother to Islam, and she always refuses," said Abu Hurayra. "I asked her again today. But she said some things about you that made me sad. Can you pray to God for her to turn to Islam?" The Prophet prayed for Abu Hurayra's mother to accept Islam. When Abu Hurayra went home, he found the door closed. He heard the splashing of water. He tried to enter the house, but his mother said, "Wait a minute. Don't come in yet." Then she got dressed and said, "You can come in now." When Abu Hurayra went inside, his mother said, "I declare that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger." Abu Hurayra again went to the Prophet crying. However, this time his tears were tears of joy. "I have good news, Rasul Allah," he said. "God has answered your prayer and guided my mother to Islam."
Abu Hurayra died in 681 at the age of 78. Of the hadith held as authentic by the majority of Sunnis, Abu Hurayra is the most quoted person. Next to him comes the names of such companions as Abdullah ibn Umar, Anas ibn Malik, Aisha, Jabir ibn Abdullah and Abu Said al-Khudri all of whom transmitted over a thousand sayings of Muhammad.
A majority of Sunni scholars consider Abu Hurayra to be one of the major narrators of hadith, and like all of the sahaba (companions), trustworthy. On the other hand, Shi'a tradition almost always rejects the authenticity of Abu Hurayra's hadith, accepting his hadith only when there are similar hadith narrated by sahaba that the Shi'a deem to be reliable. The Shi'a consider Abu Hurayra to be an enemy of 'Ali due to his having found favor with Mu'awiya.
Today, Abu Hurayra is consider one of the most important narrator of hadith in Islam. He was very close to the Prophet. Accordingly, he is considered the most revered companion of Holy Prophet. Although Shi'as criticize Abu Hurayra, this criticism is subjective. Ultimately, the role played by Abu Hurayra in the early days of Islam simply cannot be ignored.
Hurayra, Abu see Abu Hurayra
Abu Hurairah see Abu Hurayra
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr al-Azdi see Abu Hurayra
Abu Horaira see Abu Hurayra
Abu ‘Inan Faris
Abu ‘Inan Faris (1329-1358). Sovereign of the Marinid dynasty who reigned (r.1348-1358). He had a passion for building. The Bu ‘Inaniyya at Fez being his most monumental madrasa.
Abu 'Inan Faris succeeded his father Abu al-Hasan ibn Uthman as sultan of Morocco in 1348. He took the title of amir al-muminin ("commander of the believers"). Abu 'Inan had to eliminate one of his nephews who had seized power in Fes. He built the madrasas in Meknes and Fes in 1350, and then seized Tlemcen in 1351 and Bougie in 1352. However, he was defeated in 1357 and killed the following year by one of his viziers. He had also constructed another madrasa in Fes in 1357.
Under his ruling, the Black Death and the rebellions of Tlemcen (nowadays a city in Algeria) and Tunis marked the beginning of the decline of the Marinids. They proved unable to drive back the Portuguese and the Spaniards, who settled on the North African coast during the Wattasids dynasty which succeeded the Marinids.
Faris, Abu 'Inan see Abu ‘Inan Faris
Abu ‘Inan Faris (1329-1358). Sovereign of the Marinid dynasty who reigned (r.1348-1358). He had a passion for building. The Bu ‘Inaniyya at Fez being his most monumental madrasa.
Abu 'Inan Faris succeeded his father Abu al-Hasan ibn Uthman as sultan of Morocco in 1348. He took the title of amir al-muminin ("commander of the believers"). Abu 'Inan had to eliminate one of his nephews who had seized power in Fes. He built the madrasas in Meknes and Fes in 1350, and then seized Tlemcen in 1351 and Bougie in 1352. However, he was defeated in 1357 and killed the following year by one of his viziers. He had also constructed another madrasa in Fes in 1357.
Under his ruling, the Black Death and the rebellions of Tlemcen (nowadays a city in Algeria) and Tunis marked the beginning of the decline of the Marinids. They proved unable to drive back the Portuguese and the Spaniards, who settled on the North African coast during the Wattasids dynasty which succeeded the Marinids.
Faris, Abu 'Inan see Abu ‘Inan Faris
Abu ‘Isa al-Warraq
Abu ‘Isa al-Warraq (d. c. 861). Mu‘tazili who became one of the arch-heretics of Islam in the ninth century. He was accused of Manichean sympathies. He is also the author of "Against the Incarnation", an early Muslim polemic against Christianity.
Warraq, Abu 'Isa al- see Abu ‘Isa al-Warraq
Abu ‘Isa al-Warraq (d. c. 861). Mu‘tazili who became one of the arch-heretics of Islam in the ninth century. He was accused of Manichean sympathies. He is also the author of "Against the Incarnation", an early Muslim polemic against Christianity.
Warraq, Abu 'Isa al- see Abu ‘Isa al-Warraq
Abu ‘Isa Umayyah
Abu ‘Isa Umayyah (1067-1134). A poet.
Umayyah, Abu 'Isa see Abu ‘Isa Umayyah
Abu ‘Isa Umayyah (1067-1134). A poet.
Umayyah, Abu 'Isa see Abu ‘Isa Umayyah
Abu Ja'far al-Mansur
Abu Ja'far al-Mansur. 'Abbasid caliph (r.754-775). He began the construction of Baghdad. {See Mansur, Abu Ja'far 'Abd Allah al-.}
Abu Ja'far al-Mansur. 'Abbasid caliph (r.754-775). He began the construction of Baghdad. {See Mansur, Abu Ja'far 'Abd Allah al-.}
Abu Kalijar al-Marzuban ibn Sultan al-Dawla
Abu Kalijar al-Marzuban ibn Sultan al-Dawla (1009 - October 1048). Ruler of the Buyid dynasty (r.1024-1048). He curtailed the disruptions in Fars and Khuzistan, but had to constantly preserve his rule against several other members of the dynasty as well as the Saljuqs.
Abu Kalijar was the Buyid amir of Fars (1024-1048), Kerman (1028-1048) and Iraq (1044-1048). He was the eldest son of Sultan al-Dawla (Sultan al-Daula).
The death of Sultan al-Dawla in 1024 prompted a succession crisis within the Buyid state. Not until 1027 did the army in Baghdad pick his brother Jalal al-Dawla as ruler. In the meantime, Abu Kalijar had consolidated his power in Fars, although the first several years of his reign were marked by the oversight of his tutor, a eunuch named Sandal, and entered into a conflict with the Buyid ruler of Kerman, Qawan al-Dawla. The latter's death in 1028 allowed Abu Kalijar to occupy the province.
In 1033, the Ghaznavids invaded Kerman, with the object of overrunning the Buyid states. However, the financial obligations imposed on the people of Kerman convinced them that Buyid rule would be prefereable. In the following year, Abu Kalijar's vizier Bahran ibn Mafinna expelled the Ghaznavids from the province.
Abu Kalijar also wanted to gain control of Iraq. Around 1037, his army marched on Baghdad, although he did not take the city, Jalal al-Dawla recognized him as senior amir, Abu Kalijar subsequently used the title "Shahanshah" on his coins. However, the amir of Mosul, along with the Arab tribe of the Asadids, supported Jalal al-Dawla, and the two Buyids were forced to come to a compromise. Both rulers used the same titles and were genuinely independent of each other. Iraq, therefore, stayed out of Abu Kalijar's control, although he did manage to make his son the governor of Basra.
Jalal al-Dawla's death in 1044 gave Abu Kalijar possession of Iraq. His control over the region, however, remained weak. His capital remained in Ahvaz, instead of being moved to Baghdad. In the meantime, the Kakayids of Isfahan were torn between two rival brothers, and Abu Kalijar attempted to force them to submit to his authority. They preferred, however, to recognize the Saljuqs as their overlords.
Abu Kalijar continued to cement his authority by traveling to Baghdad, where he received the title of senior amir as well as the title "Muhyi al-Din". Several minor rulers of Mesopotamia recognized his authority, and even the Kakuyids declared their allegiance. This last act, however, prompted a Saljuq intervention, and Abu Kalijar decided to negotiate and create a marriage alliance. The Buyid governor of Kerman, however, decided to submit to the Saljuq Qavurt. Abu Kalijar marched to reassert his authority, only to be met with an ambassador of the governor, who brought gifts and a promise to renew his allegiance. Shortly afterwards, Abu Kalijar died at the age of thirty-eight. He was succeeded by his son al-Malik al-Rahim, but the Buyids suffered a succession struggle soon after his death, and Kerman entered into the Saljuq orbit.
Abu Kalijar al-Marzuban ibn Sultan al-Dawla (1009 - October 1048). Ruler of the Buyid dynasty (r.1024-1048). He curtailed the disruptions in Fars and Khuzistan, but had to constantly preserve his rule against several other members of the dynasty as well as the Saljuqs.
Abu Kalijar was the Buyid amir of Fars (1024-1048), Kerman (1028-1048) and Iraq (1044-1048). He was the eldest son of Sultan al-Dawla (Sultan al-Daula).
The death of Sultan al-Dawla in 1024 prompted a succession crisis within the Buyid state. Not until 1027 did the army in Baghdad pick his brother Jalal al-Dawla as ruler. In the meantime, Abu Kalijar had consolidated his power in Fars, although the first several years of his reign were marked by the oversight of his tutor, a eunuch named Sandal, and entered into a conflict with the Buyid ruler of Kerman, Qawan al-Dawla. The latter's death in 1028 allowed Abu Kalijar to occupy the province.
In 1033, the Ghaznavids invaded Kerman, with the object of overrunning the Buyid states. However, the financial obligations imposed on the people of Kerman convinced them that Buyid rule would be prefereable. In the following year, Abu Kalijar's vizier Bahran ibn Mafinna expelled the Ghaznavids from the province.
Abu Kalijar also wanted to gain control of Iraq. Around 1037, his army marched on Baghdad, although he did not take the city, Jalal al-Dawla recognized him as senior amir, Abu Kalijar subsequently used the title "Shahanshah" on his coins. However, the amir of Mosul, along with the Arab tribe of the Asadids, supported Jalal al-Dawla, and the two Buyids were forced to come to a compromise. Both rulers used the same titles and were genuinely independent of each other. Iraq, therefore, stayed out of Abu Kalijar's control, although he did manage to make his son the governor of Basra.
Jalal al-Dawla's death in 1044 gave Abu Kalijar possession of Iraq. His control over the region, however, remained weak. His capital remained in Ahvaz, instead of being moved to Baghdad. In the meantime, the Kakayids of Isfahan were torn between two rival brothers, and Abu Kalijar attempted to force them to submit to his authority. They preferred, however, to recognize the Saljuqs as their overlords.
Abu Kalijar continued to cement his authority by traveling to Baghdad, where he received the title of senior amir as well as the title "Muhyi al-Din". Several minor rulers of Mesopotamia recognized his authority, and even the Kakuyids declared their allegiance. This last act, however, prompted a Saljuq intervention, and Abu Kalijar decided to negotiate and create a marriage alliance. The Buyid governor of Kerman, however, decided to submit to the Saljuq Qavurt. Abu Kalijar marched to reassert his authority, only to be met with an ambassador of the governor, who brought gifts and a promise to renew his allegiance. Shortly afterwards, Abu Kalijar died at the age of thirty-eight. He was succeeded by his son al-Malik al-Rahim, but the Buyids suffered a succession struggle soon after his death, and Kerman entered into the Saljuq orbit.
Abu Kamil Shuja’
Abu Kamil Shuja’ (Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) (c. 850 - c. 930). One of the greatest mathematicians of the Islamic Middle Ages (in the ninth century of the Christian calendar). Next to Abu Ja'far Muhammad al-Khwarazmi, he is the oldest Islamic algebraist of whose writings some remains have survived.
Abu Kamil Shuja is sometimes known as al-Hasib al-Misri, meaning the "Calculator from Egypt." Very little is known about Abu Kamil's life. Although little is known about Abu Kamil's life, much is known about the role he played in the development of algebra. Before al-Khwarazmi, there is no information on how algebra developed in Arabic countries, but after al-Khwarazmi individuals such as Abu Kamil expanded upon the field. The role of Abu Kamil is important because he was one of al-Khwarazmi's immediate successors. In fact, Abu Kamil himself acknowledged al-Khwarazmi's role as the "inventor of algebra."
There is certainly no doubt that Abu Kamil considered that he was building on the foundations of algebra as established by al-Khwarazmi. However, he also forms an important link in the development of algebra between al-Khwarazmi and al-Karaji. Abu Kamil is also important because his work was the basis of Fibonacci's books. Thus, not only is Abu Kamil important to the development of Arabic algebra, through Fibonacci, he was also instrumental to the introduction of algebra into Europe.
The Fihrist (Index) is a work compiled by the bookseller Ibn an-Nadim around 988. It gives a rather lengthy account of the Arabic literature which was available in the tenth century and it describes briefly some of the authors of this literature. The Fihrist includes a reference to Abu Kamil and among his works listed are (1) Book of fortune; (2) Book of the key to fortune; (3) Book of the key to fortune; (4) Book on surveying and geometry; (5) Book of the adequate; (6) Book on omens; (7) Book of the kernel; (8) Book of the two errors; and (9) Book on augmentation and diminution. The works of Abu Kamil which have survived are Book on algebra, Book of rare things in the art of calculation, and Book on surveying and geometry.
Abu Kamil's Book on algebra is in three parts: (1) On the solution of quadratic equations; (2) On applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon; and (3) On Diophantine equations and problems of recreational mathematics. The part of the regular pentagon and decagon is also studied in this work. The content of the work is the application of algebra to geometrical problems. It is a combination of the geometric methods developed by the Greeks together with the practical methods developed by al-Khwarazmi mixed with Babylonian methods.
Abu Kamil's Book on surveying and geometry was written not for mathematicians but rather for government land surveyors. Because of the people that it was aimed at, the work contains no mathematical proofs. Instead it presents a number of rules, some of which are far from easy, each given for the numerical solution of a geometric problem. Each rule is illustrated with a worked numerical example. Mainly the rules are for calculating the area, perimeter, diagonals, etc. of figures such as squares, rectangles, and various different types of triangle. Abu Kamil also gives rules to calculate the volume and surface area of various solids such as rectangular parallelepipeds, right circular prisms, square pyramids, and circular cones.
The Book of rare things in the art of calculation is concerned with solutions to indeterminate equations. With this work, Abu Kamil became the first Arab mathematician to solve indeterminate problems of the type found in Diophantus's work. However, Abu Kamil's work was written before Diophantus's Arithmetica had been studied in depth by the Arabs. Additionally, Abu Kamil's work explains certain methods which are not found in the known books of the Arithmetica.
Shuja', Abu Kamil see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja see Abu Kamil Shuja’
al-Hasib al-Misri see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Calculator from Egypt see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Abu Kamil Shuja’ (Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) (c. 850 - c. 930). One of the greatest mathematicians of the Islamic Middle Ages (in the ninth century of the Christian calendar). Next to Abu Ja'far Muhammad al-Khwarazmi, he is the oldest Islamic algebraist of whose writings some remains have survived.
Abu Kamil Shuja is sometimes known as al-Hasib al-Misri, meaning the "Calculator from Egypt." Very little is known about Abu Kamil's life. Although little is known about Abu Kamil's life, much is known about the role he played in the development of algebra. Before al-Khwarazmi, there is no information on how algebra developed in Arabic countries, but after al-Khwarazmi individuals such as Abu Kamil expanded upon the field. The role of Abu Kamil is important because he was one of al-Khwarazmi's immediate successors. In fact, Abu Kamil himself acknowledged al-Khwarazmi's role as the "inventor of algebra."
There is certainly no doubt that Abu Kamil considered that he was building on the foundations of algebra as established by al-Khwarazmi. However, he also forms an important link in the development of algebra between al-Khwarazmi and al-Karaji. Abu Kamil is also important because his work was the basis of Fibonacci's books. Thus, not only is Abu Kamil important to the development of Arabic algebra, through Fibonacci, he was also instrumental to the introduction of algebra into Europe.
The Fihrist (Index) is a work compiled by the bookseller Ibn an-Nadim around 988. It gives a rather lengthy account of the Arabic literature which was available in the tenth century and it describes briefly some of the authors of this literature. The Fihrist includes a reference to Abu Kamil and among his works listed are (1) Book of fortune; (2) Book of the key to fortune; (3) Book of the key to fortune; (4) Book on surveying and geometry; (5) Book of the adequate; (6) Book on omens; (7) Book of the kernel; (8) Book of the two errors; and (9) Book on augmentation and diminution. The works of Abu Kamil which have survived are Book on algebra, Book of rare things in the art of calculation, and Book on surveying and geometry.
Abu Kamil's Book on algebra is in three parts: (1) On the solution of quadratic equations; (2) On applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon; and (3) On Diophantine equations and problems of recreational mathematics. The part of the regular pentagon and decagon is also studied in this work. The content of the work is the application of algebra to geometrical problems. It is a combination of the geometric methods developed by the Greeks together with the practical methods developed by al-Khwarazmi mixed with Babylonian methods.
Abu Kamil's Book on surveying and geometry was written not for mathematicians but rather for government land surveyors. Because of the people that it was aimed at, the work contains no mathematical proofs. Instead it presents a number of rules, some of which are far from easy, each given for the numerical solution of a geometric problem. Each rule is illustrated with a worked numerical example. Mainly the rules are for calculating the area, perimeter, diagonals, etc. of figures such as squares, rectangles, and various different types of triangle. Abu Kamil also gives rules to calculate the volume and surface area of various solids such as rectangular parallelepipeds, right circular prisms, square pyramids, and circular cones.
The Book of rare things in the art of calculation is concerned with solutions to indeterminate equations. With this work, Abu Kamil became the first Arab mathematician to solve indeterminate problems of the type found in Diophantus's work. However, Abu Kamil's work was written before Diophantus's Arithmetica had been studied in depth by the Arabs. Additionally, Abu Kamil's work explains certain methods which are not found in the known books of the Arithmetica.
Shuja', Abu Kamil see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja see Abu Kamil Shuja’
al-Hasib al-Misri see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Calculator from Egypt see Abu Kamil Shuja’
Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah (Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah ibn Abbas ibn Mutalib ibn Hashim) (As-Saffah) (721-754). First ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 749-754). He was proclaimed caliph in the Great Mosque at Kufa in November 749. During his reign, the ‘Abbasid movement not only passed from the revolutionary to the legal phase, but also consolidated itself.
As-Saffah literally means "the Slaughterer." As-Saffah was the first 'Abbasid caliph.
As-Saffah was the head of one branch of the Banu Hashim, who traced their lineage to Hashim, a great-grandfather of Muhammad, via al-'Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet. The Banu Hashim and great support from the camp of 'Ali, the fourth caliph. They thought that the family which had produced Muhammad and 'Ali would produce another great leader or mahdi who would liberate Islam. The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities.
The unrest led to revolt during the reign of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik in Kufa, a prominent city in southern Iraq. Shi'ites revolted in 736 and held the city until 740, led by Zayd ibn Ali, a grandson of Husayn and another member of the Banu Hashim. Zayd's rebellion failed, and was put down by Umayyad armies in 740. The revolt in Kufa indicated both the strength of the Umayyads and the growing unrest in the Muslim world.
As-Saffah chose to focus on Khurasan, an important military region in eastern Iran. In 743, the death of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham provoked a civil war in the Islamic Empire. Abu al-'Abbas, supported by Shi'as, Kharijis, and the residents of Khurasan, led his forces to victory over the Umayyads and ultimately deposed the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, in 750. The civil war was marked by millennial prophecies encouraged by the beliefs of some Shi'as that as-Saffah was the mahdi. Prominent Islamic scholars wrote works such as the Jafr telling faithful Muslims that the brutal civil war was the great conflict between good and evil. The choice of the Umayyads to enter battle with white flags and the 'Abbasids to enter with black encouraged such theories. The color white, however, was regarded in much of Persia as a sign of mourning.
Concerned that there would be a return of Umayyad power, as-Saffah invited all of the remaining members of the Umayyad family to a dinner party where he had them clubbed to death before the first course, which was then served to the hosts. The only survivor, 'Abd ar-Rahman I escaped to al-Andalus (Spain), where the Umayyad caliphate would endure for three centuries. For his ruthless efforts to eliminate the Umayyad family, Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah earned the epithet as-Saffah, which means the "Slaughterer" of "Shedder of Blood."
After the victory over the Umayyads, Abu al-'Abbas's short reign was marked with efforts to consolidate and rebuild the Caliphate. His supporters were represented in the new government, but apart from his policy toward the Umayyad family, as-Saffah is widely viewed by historians as having been a mild victor. Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Persians were well-represented in Abu al-'Abbas's government and in succeeding 'Abbasid administrations. Education was also encouraged, and the first paper mills, staffed by skilled Chinese prisoners captured at the Battle of Talas, were set up in Samarkand.
Equally revolutionary was Abu al-'Abbas's reform of the army, which came to include non-Muslims and non-Arabs in sharp contrast to the Umayyads who refused any soldiers of either type. As-Saffah selected the gifted Abu Muslim as his military commander, an officer who would serve until 755 in the 'Abbasid army.
As-Saffah turned back on his promises to the Shi'a community in claiming the Caliphate for himself. The Shi'a had hoped that their imam would be named head of the Caliphate, inaugurating the era of peace and prosperity the millennialists had believed would come. The betrayal alienated Abu al-'Abbas's Shi'a supporters, although the continued amity of other groups made 'Abbasid rule markedly more solvent than Umayyad.
Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah died of smallpox on June 10, 754, only four years after deposing the Umayyads. He appointed his borther Abu Ja'far al-Mansur and then Isa ibn Musa as his successors.
Saffah, Abu'l-'Abbas al- see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah ibn Abbas ibn Mutalib ibn Hashim see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
As-Saffah see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
The Slaughterer see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
The Shedder of Blood see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah (Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah ibn Abbas ibn Mutalib ibn Hashim) (As-Saffah) (721-754). First ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 749-754). He was proclaimed caliph in the Great Mosque at Kufa in November 749. During his reign, the ‘Abbasid movement not only passed from the revolutionary to the legal phase, but also consolidated itself.
As-Saffah literally means "the Slaughterer." As-Saffah was the first 'Abbasid caliph.
As-Saffah was the head of one branch of the Banu Hashim, who traced their lineage to Hashim, a great-grandfather of Muhammad, via al-'Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet. The Banu Hashim and great support from the camp of 'Ali, the fourth caliph. They thought that the family which had produced Muhammad and 'Ali would produce another great leader or mahdi who would liberate Islam. The half-hearted policies of the late Umayyads to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities.
The unrest led to revolt during the reign of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik in Kufa, a prominent city in southern Iraq. Shi'ites revolted in 736 and held the city until 740, led by Zayd ibn Ali, a grandson of Husayn and another member of the Banu Hashim. Zayd's rebellion failed, and was put down by Umayyad armies in 740. The revolt in Kufa indicated both the strength of the Umayyads and the growing unrest in the Muslim world.
As-Saffah chose to focus on Khurasan, an important military region in eastern Iran. In 743, the death of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham provoked a civil war in the Islamic Empire. Abu al-'Abbas, supported by Shi'as, Kharijis, and the residents of Khurasan, led his forces to victory over the Umayyads and ultimately deposed the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, in 750. The civil war was marked by millennial prophecies encouraged by the beliefs of some Shi'as that as-Saffah was the mahdi. Prominent Islamic scholars wrote works such as the Jafr telling faithful Muslims that the brutal civil war was the great conflict between good and evil. The choice of the Umayyads to enter battle with white flags and the 'Abbasids to enter with black encouraged such theories. The color white, however, was regarded in much of Persia as a sign of mourning.
Concerned that there would be a return of Umayyad power, as-Saffah invited all of the remaining members of the Umayyad family to a dinner party where he had them clubbed to death before the first course, which was then served to the hosts. The only survivor, 'Abd ar-Rahman I escaped to al-Andalus (Spain), where the Umayyad caliphate would endure for three centuries. For his ruthless efforts to eliminate the Umayyad family, Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah earned the epithet as-Saffah, which means the "Slaughterer" of "Shedder of Blood."
After the victory over the Umayyads, Abu al-'Abbas's short reign was marked with efforts to consolidate and rebuild the Caliphate. His supporters were represented in the new government, but apart from his policy toward the Umayyad family, as-Saffah is widely viewed by historians as having been a mild victor. Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Persians were well-represented in Abu al-'Abbas's government and in succeeding 'Abbasid administrations. Education was also encouraged, and the first paper mills, staffed by skilled Chinese prisoners captured at the Battle of Talas, were set up in Samarkand.
Equally revolutionary was Abu al-'Abbas's reform of the army, which came to include non-Muslims and non-Arabs in sharp contrast to the Umayyads who refused any soldiers of either type. As-Saffah selected the gifted Abu Muslim as his military commander, an officer who would serve until 755 in the 'Abbasid army.
As-Saffah turned back on his promises to the Shi'a community in claiming the Caliphate for himself. The Shi'a had hoped that their imam would be named head of the Caliphate, inaugurating the era of peace and prosperity the millennialists had believed would come. The betrayal alienated Abu al-'Abbas's Shi'a supporters, although the continued amity of other groups made 'Abbasid rule markedly more solvent than Umayyad.
Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah died of smallpox on June 10, 754, only four years after deposing the Umayyads. He appointed his borther Abu Ja'far al-Mansur and then Isa ibn Musa as his successors.
Saffah, Abu'l-'Abbas al- see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
Abu al-'Abbas 'Abdu'llah as-Saffah ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah ibn Abbas ibn Mutalib ibn Hashim see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
As-Saffah see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
The Slaughterer see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
The Shedder of Blood see Abu ’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah
Abu Lahab
Abu Lahab (d. 624). The nickname of ‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle and strong opponent of Muhammad. The name Abu Lahab means “father of the flame" and was given to 'Abd al-'Uzza because his cheeks were always red or inflamed. His wife was Umm Jamil, who bore him two sons, Utbah ibn Abu Lahab and Utaybah bin Abu Lahab. The two sons married (and later divorced) two daughters of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.
According to the Qur’an, Abu Lahab and his wife were condemned to Hell (Jahannam) for their treatment of Muhammad and the Muslims (see Sura 111).
In pre-Islamic Arab culture, an uncle was someone who represented the father if the child was an orphan. The uncle was also expected to take care of his nephew and raise him like his own child. Abu Lahab's hatred towards Islam, which brought him into conflict with his nephew, violated those traditions.
Lahab, Abu see Abu Lahab
‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Lahab
Father of the Flame see Abu Lahab
Abu Lahab (d. 624). The nickname of ‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle and strong opponent of Muhammad. The name Abu Lahab means “father of the flame" and was given to 'Abd al-'Uzza because his cheeks were always red or inflamed. His wife was Umm Jamil, who bore him two sons, Utbah ibn Abu Lahab and Utaybah bin Abu Lahab. The two sons married (and later divorced) two daughters of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.
According to the Qur’an, Abu Lahab and his wife were condemned to Hell (Jahannam) for their treatment of Muhammad and the Muslims (see Sura 111).
In pre-Islamic Arab culture, an uncle was someone who represented the father if the child was an orphan. The uncle was also expected to take care of his nephew and raise him like his own child. Abu Lahab's hatred towards Islam, which brought him into conflict with his nephew, violated those traditions.
Lahab, Abu see Abu Lahab
‘Abd al-‘Uzza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Lahab
Father of the Flame see Abu Lahab
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