Malik ‘Ambar
Malik ‘Ambar (Malik Anbar) (c. 1548/1549-1626). Habshi vizier and military commander who served the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar. Purchased as a slave in Baghdad, he supported several Maratha families and thus contributed to the subsequent rise of Maratha power in western India.
Malik 'Ambar was born in Harar, a province of Ethiopia. He was born in the capital of the dying Adal Sultanate in eastern Ethiopia. both Ethiopia and the rebellious Adal sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with each other. His Ethiopian name was Shambu and, aside from his Ethiopian name, little is known of his youth except that he was sold into slavery. During his youthful enslavement, Shambu would be sold several times in such Arab cities as Hejaz, Mocha (al-Mukha) and Baghdad.
According to the Futuhat-i 'adil Shahi, Shambu was sold into slavery by his parents. He ended up in Mocha in Yemen. While in Mocha, Shambu's Arab owner, Kazi Hussein, came to recognize that his slave had certain intellectual abilities and decided to train him in the areas of finance and administration. As the relationship between Shambu and Hussein became stronger, Shambu became a Muslim and Hussein gave him the name 'Ambar.
When Hussein died, 'Ambar was sold to a slave dealer, who sold Malik 'Ambar again for twenty ducats. Malik 'Ambar was then taken taken to the slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-Qudat of Mecca and again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who took him to India.
Around 1575, 'Ambar was purchased by Chingiz Khan, the prime minister to Nizam mul-Mulk Bani -- the King of Ahmadnagar. It is reported that Chingiz Khan was also of African origin and may very well have been a descendant of African mercenaries who served in India as early as the 1200s.
Chingiz Khan was impressed by 'Ambar's knowledge of Arabic, his loyalty, and his general intelligence. Seeking to solidify his control of the rather prominent (and mercenary) contingent of African (Habshi) slaves in the Deccan region, Chingiz Khan appointed 'Ambar as a key lieutenant with significant military and administrative responsibilities.
'Ambar's future was for a time hopeful. However, Chingiz Khan unexpectedly died, and 'Ambar was once again sold.
First 'Ambar was sold to the Shah of Golconda and later to the King of Bijapur. (Golconda and Bijapur were both kingdoms in the Deccan area of India.) Because of the training he had received from Kazi Hussein and Chingiz Khan, 'Ambar soon found favor with the King of Bijapur. So impressed was the King that he gave 'Ambar the title of Malik ("like a king").
While at Bijapur, Malik 'Ambar became a military commander. As a military commander, Malik 'Ambar was well respected by the Arab and African troops which were subject to his commands. Contrary to policy, Malik 'Ambar habitually promoted Arabs (as opposed to Indians) to positions of authority. This practice led to a dispute between Malik 'Ambar and the King of Bijapur which resulted in Malik 'Ambar's desertion in 1590 from the service of the King.
Malik 'Ambar became a wild card mercenary. He attracted not only independent Arab and African warriors but also Deccani (Indian) warriors. Eventually, Malik 'Ambar built a personal (private) army of over 1,500 well-trained cavalrymen and infantrymen. These soldiers of fortune were employed in various conflicts by various rulers in India.
In 1595, the King of Ahmadnagar organized a Habshi (African) army and his wise counselor, the Habshi (African) prime minister Abhangar Khan, invited Malik 'Ambar and his men to join him.
The return of Malik 'Ambar to Ahmadnagar was providential. Malik 'Ambar's return provided the opportunity for him to become a great champion of the Deccanis (Hindu Indians) against the Mughals (Muslim Indians). Malik 'Ambar and a Deccani, Mian Raju Dakhani, combined their military efforts on several occasions to repel attacks by the Mughals. Although Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani would become political and military rivals, on this occasion they worked together to defend the province of Ahmadnagar from the Mughals.
After repulsing the Mughals, the rivalry between Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani came to the fore. Both men sought to usurp the throne of King Murtaza II. In 1602, Malik 'Ambar imprisoned Murtaza and named himself regent-minister. As regent minister, Malik 'Ambar repelled a series of Mughal attacks and prevented the Great Mughal, the Emperor Akbar, from fulfilling his aim of conquering the Indian subcontinent.
By the time that Jahangir had succeeded Akbar as the Mughal Emperor in 1605, Malik 'Ambar had established a capital at Kirkee and had become well entrenched in the Deccan. During all this time, Malik 'Ambar also fought off the ventures of his rival Mian Raju Dakhani. In 1607, Malik 'Ambar captured Raju and had him executed. After this act, Malik 'Ambar was the supreme lord of Ahmadnagar.
Upon consolidation of his power, Malik 'Ambar organized an estimated 60,000 horse army. His light cavalry was very effective as a mobile unit. Malik 'Ambar also enlisted the naval support of the Siddis (fellow Africans) of Janjira Island in 1616 in order to cut the Mughal supply lines and to conduct harassing missions.
Malik 'Ambar thrust defeats on the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and attacked Ahmadnagar often. The guerrilla tactics employed by Malik 'Ambar proved to be very successful against the Mughals. On one occasion, the Mughal Emperor Jahangir was moved to remark: "'Ambar, the black-faced, who had himself in command of the enemy, continually brought up reinforcements till he assembled a large force. ... It was deemed expedient to retreat and prepare for a new campaign."
'Ambar built his greatest fortifications at Daulatabad to protect his kingdom from Prince Shah Jahan -- the Prince destined to become the next Mughal Emperor. In 1621, Shah Jahan's forces launched an attack on Daulatabad. Surprisingly, the Mughal forces were defeated and forced to retreat after suffering heavy losses at the hands of Malik 'Ambar.
However, while this victory over the Mughals was welcomed by Malik 'Ambar, it also brought the realization that he could not continue to resist without reinforcements. Seeking the support of the Deccani ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Malik 'Ambar had his daughter married to the Shah's favorite courtier. Additionally, his long and distinguished service in Golconda and Bijapur (along with their realization that Malik 'Ambar provided a buffer from the Mughals for them) brought support from those kingdoms. For a time, Malik 'Ambar was able to continue to resist the power of the Mughals.
Nevertheless, by the 1620s, Malik 'Ambar was having difficulty in maintaining the loyalty of his officers and forces. Almost continuous warfare for over a twenty year period of time had demoralized the army and drained the local economy. Although he was never defeated, Malik 'Ambar died a besieged man in 1626.
Malik 'Ambar was succeeded as regent minister of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar by his son Fettah Khan (Fatehkhan). But Fettah Khan was not Malik 'Ambar. He was deposed in 1629. Thus ended the short but glorious reign of the Africans in the Deccan.
During his time, Malik 'Ambar founded and inhabited Aurangabad on the site of the Kirkee (Khadke - "Big Rock") village in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was changed to Fatehpur by his son Fatehkhan. When Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor invaded Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it Aurangabad.
'Ambar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Shambu see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik Anbar see Malik ‘Ambar
Anbar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik ‘Ambar (Malik Anbar) (c. 1548/1549-1626). Habshi vizier and military commander who served the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar. Purchased as a slave in Baghdad, he supported several Maratha families and thus contributed to the subsequent rise of Maratha power in western India.
Malik 'Ambar was born in Harar, a province of Ethiopia. He was born in the capital of the dying Adal Sultanate in eastern Ethiopia. both Ethiopia and the rebellious Adal sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with each other. His Ethiopian name was Shambu and, aside from his Ethiopian name, little is known of his youth except that he was sold into slavery. During his youthful enslavement, Shambu would be sold several times in such Arab cities as Hejaz, Mocha (al-Mukha) and Baghdad.
According to the Futuhat-i 'adil Shahi, Shambu was sold into slavery by his parents. He ended up in Mocha in Yemen. While in Mocha, Shambu's Arab owner, Kazi Hussein, came to recognize that his slave had certain intellectual abilities and decided to train him in the areas of finance and administration. As the relationship between Shambu and Hussein became stronger, Shambu became a Muslim and Hussein gave him the name 'Ambar.
When Hussein died, 'Ambar was sold to a slave dealer, who sold Malik 'Ambar again for twenty ducats. Malik 'Ambar was then taken taken to the slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-Qudat of Mecca and again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who took him to India.
Around 1575, 'Ambar was purchased by Chingiz Khan, the prime minister to Nizam mul-Mulk Bani -- the King of Ahmadnagar. It is reported that Chingiz Khan was also of African origin and may very well have been a descendant of African mercenaries who served in India as early as the 1200s.
Chingiz Khan was impressed by 'Ambar's knowledge of Arabic, his loyalty, and his general intelligence. Seeking to solidify his control of the rather prominent (and mercenary) contingent of African (Habshi) slaves in the Deccan region, Chingiz Khan appointed 'Ambar as a key lieutenant with significant military and administrative responsibilities.
'Ambar's future was for a time hopeful. However, Chingiz Khan unexpectedly died, and 'Ambar was once again sold.
First 'Ambar was sold to the Shah of Golconda and later to the King of Bijapur. (Golconda and Bijapur were both kingdoms in the Deccan area of India.) Because of the training he had received from Kazi Hussein and Chingiz Khan, 'Ambar soon found favor with the King of Bijapur. So impressed was the King that he gave 'Ambar the title of Malik ("like a king").
While at Bijapur, Malik 'Ambar became a military commander. As a military commander, Malik 'Ambar was well respected by the Arab and African troops which were subject to his commands. Contrary to policy, Malik 'Ambar habitually promoted Arabs (as opposed to Indians) to positions of authority. This practice led to a dispute between Malik 'Ambar and the King of Bijapur which resulted in Malik 'Ambar's desertion in 1590 from the service of the King.
Malik 'Ambar became a wild card mercenary. He attracted not only independent Arab and African warriors but also Deccani (Indian) warriors. Eventually, Malik 'Ambar built a personal (private) army of over 1,500 well-trained cavalrymen and infantrymen. These soldiers of fortune were employed in various conflicts by various rulers in India.
In 1595, the King of Ahmadnagar organized a Habshi (African) army and his wise counselor, the Habshi (African) prime minister Abhangar Khan, invited Malik 'Ambar and his men to join him.
The return of Malik 'Ambar to Ahmadnagar was providential. Malik 'Ambar's return provided the opportunity for him to become a great champion of the Deccanis (Hindu Indians) against the Mughals (Muslim Indians). Malik 'Ambar and a Deccani, Mian Raju Dakhani, combined their military efforts on several occasions to repel attacks by the Mughals. Although Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani would become political and military rivals, on this occasion they worked together to defend the province of Ahmadnagar from the Mughals.
After repulsing the Mughals, the rivalry between Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani came to the fore. Both men sought to usurp the throne of King Murtaza II. In 1602, Malik 'Ambar imprisoned Murtaza and named himself regent-minister. As regent minister, Malik 'Ambar repelled a series of Mughal attacks and prevented the Great Mughal, the Emperor Akbar, from fulfilling his aim of conquering the Indian subcontinent.
By the time that Jahangir had succeeded Akbar as the Mughal Emperor in 1605, Malik 'Ambar had established a capital at Kirkee and had become well entrenched in the Deccan. During all this time, Malik 'Ambar also fought off the ventures of his rival Mian Raju Dakhani. In 1607, Malik 'Ambar captured Raju and had him executed. After this act, Malik 'Ambar was the supreme lord of Ahmadnagar.
Upon consolidation of his power, Malik 'Ambar organized an estimated 60,000 horse army. His light cavalry was very effective as a mobile unit. Malik 'Ambar also enlisted the naval support of the Siddis (fellow Africans) of Janjira Island in 1616 in order to cut the Mughal supply lines and to conduct harassing missions.
Malik 'Ambar thrust defeats on the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and attacked Ahmadnagar often. The guerrilla tactics employed by Malik 'Ambar proved to be very successful against the Mughals. On one occasion, the Mughal Emperor Jahangir was moved to remark: "'Ambar, the black-faced, who had himself in command of the enemy, continually brought up reinforcements till he assembled a large force. ... It was deemed expedient to retreat and prepare for a new campaign."
'Ambar built his greatest fortifications at Daulatabad to protect his kingdom from Prince Shah Jahan -- the Prince destined to become the next Mughal Emperor. In 1621, Shah Jahan's forces launched an attack on Daulatabad. Surprisingly, the Mughal forces were defeated and forced to retreat after suffering heavy losses at the hands of Malik 'Ambar.
However, while this victory over the Mughals was welcomed by Malik 'Ambar, it also brought the realization that he could not continue to resist without reinforcements. Seeking the support of the Deccani ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Malik 'Ambar had his daughter married to the Shah's favorite courtier. Additionally, his long and distinguished service in Golconda and Bijapur (along with their realization that Malik 'Ambar provided a buffer from the Mughals for them) brought support from those kingdoms. For a time, Malik 'Ambar was able to continue to resist the power of the Mughals.
Nevertheless, by the 1620s, Malik 'Ambar was having difficulty in maintaining the loyalty of his officers and forces. Almost continuous warfare for over a twenty year period of time had demoralized the army and drained the local economy. Although he was never defeated, Malik 'Ambar died a besieged man in 1626.
Malik 'Ambar was succeeded as regent minister of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar by his son Fettah Khan (Fatehkhan). But Fettah Khan was not Malik 'Ambar. He was deposed in 1629. Thus ended the short but glorious reign of the Africans in the Deccan.
During his time, Malik 'Ambar founded and inhabited Aurangabad on the site of the Kirkee (Khadke - "Big Rock") village in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was changed to Fatehpur by his son Fatehkhan. When Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor invaded Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it Aurangabad.
'Ambar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Shambu see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik Anbar see Malik ‘Ambar
Anbar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik Ayaz
Malik Ayaz (d. 1522). Indian Muslim admiral, administrator and statesman in Gujarat. He made the island of Diu into an impregnable fortress.
Ayaz, Malik see Malik Ayaz
Malik Ayaz (d. 1522). Indian Muslim admiral, administrator and statesman in Gujarat. He made the island of Diu into an impregnable fortress.
Ayaz, Malik see Malik Ayaz
Malik ibn Anas
Malik ibn Anas (Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi) (Mālik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Āmr al-Asbahi) ("Imam Malik") ("Sheikh of Islam") ("Proof of the Community") ("Imam of the Abode of Emigration") (c. 710/711-795/796). Muslim jurist and the imam of the law school of the Malikites, which is named after him. He is frequently called the Imam of Medina. His great work, the Muwatta’ -- the Book of the Smoothed Path -- , is the earliest surviving Muslim law book. Malik introduced the recognition of the unanimous practice of Medina, which he established as an organized judicial system. He thus created a theoretical standard for matters which were not settled from the point of view of consensus.
Born in Medina, where he spent most of his life, Malik became the most prominent jurist of that city. Malik was born the son of Anas ibn Malik and Aaliyah bint Shurayk al-Azdiyya. His family was originally from the al-Asbahi tribe of Yemen, but his great grandfather Abu 'Amir relocated the family to Medina after converting to Islam in the second year after the hijra.
Little is known about Malik’s early life, although many legends abound. Malik is supposed, for example, to have spent two or three years in his mother’s womb and to have been taught fiqh by some nine hundred teachers. Malik seems to have been in competition for a time with Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad’s biographer, until Ibn Ishaq abandoned both fiqh and Medina.
Malik’s Muwatta’ is the earliest work on fiqh written to develop a basis for law by means of a survey of custom in Medina, but he was writing at a stage when the rules for transmission of hadith had not been fully formed and his work was subjected to modification and correction by later scholars. Nevertheless, Malik’s criticism of his authorities was so rigorous that even today his reputation in this area has remained high.
Malik did not start from a theoretical position but with the law as it existed, so his work seems somewhat disorganized under the larger topics of contracts, penal law, marriage, etc. However, despite this failing, Malik’s work was so influential that Islamic legal treatises continued this pattern.
While Malik did not start a school, his name came to be used by a branch of Islamic law found in the Maghrib, Africa, and Upper Egypt. A particularly famous adherent of this school was Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who wrote a systematic treatise on the legal system.
Malik took advantage of the fact that he was contemporary to many of the Tabi'in to formulate his famous school of thought which gave precedence to the acts of the people of Medina over the hadith if they were in conflict. This was done due to the sizeable amount of scholars, and companions of Muhammad, residing in the city where Malik's reputation grew immensely. Malik nevertheless showed hesitancy in issuing religious verdicts.
Despite his reluctance to render religious verdicts, Malik was outspoken. He issued fatwas against being forced to pledge allegiance to the Caliph al-Mansur, and was punished via flogging for his stance. Al-Mansur apologized to Malik and offered him money and residence in Baghdad, but Malik refused to leave the city of Muhammad. Later, Harun al-Rashid asked Malik to visit him while Harun was performing the hajj. The Imam refused, and instead he invited the new caliph to his class.
Malik died in Medina in 796 and was buried in the famous Jannat ul-Baqi cemetery across from the Masjid al-Nabawi. He is recognized as one of the most highly respected scholars of fiqh in Sunni Islam. Imam Shafi, who was one of Malik's students for nine years and a scholarly giant in his own right, stated, "when scholars are mentioned, Malik is like the star among them." The Maliki Madhab, named after Malik, is one of the five schools of Islamic jurisprudence and remains popular among Muslims to this day.
Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi see Malik ibn Anas
Asbahi, Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al- see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of Medina see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of the Abode of Emigration see Malik ibn Anas
Sheikh of Islam see Malik ibn Anas
Proof of the Community see Malik ibn Anas
Malik ibn Anas (Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi) (Mālik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Āmr al-Asbahi) ("Imam Malik") ("Sheikh of Islam") ("Proof of the Community") ("Imam of the Abode of Emigration") (c. 710/711-795/796). Muslim jurist and the imam of the law school of the Malikites, which is named after him. He is frequently called the Imam of Medina. His great work, the Muwatta’ -- the Book of the Smoothed Path -- , is the earliest surviving Muslim law book. Malik introduced the recognition of the unanimous practice of Medina, which he established as an organized judicial system. He thus created a theoretical standard for matters which were not settled from the point of view of consensus.
Born in Medina, where he spent most of his life, Malik became the most prominent jurist of that city. Malik was born the son of Anas ibn Malik and Aaliyah bint Shurayk al-Azdiyya. His family was originally from the al-Asbahi tribe of Yemen, but his great grandfather Abu 'Amir relocated the family to Medina after converting to Islam in the second year after the hijra.
Little is known about Malik’s early life, although many legends abound. Malik is supposed, for example, to have spent two or three years in his mother’s womb and to have been taught fiqh by some nine hundred teachers. Malik seems to have been in competition for a time with Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad’s biographer, until Ibn Ishaq abandoned both fiqh and Medina.
Malik’s Muwatta’ is the earliest work on fiqh written to develop a basis for law by means of a survey of custom in Medina, but he was writing at a stage when the rules for transmission of hadith had not been fully formed and his work was subjected to modification and correction by later scholars. Nevertheless, Malik’s criticism of his authorities was so rigorous that even today his reputation in this area has remained high.
Malik did not start from a theoretical position but with the law as it existed, so his work seems somewhat disorganized under the larger topics of contracts, penal law, marriage, etc. However, despite this failing, Malik’s work was so influential that Islamic legal treatises continued this pattern.
While Malik did not start a school, his name came to be used by a branch of Islamic law found in the Maghrib, Africa, and Upper Egypt. A particularly famous adherent of this school was Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who wrote a systematic treatise on the legal system.
Malik took advantage of the fact that he was contemporary to many of the Tabi'in to formulate his famous school of thought which gave precedence to the acts of the people of Medina over the hadith if they were in conflict. This was done due to the sizeable amount of scholars, and companions of Muhammad, residing in the city where Malik's reputation grew immensely. Malik nevertheless showed hesitancy in issuing religious verdicts.
Despite his reluctance to render religious verdicts, Malik was outspoken. He issued fatwas against being forced to pledge allegiance to the Caliph al-Mansur, and was punished via flogging for his stance. Al-Mansur apologized to Malik and offered him money and residence in Baghdad, but Malik refused to leave the city of Muhammad. Later, Harun al-Rashid asked Malik to visit him while Harun was performing the hajj. The Imam refused, and instead he invited the new caliph to his class.
Malik died in Medina in 796 and was buried in the famous Jannat ul-Baqi cemetery across from the Masjid al-Nabawi. He is recognized as one of the most highly respected scholars of fiqh in Sunni Islam. Imam Shafi, who was one of Malik's students for nine years and a scholarly giant in his own right, stated, "when scholars are mentioned, Malik is like the star among them." The Maliki Madhab, named after Malik, is one of the five schools of Islamic jurisprudence and remains popular among Muslims to this day.
Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi see Malik ibn Anas
Asbahi, Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al- see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of Medina see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of the Abode of Emigration see Malik ibn Anas
Sheikh of Islam see Malik ibn Anas
Proof of the Community see Malik ibn Anas
Malik ibn Nuwayra
Malik ibn Nuwayra (Malik ibn Nuwaira) (d. 632) was an Arab poet during the Prophet’s lifetime. His brother, the poet Mutammim, glorified him in elegies which have come to be counted among the most famous of their kind in Arabic literature.
Malik was a chief of some distinction. A warrior, noted for his generosity and a famous poet. Bravery, generosity and poetry were the three qualities most admired by the Arabs.
Malik ibn Nuwayra was a chief of the Bani Yarbu', a large clan of the powerful tribe of Bani Tamim which inhabited the north-eastern region of Arabia, above Bahrain. Being close to Persia, some elements of the Bani Tamim had embraced Zoroastrianism, but by and large the tribe was pagan until Islam came to Arabia. The central village of Malik's clan was Butah.
Famous for his generosity and hospitality, Malik is said to have kept a light burning outside his house all night so that any traveller passing his way would know where to find shelter and food. Malik would get up during the night to check the light. A strikingly handsome man, Malik was also skilled in the use of weapons and noted for his courage and chivalry. He was also an accomplished poet. Malik possessed all the qualities that the Arabs looked for in the perfect male. He was married to Layla bint al-Minhal who was considered to be one of the most beautiful women in Arabia.
In view of Malik's distinguished position in the tribe and his unquestionable talents, the Prophet Muhammad appointed Malik an officer over the clan of Bani Handhalah. His main responsibility was the collection of taxes and their dispatch to Medina. Later, when news of Muhammad's death reached Butah, Malik, who had just collected a good deal of taxes but had not sent them to Medina, opened the coffers and returned the money to the taxpayers.
During the Ridda wars, which broke out in Arabia after the death of Muhammad. Abu Bakr sent his most talented general Khalid into Najd with 4000 men, to submit the tribes of the surrounding areas. Malik was guilty for his acts against the state of Medina for returning the taxes to the people. Additionally, after the death of Muhamma. Malik openly revolted against Medina. He signed a pact with the self-proclaimed prophet Sajjah. This agreement stated that first they would deal with local enemy tribes together, and then they would confront the state of Medina. When Malik heard about Khalid bin Walid's victories against powerful Arab tribes, he ordered his tribesmen not to engage the approaching Khalid in battle, to stay at home, and hope for peace. Malik himself moved away across the desert with his family. Also, so as to prove himself loyal to the state of Medina, Malik re-collected the taxes and sent them to Medina. Malik's riders were stopped by Khalid's army at the town of Battah.
Khalid sent out parties of horsemen to round up fugititives and to plunder their property. One such party seized Malik ibn Nuwayra and his family and brought them into Khalid, although they claimed to be Muslims. The men of Medina who were with the army protested vigorously against Khalid's ruthlessness, but without avail. The prisoners were placed under guard but, during the night, Malik and his supporters were killed in cold blood. Within 24 hours Khalid after killing Malik, Khalid married the widow of his victim.
Malik had been executed while professing to be a believer. Indeed, Khalid's marriage to the beautiful Layla gave rise to the suspicion that Malik had been killed with the object of making Layla available to Khalid.
The men of Medina, who had already opposed Khalid's ruthless actions, were outraged by the death of Malik. A certain Abu Qatada, an erstwhile friend and companion of Muhammad, hastened to Medina to complain to Abu Bakr, who summoned Khalid to answer the accusation. Umar bin Khattab pressed the caliph to deprive Khalid of his command. Khalid returning to Medina, claimed that he had not ordered the execution of Malik, but that his instructions to the guards had been misunderstood. The wise Abu Bakr, whatever he may have thought of the morals of his lieutenant, was aware of his prowess as a general and accepted his excuses.
Malik ibn Nuwaira see Malik ibn Nuwayra
Malik ibn Nuwayra (Malik ibn Nuwaira) (d. 632) was an Arab poet during the Prophet’s lifetime. His brother, the poet Mutammim, glorified him in elegies which have come to be counted among the most famous of their kind in Arabic literature.
Malik was a chief of some distinction. A warrior, noted for his generosity and a famous poet. Bravery, generosity and poetry were the three qualities most admired by the Arabs.
Malik ibn Nuwayra was a chief of the Bani Yarbu', a large clan of the powerful tribe of Bani Tamim which inhabited the north-eastern region of Arabia, above Bahrain. Being close to Persia, some elements of the Bani Tamim had embraced Zoroastrianism, but by and large the tribe was pagan until Islam came to Arabia. The central village of Malik's clan was Butah.
Famous for his generosity and hospitality, Malik is said to have kept a light burning outside his house all night so that any traveller passing his way would know where to find shelter and food. Malik would get up during the night to check the light. A strikingly handsome man, Malik was also skilled in the use of weapons and noted for his courage and chivalry. He was also an accomplished poet. Malik possessed all the qualities that the Arabs looked for in the perfect male. He was married to Layla bint al-Minhal who was considered to be one of the most beautiful women in Arabia.
In view of Malik's distinguished position in the tribe and his unquestionable talents, the Prophet Muhammad appointed Malik an officer over the clan of Bani Handhalah. His main responsibility was the collection of taxes and their dispatch to Medina. Later, when news of Muhammad's death reached Butah, Malik, who had just collected a good deal of taxes but had not sent them to Medina, opened the coffers and returned the money to the taxpayers.
During the Ridda wars, which broke out in Arabia after the death of Muhammad. Abu Bakr sent his most talented general Khalid into Najd with 4000 men, to submit the tribes of the surrounding areas. Malik was guilty for his acts against the state of Medina for returning the taxes to the people. Additionally, after the death of Muhamma. Malik openly revolted against Medina. He signed a pact with the self-proclaimed prophet Sajjah. This agreement stated that first they would deal with local enemy tribes together, and then they would confront the state of Medina. When Malik heard about Khalid bin Walid's victories against powerful Arab tribes, he ordered his tribesmen not to engage the approaching Khalid in battle, to stay at home, and hope for peace. Malik himself moved away across the desert with his family. Also, so as to prove himself loyal to the state of Medina, Malik re-collected the taxes and sent them to Medina. Malik's riders were stopped by Khalid's army at the town of Battah.
Khalid sent out parties of horsemen to round up fugititives and to plunder their property. One such party seized Malik ibn Nuwayra and his family and brought them into Khalid, although they claimed to be Muslims. The men of Medina who were with the army protested vigorously against Khalid's ruthlessness, but without avail. The prisoners were placed under guard but, during the night, Malik and his supporters were killed in cold blood. Within 24 hours Khalid after killing Malik, Khalid married the widow of his victim.
Malik had been executed while professing to be a believer. Indeed, Khalid's marriage to the beautiful Layla gave rise to the suspicion that Malik had been killed with the object of making Layla available to Khalid.
The men of Medina, who had already opposed Khalid's ruthless actions, were outraged by the death of Malik. A certain Abu Qatada, an erstwhile friend and companion of Muhammad, hastened to Medina to complain to Abu Bakr, who summoned Khalid to answer the accusation. Umar bin Khattab pressed the caliph to deprive Khalid of his command. Khalid returning to Medina, claimed that he had not ordered the execution of Malik, but that his instructions to the guards had been misunderstood. The wise Abu Bakr, whatever he may have thought of the morals of his lieutenant, was aware of his prowess as a general and accepted his excuses.
Malik ibn Nuwaira see Malik ibn Nuwayra
Malik Ibrahim
The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. One theory states it arrived directly from Arabia before the 9th century, while another credits Sufi merchants and preachers for bringing Islam to Indonesian islands in the 12th or 13th century either from Gujarat in India or directly from the Middle East. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Hinduism and Buddhism.
Initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. Though historical documents are incomplete, the limited evidence suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century, as the military power of Melaka Sultanate in Malay Peninsular today Malaysia and other Islamic Sultanates dominated the region aided by episodes of Muslim coup such as in 1446, wars and superior control of maritime trading and ultimate markets. During 1511, Tome Pires found animists and Muslims in the north coast of Java. Some rulers were Islamized Muslims, others followed the old Hindu and Buddhism.
By the reign of Sultan Agung of Mataram, most of the older Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Indonesia, had at least nominally converted to Islam. The last one to do so was Makassar in 1605. After the fall of the Majapahit empire, Bali became the refuge for the Hindu upper class, Brahmins and their followers that fled from Java, thus transferring the Hindu culture of Java to Bali. Hinduism and Buddhism remained extant in some areas of East Java where it syncretized with animism. Their traditions also continued in East and Central Java where they earlier held a sway. Animism was also practiced in remote areas of other islands of Indonesia.
The spread of Islam in eastern islands of Indonesia is recorded in 1605 when three Islamic pious men collectively known as Dato' Tallu came to Makasar, namely Dato'ri Bandang (Abdul Makmur or Khatib Tunggal), Dato'ri Pattimang (Sulaiman Ali or Khatib Sulung) and Dato'ri Tiro (Abdul Jawad or Khatib Bungsu). According to Christian Pelras (1985), Dato' Tallu converted the Kings of Gowa and Tallo to Islam and changed their name to Sultan Muhammad.
The spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam. Dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in North Sumatra; by the 14th in northeast Malaya, Brunei, the southern Philippines northeast and among some courtiers of East Java; and the 15th in Malacca and other areas of the Malay Peninsula. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.
Despite being one of the most significant developments in Indonesian history, historical evidence is fragmentary and generally uninformative such that understandings of the coming of Islam to Indonesia are limited. There is considerable debate amongst scholars about what conclusions can be drawn about the conversion of Indonesian peoples. The primary evidence, at least of the earlier stages of the process, are gravestones and a few travellers' accounts, but these can only show that indigenous Muslims were in a certain place at a certain time. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies. It should not be assumed, for example, that because a ruler was known to be a Muslim, that the process of Islamization of that area was complete. Instead, what is known is that the Islamization process was, and remains to this day, continuous in Indonesia. Nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamized Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta (meaning "precious victory") which was eventually shortened to Jakarta. Islamization increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, spurred on by the spiritual influences of the revered Sufi saints Wali Songo (or Nine Saints).
Malik Ibrahim (b. before 1350, Kashan, Persia - d. April 7, 1419, Gapurosukolilo, Gresik), also known as Sunan Gresik or Kakek Bantal, was the first of the Wali Songo, the nine men generally thought to have introduced Islam to Java (Indonesia).
Ibrahim's origin is unclear, although it is generally agreed that he originated from outside of Java. He is thought to have been born in the first half of the 14th century. Ibrahim is known by several names in the Babad Tanah Jawi and other texts. In the texts, Ibrahim is identified as Makhdum Ibrahim as-Samarqandy (localised to Syekh Ibrahim Asmarakandi). This indicates a possible origin from Samarkand in modern-day Uzbekistan.
Malik Ibrahim was born in Kashan, Persia (modern day Iran). Malik Ibrahim belonged to a Sayyid and highly educated family in Kashan. His great grandfather migrated from Samarkand to Kashan. Ibrahim came to Java with his father, Syekh Jumadil Qubro or Kubro, and his brother Maulana Ishaq, from Persia. They were descendants of Muhammad through Hussein ibn Ali. According to this version, Qubro stayed in Java while his sons went abroad for dakwah. Ibrahim went to Champa (in modern-day Vietnam), while his brother went to Pasai in northern Sumatra. During his 13 years in Champa, Ibrahim provided healthcare and taught farmers more efficient ways to grow crops. He also married one of the king's daughters, whose name has been Indonesianised as Dewi Candrawulan, and had two sons. When he felt that he had converted enough people in Champa to Islam, Ibrahim returned to Java without his family.
Ibrahim landed at Sembalo, Learn, Manyar (9 kilometres (5.6 mi) north of modern-day Gresik) in the late 14th century, where he became acquainted with the local people. He began trading out of the harbor, dealing equally with people from different castes - different social classes based on the dominant Hindu religion. By doing so, Ibrahim found popular support from the lower castes, which led to numerous conversions. He also continued his work from Champa, teaching the locals ways to improve harvests and treating the ill.
Through his trading, Ibrahim also became acquainted with the ruling class and nobles. After journeying to Trowulan to meet the king of Majapahit, he was granted a landing on the outskirts of Gresik which was used for preaching. Ibrahim also founded an Islamic boarding school there.
A legend associated with Ibrahim is that one day, while travelling, he came across a young woman about to be sacrificed to the gods in order to end a long-standing drought. After stopping a group of men from stabbing the woman, Ibrahim prayed for rain. When his prayers were answered, the group he had faced converted to Islam.
Ibrahim died on 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 822 AH (April 7, 1419 CC). He was buried in Gapura village, Gresik, East Java.
Before the 19th century, Ibrahim was not considered one of the Wali Songo, the saints who spread Islam to Java. After his grave was rediscovered in the early 19th century, he was included in the core group. He was first listed as a Wali Songo in Babad Dipanegara. Today his grave, which is without a headstone, is a common destination for pilgrims, who read the Qu'ran and the life of Muhammad; they also partake in a dish unique to the area, harisah rice porridge. In 2005 over 1.5 million pilgrims went to the grave, for which there is an entry fee. Most come on the anniversary of his death, based on the Islamic calendar.
Near Ibrahim's grave is a stone marker bearing an inscription in Arabic, translated below:
Both of Ibrahim's sons went on to spread Islam to Java after they became adults. The eldest, Ali Rahmatullah, is better known as Sunan Ampel and is a member of the Wali Songo himself. The youngest was named Ali Murthada. Ibrahim's work in eastern Java was continued by Raden Paku (later known as Susuhunan Giri) in Giri (now part of the Jepara Regency of Central Java) and Raden Rahmat, who founded an Islamic school in Ngampel, near Surabaya.
Every year, the Gresik city government holds a festival to celebrate Ibrahim's birth. Known as Gebyar Maulid, the festival also serves to promote local culture.
The Wali Songo (also transcribed as Wali Sanga) are revered saints of Islam in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java, because of their historic role in the spread of Islam in Indonesia. The word wali is Arabic for "trusted one" ("guardian" in other contexts in Indonesia) or "friend of God" ("saint" in this context), while the word sanga is Javanese for group of monks or the number nine. Thus, the term is often translated as "Sangha of saints".
Although referred to as a group, there is good evidence that fewer than nine were alive at any given time. Also, there are sources that use the term "Wali Sanga" to refer to saintly mystic(s) other than the most well-known nine individuals.
Each man is often attributed the title sunan in Javanese, which may derive from suhun, in this context meaning "honored".
Most of the wali were also called raden during their lifetimes, because they were members of royal houses.
The graves of the Wali Sanga are venerated as locations of ziarah (ziyarat) or local pilgrimage in Java. The graves are also known as pundhen in Javanese.
The earliest Wali Sanga was Malik Ibrahim. He is thought to have been in the first half of the 14th century. Malik Ibrahim was of Sayyid lineage and came from a highly educated family in Kashan. His great-grandfather migrated from Samarqand, and that is why his family is also known as Samarqandi. They were originally a converted Central Asian Muslim pir from Samarkand. With centuries of Turkish, Mongol and Ottoman rule over Middle East, many of them started claiming Sayyid ancestry to legitimize their rule over the population.
Syekh Jumadil Kubra, to whom all the saints of Java appear to be related, is a name that appears to almost certainly be a corruption of Najmuddin al-Kubra. The name Syekh Jumadil Kubra has attached itself to various legendary and mythical personalities,. These personalities have a common connection in that they are the ancestors or preceptors of the founders of Islam in Java - an oblique acknowledgement, perhaps, of the prestige of the Qubrowi in the period of Islamization.
The sufis themselves traced their ancestors to erstwhile Hindu and Buddhist Javanese kings. Tracing the lineage earlier than Malik Ibrahim is problematic, but most scholars agree that Kubra's lineages are of Chinese descent and not Arab. Although Kubra's silsila -- his spiritual genealogy -- is listed in various Javanese royal chronicles (such as Sejarah Banten) to denote ancestral lineage from erstwhile Hindu Kings, the term in Sufism refers to a lineage of teachers.
Although popular belief sometimes refers to the wali sanga as "founders" of Islam on Java, the religion was present by the time the Chinese Muslim admiral Zheng He arrived during his first voyage (1405-1407 CC).
Many of the earliest Wali Sanga had Chinese ancestry both paternally and maternally. For example, Sunan Ampel (Chinese name Bong Swi Ho), Sunan Bonang (Ampel's son, Bong Ang), and Sunan Kalijaga (Gan Si Cang).
Dewi Candrawulan, a Muslim Princess from Champa, was the mother of Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who was later known by the name of Sunan Ampel. Sunan Ampel was the son of Maulana Malik Ibrahim, and the ancestor or teacher of some of the other Wali Sanga.
The composition of the nine saints varies, depending on different sources. The following list is widely accepted, but its authenticity relies much on repeated citations of a handful of early sources, reinforced as "facts" in school textbooks and other modern accounts. This list differs somewhat from the names suggested in the Babad Tanah Jawi manuscripts.
One theory about the variation of composition is that there was a loose council of nine religious leaders, and that as older members retired or died, new members were brought into this council. However, it should be borne in mind that the term "wali sanga" was created retroactively by historians, and so there was no official "group of nine" that had membership. Further, the differences in chronology of the wali suggest that there might never have been a time when nine of them were alive contemporaneously.
At first, it was not easy for Islam to enter and thrive in the archipelago. Even in the historical record, in a span of about 800 years, Islam had not been able to establish a substantial presence. Notes from the time of the Tang Dynasty of China indicated that merchants from the Middle East had come to the kingdom of Shih-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) in Sumatra, and Holing (Kalinga) in Java in the year 674 CC, i.e., in the transitional period of Caliph Ali to Muawiyah. In the 10th century, a group of Persians called the Lor came to Java. They lived in an area in Ngudung (Kudus), also known as Loram (from the word "Lor" which means North). They also formed other communities in other areas, such as in Gresik. The existence of the gravestone of Fatimah binti Maimun bin Hibatallah in Gresi, dated to the 10th century CC, is considered evidence of the incoming migration of the Persian tribes.
In his notes, Marco Polo relates that when returning from China to Italy in 1292 CC, he did not travel via the Silk Road, but instead traveled by sea towards the Persian Gulf. He stopped in Perlak, a port city in Aceh, southern Malacca. According to Polo, in Perlak there were three groups, namely (1) ethnic Chinese, who were all Muslims; (2) Westerners (Persians), also entirely Muslim; and (3) indigenous people in the hinterland, who worshipped trees, rocks, and spirits. In his testimony, Polo said, regarding the "Kingdom of Ferlec (Perlak)" - "This kingdom, you must know, is so much frequented by the Saracen merchants that they have converted the natives to the Law of Mohammet — I mean the townspeople only, for the Java hill-people live for all the world like beasts, and eat human flesh, as well as all other kinds of flesh, clean or unclean. And they worship this, that, and the other thing; for in fact the first thing that they see on rising in the morning, that they do worship for the rest of the day.
One hundred years after Polo, the Chinese Muslim Admiral Zheng He came to Java in 1405 CC. When he stopped in Tuban, he noted that there were 1,000 Chinese religious Muslim families there. In Gresik, he also found there were 1,000 Chinese Muslim families, with the same amount reported in Surabaya. On Zheng He's seventh (last) visit to Java in 1433 CC, he invited his scribe named Ma Huan. According to Ma Huan, the Chinese and the Arab population of the cities on the northern beaches of Java were all Muslim, while the indigenous population were mostly non-Muslim as they were worshipping the trees, rocks, and spirits.
Early in the 15th century CC, Ali Murtadho and Ali Rahmat, sons of Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sheikh Ibrahim Samarqandi), relocated from the Kingdom of Champa (Southern Vietnam) to Java, and settled in the Tuban area, precisely in the Gesikharjo Village at Palang District. Malik Ibrahim was buried there in 1419. After the funeral, both of his sons then headed to the capital of Majapahit, because their aunt (Princess Dwarawati) was married to the King of Majapahit. By the King's order, both of them then were appointed as officials of the Majapahit Empire. Ali Murtadho as Raja Pandhita (Minister of Religion) for the Musims, while Ali Rahmat was appointed as Imam (High Priest for Muslims) in Surabaya. Ali Rahmat was known as Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who then became Sunan Ampel.
In sum, multiple sources and conventional wisdom agree that the Wali Sanga contributed to the propagation of Islam (but not its original introduction) in the area now known as Indonesia. However, it is difficult to prove the extent of their influence in quantitative terms such as an increase in the number of adherents or masjids in the areas of their work in contrast to localities where they were not active.
Some of the family relationships described below are well-documented; others are less certain. Even today, it is common in Java for a family friend to be called "uncle" or "brother" despite the lack of a blood relationship.
- Sunan Gresik (Malik Ibrahim): Arrived on Java 1404 CC, died in 1419 CC, buried in Gresik, East Java. Activities included commerce, healing, and improvement of agricultural techniques. Father of Sunan Ampel and uncle of Sunan Giri.
- Sunan Ampel: Born in Champa (Southern Vietnam) in 1401 CC, died in 1481 CC in Demak, Central Java. Can be considered a focal point of the wali sanga. He was the son of Sunan Gresik and the father of Sunan Bonang and Sunan Dradjat. Sunan Ampel was also the cousin and father-in-law of Sunan Giri. In addition, Sunan Ampel was the grandfather of Sunan Kudus. Sunan Bonang in turn taught Sunan Kalijaga, who was the father of Sunan Muria. Sunan Ampel was also the teacher of Raden Patah.
- Sunan Giri: Born in Blambangan (now Banyuwangi, the easternmost part of Java) in 1442 CC. His father Maulana Ishak was the brother of Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Sunan Giri's grave is in Gresik near Surabaya.
- Sunan Bonang: Born in 1465 CC in Rembang (near Tuban) on the north coast of Central Java. Died in 1525 CC and buried in Tuban. Brother of Sunan Drajat. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.
- Sunan Drajat: Born in 1470 CC. Brother of Sunan Bonang. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.
- Sunan Kudus: Died 1550 CC, buried in Kudus. Possible originator of wayang golek puppetry.
- Sunan Kalijaga: His birth name is Raden Mas Said, and he is the son of Adipati Tuban. Buried in Kadilangu, Demak. Used wayang kulit shadow puppets and gamelan music to convey spiritual teachings.
- Sunan Muria: Buried in Gunung Muria, Kudus. Son of Sunan Kalijaga and Dewi Soejinah (sister of Sunan Giri).
- Sunan Gunung Jati: Buried in Cirebon. Founder and first ruler of the Cirebon Sultanate. His son, Maulana Hasanudin, became the founder and the first ruler of the Banten Sultanate.
Malikites
Malikites (in Arabic, Malikiyya) (Maliki). Juridico-religious group of orthodox Islam which formed itself into a school after the adoption of the doctrine of imam Malik ibn Anas. The success of the school is due to Malik’s intolerance towards the Qadariyya and the Kharijites. Nor is there any place in it for mysticism, although a number of Maliki mystics are known. In Medina, all trace of the school was lost after the demise of Malik’s first disciples. It only returned with the triumph of Sunnism in the fourteenth century. Malikism is predominant in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It was the sole official rite of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) during the eighth and ninth centuries. At the present time, the majority of the Muslims of the Sudan belong to the Maliki school of law and there are Maliki Muslims in Senegal, Mali, Niger, Togo, Chad and Nigeria.
Malikites comprise one of the four orthodox schools of law in Islam. Their sect was named after Malik ibn Anas, who died in the Arabian city of Medina in 796. A celebrated legal scholar, Malik is known above all as the author of Kitab al-Muwatta, the earliest surviving work on law in Islam. Its contents in general reflect the outlook of that early legal tradition associated with the Hijaz. While the Maliki school owed its formative inspiration to the teaching of Malik, the elaboration of its doctrine into a unified, distinctive code of law was in the main the work of his leading disciples, in particular of al-Sulami (d. 852), al-Tanukhi, known also as Sahnun (d. 854), and Isma‘il ibn Ishaq (d. 895). In addition to the Qur’an, Malikis based their legal rulings on the consensus (ijma) or customary law of Medina, and when these failed to provide an adequate basis for law they had recourse to personal judgment (ijtihad/ra’y). Malikis did make use of the hadith (the traditions of the Prophet) as a basis for law, but these never constituted the highest court of appeal for them. If Malikis and Hanafis were largely in agreement on the role of reason in the juridical process, they sometimes differed substantively in the realm of positive law, a fact explained largely by their different geographical roots. Apart from isolated cases, and for reasons that are not entirely clear, Maliki law never won acceptance in the eastern lands of Islam. However, it has been and remains the dominant school of North Africa.
Malikiyya see Malikites
Malikites (in Arabic, Malikiyya) (Maliki). Juridico-religious group of orthodox Islam which formed itself into a school after the adoption of the doctrine of imam Malik ibn Anas. The success of the school is due to Malik’s intolerance towards the Qadariyya and the Kharijites. Nor is there any place in it for mysticism, although a number of Maliki mystics are known. In Medina, all trace of the school was lost after the demise of Malik’s first disciples. It only returned with the triumph of Sunnism in the fourteenth century. Malikism is predominant in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It was the sole official rite of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) during the eighth and ninth centuries. At the present time, the majority of the Muslims of the Sudan belong to the Maliki school of law and there are Maliki Muslims in Senegal, Mali, Niger, Togo, Chad and Nigeria.
Malikites comprise one of the four orthodox schools of law in Islam. Their sect was named after Malik ibn Anas, who died in the Arabian city of Medina in 796. A celebrated legal scholar, Malik is known above all as the author of Kitab al-Muwatta, the earliest surviving work on law in Islam. Its contents in general reflect the outlook of that early legal tradition associated with the Hijaz. While the Maliki school owed its formative inspiration to the teaching of Malik, the elaboration of its doctrine into a unified, distinctive code of law was in the main the work of his leading disciples, in particular of al-Sulami (d. 852), al-Tanukhi, known also as Sahnun (d. 854), and Isma‘il ibn Ishaq (d. 895). In addition to the Qur’an, Malikis based their legal rulings on the consensus (ijma) or customary law of Medina, and when these failed to provide an adequate basis for law they had recourse to personal judgment (ijtihad/ra’y). Malikis did make use of the hadith (the traditions of the Prophet) as a basis for law, but these never constituted the highest court of appeal for them. If Malikis and Hanafis were largely in agreement on the role of reason in the juridical process, they sometimes differed substantively in the realm of positive law, a fact explained largely by their different geographical roots. Apart from isolated cases, and for reasons that are not entirely clear, Maliki law never won acceptance in the eastern lands of Islam. However, it has been and remains the dominant school of North Africa.
Malikiyya see Malikites
Malik Sarwar
Malik Sarwar (Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi) (Khwaja Jahan). Founder of the Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur in northern India (r.1394-1399).
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi was the Sultan of the Sharqi dynasty in South Asia.
The Jaunpur sultanate was ruled by the Sharqi dynasty. The Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar, the first ruler of the dynasty was a Wazir (minister) under Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1390 – 1394). In 1394, he established himself as an independent ruler of Jaunpur and extended his authority over Awadh and a large part of Ganga-Yamuna doab. The dynasty founded by him was named so because of his title Malik-us-Sharq (the ruler of the east). The most acclaimed ruler of this dynasty was Ibrahim Shah. The last ruler Hussain Shah was overthrown by Bahlul Lodi, and the Jaunpur sultanate was permanently annexed to the Delhi sultanate by Sikandar Lodi.
In 1389, Malik Sarwar received the title of Khajah-i-Jahan. In 1394, he was appointed as the governor of Jaunpur and received his title of Malik-us-Sharq from Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1394 - 1413). Soon, he established himself as an independent ruler and took the title of Atabak-i-Azam. He suppressed the rebellions in Etawah, Koil and Kanauj. He was also able to bring under his control Kara, Awadh, Sandila, Dalmau, Bahraich, Bihar and Tirhut. The Rai of Jajnagar and the ruler of Lakhnauti acknowledged his authority and sent him a number of elephants. After his death, he was succeeded by his adopted son Malik Qaranfal, who took the title of Mubarak Shah.
Khwaja Jahan see Malik Sarwar
Jahan, Khwaja see Malik Sarwar
Sarwar, Malik see Malik Sarwar
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi see Malik Sarwar
Sharqi, Malik Sarwar Shah see Malik Sarwar
Malik Sarwar (Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi) (Khwaja Jahan). Founder of the Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur in northern India (r.1394-1399).
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi was the Sultan of the Sharqi dynasty in South Asia.
The Jaunpur sultanate was ruled by the Sharqi dynasty. The Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar, the first ruler of the dynasty was a Wazir (minister) under Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1390 – 1394). In 1394, he established himself as an independent ruler of Jaunpur and extended his authority over Awadh and a large part of Ganga-Yamuna doab. The dynasty founded by him was named so because of his title Malik-us-Sharq (the ruler of the east). The most acclaimed ruler of this dynasty was Ibrahim Shah. The last ruler Hussain Shah was overthrown by Bahlul Lodi, and the Jaunpur sultanate was permanently annexed to the Delhi sultanate by Sikandar Lodi.
In 1389, Malik Sarwar received the title of Khajah-i-Jahan. In 1394, he was appointed as the governor of Jaunpur and received his title of Malik-us-Sharq from Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1394 - 1413). Soon, he established himself as an independent ruler and took the title of Atabak-i-Azam. He suppressed the rebellions in Etawah, Koil and Kanauj. He was also able to bring under his control Kara, Awadh, Sandila, Dalmau, Bahraich, Bihar and Tirhut. The Rai of Jajnagar and the ruler of Lakhnauti acknowledged his authority and sent him a number of elephants. After his death, he was succeeded by his adopted son Malik Qaranfal, who took the title of Mubarak Shah.
Khwaja Jahan see Malik Sarwar
Jahan, Khwaja see Malik Sarwar
Sarwar, Malik see Malik Sarwar
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi see Malik Sarwar
Sharqi, Malik Sarwar Shah see Malik Sarwar
Malik Shah
Malik Shah (Jalāl al-Dawlah Malik-shāh) (Melikşah) (d. 1092). Seljuk sultan from 1072 to 1092.. Name of various Saljuq (Seljuk) rulers, the most outstanding of whom was the Great Saljuq Malik Shah I ibn Alp Arslan (b. 1055; r.1072-1092). During his reign, the Great Saljuq Empire reached its zenith of territorial extent -- from Syria in the west to Khurasan in the east -- and of military might. After putting down insurrections by other members of the Saljuq family, Malik Shah came to a modus vivendi -- method of living -- with the Ghaznavids of eastern Afghanistan and India and with the Ilek-Khans of western and eastern Turkestan. He defended the northwestern provinces of Azerbaijan, Arran and Armenia against the Georgians and the Turkmen. In the Arab lands of Iraq, Mesopotamia and Syria, Malik Shah assured Sunni control of major cities such as Aleppo, Damascus, Antioch and Edessa by installing Turkish slave commanders as governors. On Malik Shah’s visit to Baghdad in 1086, the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadi formally granted him the secular authority. Central policy in the Saljuq state was directed by the great vizier Nizam al-Mulk, who facilitated the revival of Sunni Islam, as the authority of the Shi‘a Buyids and Fatimids was waning. This in theory meant harmonious co-operation with the ‘Abbasid caliphs, the moral heads of Sunni Islam. Malik Shah was the patron of such poets as the Arab al-Tughra’i and the Persians Mu‘izzi and ‘Omar Khayyam.
Malik Shah I (Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah) drove the Byzantine Empire out of most of Anatolia following their defeat by his father Alp Arslan at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Likewise, he reformed the calendar with the Jalali calendar in 1079. Malik Shah expanded Seljuk power into Syria at the expense of the Fatimids of Egypt, setting up client princes in Edessa, Alepp and Damascus and is remembered as one of the greatest of the Saljuq sultans.
Suleyman revolted against Malik Shah I and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Rum, establishing his capital at Nicaea. Suleyman expanded his realm but was killed near Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I, the Saljuq ruler of Syria. Suleyman's son, Kilij Arslan I, was captured and taken as a hostage by Malik Shah I to Isfahan. It is uncertain whether Tutush killed Suleyman out of loyalty to Malik Shah I or simply for personal gain.
The principal administrative official during the reign of Malik Shah I was the vizier Nizam al-Mulk who served both him and his father and achieved a near mythic stature in contemporary Muslim histories.
After the death of Malik Shah I in 1092, the Saljuq empire dissolved into smaller, warring states, as Malik Shah's brother and four sons quarreled over the apportioning of the empire between themselves. Kilij Arslan I re-established the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, and Tutush I established himself in Syria. In Persia, Malik Shah was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers: Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmed Sanjar in Khorasan.
The disunity within the Saljuq lands ultimately contributed to the success of the First Crusade.
Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah see Malik Shah
Meliksah see Malik Shah
Malik Shah (Jalāl al-Dawlah Malik-shāh) (Melikşah) (d. 1092). Seljuk sultan from 1072 to 1092.. Name of various Saljuq (Seljuk) rulers, the most outstanding of whom was the Great Saljuq Malik Shah I ibn Alp Arslan (b. 1055; r.1072-1092). During his reign, the Great Saljuq Empire reached its zenith of territorial extent -- from Syria in the west to Khurasan in the east -- and of military might. After putting down insurrections by other members of the Saljuq family, Malik Shah came to a modus vivendi -- method of living -- with the Ghaznavids of eastern Afghanistan and India and with the Ilek-Khans of western and eastern Turkestan. He defended the northwestern provinces of Azerbaijan, Arran and Armenia against the Georgians and the Turkmen. In the Arab lands of Iraq, Mesopotamia and Syria, Malik Shah assured Sunni control of major cities such as Aleppo, Damascus, Antioch and Edessa by installing Turkish slave commanders as governors. On Malik Shah’s visit to Baghdad in 1086, the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadi formally granted him the secular authority. Central policy in the Saljuq state was directed by the great vizier Nizam al-Mulk, who facilitated the revival of Sunni Islam, as the authority of the Shi‘a Buyids and Fatimids was waning. This in theory meant harmonious co-operation with the ‘Abbasid caliphs, the moral heads of Sunni Islam. Malik Shah was the patron of such poets as the Arab al-Tughra’i and the Persians Mu‘izzi and ‘Omar Khayyam.
Malik Shah I (Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah) drove the Byzantine Empire out of most of Anatolia following their defeat by his father Alp Arslan at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Likewise, he reformed the calendar with the Jalali calendar in 1079. Malik Shah expanded Seljuk power into Syria at the expense of the Fatimids of Egypt, setting up client princes in Edessa, Alepp and Damascus and is remembered as one of the greatest of the Saljuq sultans.
Suleyman revolted against Malik Shah I and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Rum, establishing his capital at Nicaea. Suleyman expanded his realm but was killed near Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I, the Saljuq ruler of Syria. Suleyman's son, Kilij Arslan I, was captured and taken as a hostage by Malik Shah I to Isfahan. It is uncertain whether Tutush killed Suleyman out of loyalty to Malik Shah I or simply for personal gain.
The principal administrative official during the reign of Malik Shah I was the vizier Nizam al-Mulk who served both him and his father and achieved a near mythic stature in contemporary Muslim histories.
After the death of Malik Shah I in 1092, the Saljuq empire dissolved into smaller, warring states, as Malik Shah's brother and four sons quarreled over the apportioning of the empire between themselves. Kilij Arslan I re-established the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, and Tutush I established himself in Syria. In Persia, Malik Shah was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers: Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmed Sanjar in Khorasan.
The disunity within the Saljuq lands ultimately contributed to the success of the First Crusade.
Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah see Malik Shah
Meliksah see Malik Shah
Malkom Khan
Malkom Khan (Malkum Khan) (Mirza Malkam Khan) (Mirza Malkum) (Mirza Malkom) (Mirza Malkam) in Tehran in 1858 to facilitate gatherings of enlightened Iranians and the propagation of reformist thought. In the meantime, he published the Kitabcha-yi ghaibi ya daftar-i tanzimat and the Daftar-i qanun, which dealt largely with legal, political, and administrative reform based on the Western model. Owing to the controversial nature of his activities, he ws exiled in 1861 and the Faramushkhana was officially dissolved. He was later pardoned and again exiled to London in 1890 after a lottery scandal. In London, he began the publication of his newspaper Qanun (Law) in 1891, calling for reform and modernization in his mother country. He collaborated with other reformists of the time such as Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Mirza Agha Khan Kirmani. He participated only marginally in support of the Tobacco Protest of 1906.
Malkom Khan was an enigmatic figure in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Iranian history. He was an advocate of progress and reform, but he was often motivated by self-aggrandizement and self-interest. He called for political and governmental changes as well as cultural ones that included Persian language and alphabet reform. As one of the first to write in a recognizably modern prose idiom and as an editor of Qanun, his influential newspaper, Malkom Khan’s most important historical contribution is perhaps to be found in a literary venue, even though he has not been regarded as a major literary figure or stylist. It was in Turkey rather than Iran that alphabet reform was achieved. The liberal political values expressed in Qanun found expression in the Iranian Constitution of 1905-1906.
Malkom Khan was born into an Armenian family in Julfa Isfahan. Malkom, like his father, Ya‘kub Khan, studied abroad, learned French, served as an interpreter and translator, established useful patronage links, was a self-professed Muslim with interests in freemasonry and an advocate of cultural change including alphabet reform. Malkom returned from Paris at the age of eighteen to work as an interpreter in Dar al-Funun, the new college in Tehran, where he also taught geography and natural science. Five years later, through patronage ties with Nasir al-Din Shahand his prime minister, Malkom returned to Europe as the member of a diplomatic mission to conclude peace with Britain. This was the beginning of his diplomatic career and European travel that convinced him of the superiority of European civilization and the value of westernization. In Paris, he was initiated into a Masonic lodge.
Malkom Khan returned to Iran in 1858 and was involved with the introduction of the telegraph in Iran and wrote his first treatise on political and administrative reform, which was influenced by Ottoman models. He advocated, among other general principles, the separation of the legislative from the executive branch, codification of law, equality before the law, and freedom of belief. In addition, he also spelled out specific recommendations for the implementation of these principles in Western-style ministries, comprehensive education, the development of roads, increased government revenues, a reformed military, and a national bank. He established a freemasonry type society, and used it as a base for political action and reform. The shah (Nasser ad-Din Shah) forced the closure of his lodge because of its secrecy and membership that included potential rivals for the monarchy.
In late 1861, Malkom Khan was sent into exile, first in Baghdad and then Istanbul, where he was assigned as counselor at the Iranian embassy. In 1868, he was dismissed and given Ottoman nationality but was reappointed to his position in the Iranian embassy, which he held until 1871. From 1873 to 1889, he served as Iran’s minister in London. In 1889, he was involved in a financial scandal relating to a proposed national lottery in Iran, which resulted in his final dismissal and the loss of his titles. In 1890, he began publishing his influential newspaper, Qanun, which attacked Qajar despotism, stressed westernization as the means for saving Iranian sovereignty, and called for a constitution and parliamentary government. Qanun, influenced by Turkish newspapers in Istanbul, was printed in London and smuggled into Iran, where it was widely circulated and read by like-minded clerical and secular anti-Qajar reformers. It ceased publication in 1898 when Malkom Khan was appointed ambassador to Italy by Mozaffar ad-Din Shah with the title of Nezam od-Dawlah. He remained the Persian ambassador to Italy until his death in 1908.
Malkom Khan died on a visit to Switzerland in 1908.
Malkom Khan was a believer in Social Darwinism. He espoused an Iran modeled on the values of the enlightenment and urged a return to a "Persian" heritage. Today, he is recognized as the most important and influential Persian modernizer of the nineteenth century.
Malkum Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkum see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkom see Malkom Khan
Mirza Malkam Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Mirza Malkam see Malkom Khan
Malkum, Mirza see Malkom Khan
Malkom Khan (Malkum Khan) (Mirza Malkam Khan) (Mirza Malkum) (Mirza Malkom) (Mirza Malkam) in Tehran in 1858 to facilitate gatherings of enlightened Iranians and the propagation of reformist thought. In the meantime, he published the Kitabcha-yi ghaibi ya daftar-i tanzimat and the Daftar-i qanun, which dealt largely with legal, political, and administrative reform based on the Western model. Owing to the controversial nature of his activities, he ws exiled in 1861 and the Faramushkhana was officially dissolved. He was later pardoned and again exiled to London in 1890 after a lottery scandal. In London, he began the publication of his newspaper Qanun (Law) in 1891, calling for reform and modernization in his mother country. He collaborated with other reformists of the time such as Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Mirza Agha Khan Kirmani. He participated only marginally in support of the Tobacco Protest of 1906.
Malkom Khan was an enigmatic figure in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Iranian history. He was an advocate of progress and reform, but he was often motivated by self-aggrandizement and self-interest. He called for political and governmental changes as well as cultural ones that included Persian language and alphabet reform. As one of the first to write in a recognizably modern prose idiom and as an editor of Qanun, his influential newspaper, Malkom Khan’s most important historical contribution is perhaps to be found in a literary venue, even though he has not been regarded as a major literary figure or stylist. It was in Turkey rather than Iran that alphabet reform was achieved. The liberal political values expressed in Qanun found expression in the Iranian Constitution of 1905-1906.
Malkom Khan was born into an Armenian family in Julfa Isfahan. Malkom, like his father, Ya‘kub Khan, studied abroad, learned French, served as an interpreter and translator, established useful patronage links, was a self-professed Muslim with interests in freemasonry and an advocate of cultural change including alphabet reform. Malkom returned from Paris at the age of eighteen to work as an interpreter in Dar al-Funun, the new college in Tehran, where he also taught geography and natural science. Five years later, through patronage ties with Nasir al-Din Shahand his prime minister, Malkom returned to Europe as the member of a diplomatic mission to conclude peace with Britain. This was the beginning of his diplomatic career and European travel that convinced him of the superiority of European civilization and the value of westernization. In Paris, he was initiated into a Masonic lodge.
Malkom Khan returned to Iran in 1858 and was involved with the introduction of the telegraph in Iran and wrote his first treatise on political and administrative reform, which was influenced by Ottoman models. He advocated, among other general principles, the separation of the legislative from the executive branch, codification of law, equality before the law, and freedom of belief. In addition, he also spelled out specific recommendations for the implementation of these principles in Western-style ministries, comprehensive education, the development of roads, increased government revenues, a reformed military, and a national bank. He established a freemasonry type society, and used it as a base for political action and reform. The shah (Nasser ad-Din Shah) forced the closure of his lodge because of its secrecy and membership that included potential rivals for the monarchy.
In late 1861, Malkom Khan was sent into exile, first in Baghdad and then Istanbul, where he was assigned as counselor at the Iranian embassy. In 1868, he was dismissed and given Ottoman nationality but was reappointed to his position in the Iranian embassy, which he held until 1871. From 1873 to 1889, he served as Iran’s minister in London. In 1889, he was involved in a financial scandal relating to a proposed national lottery in Iran, which resulted in his final dismissal and the loss of his titles. In 1890, he began publishing his influential newspaper, Qanun, which attacked Qajar despotism, stressed westernization as the means for saving Iranian sovereignty, and called for a constitution and parliamentary government. Qanun, influenced by Turkish newspapers in Istanbul, was printed in London and smuggled into Iran, where it was widely circulated and read by like-minded clerical and secular anti-Qajar reformers. It ceased publication in 1898 when Malkom Khan was appointed ambassador to Italy by Mozaffar ad-Din Shah with the title of Nezam od-Dawlah. He remained the Persian ambassador to Italy until his death in 1908.
Malkom Khan died on a visit to Switzerland in 1908.
Malkom Khan was a believer in Social Darwinism. He espoused an Iran modeled on the values of the enlightenment and urged a return to a "Persian" heritage. Today, he is recognized as the most important and influential Persian modernizer of the nineteenth century.
Malkum Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkum see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkom see Malkom Khan
Mirza Malkam Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Mirza Malkam see Malkom Khan
Malkum, Mirza see Malkom Khan
Ma‘luf, al-
Ma‘luf, al-. Lebanese family which became renowned throughout the Arab world because of the literary activities of a number of its members, both in Lebanon and in the Americas, during the past 150 years.
Ma‘luf, al-. Lebanese family which became renowned throughout the Arab world because of the literary activities of a number of its members, both in Lebanon and in the Americas, during the past 150 years.
Malzuza
Malzuza. Ancient Berber people belonging to the branch of the Butr, and to the family of the Darisa, who lived in Tripolitania.
Malzuza. Ancient Berber people belonging to the branch of the Butr, and to the family of the Darisa, who lived in Tripolitania.
Malzuzi, Abu Hatim al-
Malzuzi, Abu Hatim al- (Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi) (d. 772). Ibadi Imam. He was killed in 772 after initiating a revolt against the Abbasids in 768. His tomb in the Jabal Nafusa is a holy place, surrounded with legends.
Malzuzi, Abu Hatim al- (Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi) (d. 772). Ibadi Imam. He was killed in 772 after initiating a revolt against the Abbasids in 768. His tomb in the Jabal Nafusa is a holy place, surrounded with legends.
Mamadu Lamine
Mamadu Lamine (Muhammad al-Amin) (c. 1835-1887). Sarakole (Soninke) resistance leader.
Mamadu Lamine (also known as Muhammad al-Amin) came from a village near Kayes in what is today Mali. Mamadu’s father was a Muslim cleric. As a youth, he studied in Bondu and Bakel in the Senegal River region.
In the 1850s, Mamadu apparently met and served under al-Hajj ‘Umar, the Tukolor Islamic imperialist. After spending some time in Segu, Mamadu left in the 1860s on the pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through Wadai. Mamadu did not return to Segu until about 1880. Mamadu spent the next years in Segu as a virtual prisoner of Ahmadu. It is believed that Ahmadu may have resented Mamadu’s Sarakole identity or his slightly different ideas about the nature of the Tijaniya Islamic brotherhood. This episode was pivotal in inculcating an anti-Tukolor sentiment in Mamadu Lamine.
Mamadu returned to his birthplace in 1885. During his absence, the French had begun to compete militarily with the Tukolor for control of the Senegambia. A charismatic leader in his own right, Mamadu used anti-Tukolor and anti-French sentiment to build a large following.
Within a few months, Mamadu declared a jihad -- a holy war -- against his Senegambian neighbors and the Tukolor Empire. By 1886, Mamadu was ruler of a sizeable portion of the Senegambia. He made his headquarters at Dianna on the upper Gambia.
In early 1886, Mamadu first encountered the French in battle. Mamadu Lamine’s victories were sufficient to force Gallieni, the French commander, to come to terms with another imperialist, Samori Toure, so that the French could concentrate on the Senegambia.
More importantly, Gallieni temporarily allied with Mamadu Lamine’s old enemy, Ahmadu. After protracted fighting Mamadu Lamine was defeated by the French at Toubakouta in December 1887.
Although the accounts of his death conflict, Mamadu was probably caught and killed soon after the battle of Toubakouta. With his death, the Sarakole resistance movement died as well.
Lamine, Mamadu see Mamadu Lamine
Muhammad al-Amin see Mamadu Lamine
Amin, Muhammad al- see Mamadu Lamine
Mamadu Lamine (Muhammad al-Amin) (c. 1835-1887). Sarakole (Soninke) resistance leader.
Mamadu Lamine (also known as Muhammad al-Amin) came from a village near Kayes in what is today Mali. Mamadu’s father was a Muslim cleric. As a youth, he studied in Bondu and Bakel in the Senegal River region.
In the 1850s, Mamadu apparently met and served under al-Hajj ‘Umar, the Tukolor Islamic imperialist. After spending some time in Segu, Mamadu left in the 1860s on the pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through Wadai. Mamadu did not return to Segu until about 1880. Mamadu spent the next years in Segu as a virtual prisoner of Ahmadu. It is believed that Ahmadu may have resented Mamadu’s Sarakole identity or his slightly different ideas about the nature of the Tijaniya Islamic brotherhood. This episode was pivotal in inculcating an anti-Tukolor sentiment in Mamadu Lamine.
Mamadu returned to his birthplace in 1885. During his absence, the French had begun to compete militarily with the Tukolor for control of the Senegambia. A charismatic leader in his own right, Mamadu used anti-Tukolor and anti-French sentiment to build a large following.
Within a few months, Mamadu declared a jihad -- a holy war -- against his Senegambian neighbors and the Tukolor Empire. By 1886, Mamadu was ruler of a sizeable portion of the Senegambia. He made his headquarters at Dianna on the upper Gambia.
In early 1886, Mamadu first encountered the French in battle. Mamadu Lamine’s victories were sufficient to force Gallieni, the French commander, to come to terms with another imperialist, Samori Toure, so that the French could concentrate on the Senegambia.
More importantly, Gallieni temporarily allied with Mamadu Lamine’s old enemy, Ahmadu. After protracted fighting Mamadu Lamine was defeated by the French at Toubakouta in December 1887.
Although the accounts of his death conflict, Mamadu was probably caught and killed soon after the battle of Toubakouta. With his death, the Sarakole resistance movement died as well.
Lamine, Mamadu see Mamadu Lamine
Muhammad al-Amin see Mamadu Lamine
Amin, Muhammad al- see Mamadu Lamine
Mameluke
Mameluke (in Arabic, Mamluk) (Mamluq) (Mamaluke) (Mamluke). Mameluke is Arabic for “white slave.” The word is related to the word for king, “malik,” indicating that a Mameluke was a slave owned by the ruler of the state.
Mamelukes were slaves that were used to form a solid foundation for the ruler of a country. Tribal frictions and a weak government had resulted in numerous revolutions in many states. The system of Mamelukes was intended to change this. Young boys were enslaved in countries far away, and then underwent rigid training before they joined the army of the state. As many of them came from Christian countries, they were converted to Islam. The Mamelukes formed an institution in the state, and clear regulations were imposed on their rights. By rule, the children of a Mameluke could not become a Mameluke; positions could not be transferred to relatives; and the right to transfer inheritance was strictly regulated.
The Mamelukes, at times, developed into a force so strong that they were able to overthrow the ruler of the country. This happened in Egypt in 1250, leading to the Mameluke dynasty which existed as an independent country until 1517, and as a subject of the Ottoman Empire until 1811.
The laws regulating Mamelukes were often not well respected and were frequently lifted. The definition of Mamelukes as slaves was never changed, not even when the Mamelukes became sultan. However, the ownership definition was changed, and the Mameluke system was understood as the real owner of the slaves.
Mameluke Sultanates were established and maintained by military (primarily Turkish and Circassian) slaves in Egypt (r.1250- 1517) and inSyria (r.1260-1516). The Egyptian Mameluke sultanatet had its origin in the Bahriyya, a military household of Qipcaq Turkish military slaves, which belonged to the bodyguard of the Ayyubid ruler of Egypt al-Malik al-Salih, Najm al-Din. The Bahriyya superceded the Ayyubids under the constraint of the military crises provoked by the crusade of Louis in 1249 and by the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1259. The Bahriyya line (1250-1390) was followed by the Burjiyya or Circassian line, which lasted until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1517. During the Ottoman period, the formation of Mameluke military households, known as Neo-Mamelukes and carrying the title of Bey, continued until they were destroyed by Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha in 1812.
The main capital of the Mamelukes was Cairo. Their name is derived from the Arabic mamluk (“taken into possession”). Historically, the Mamelukes were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste often defeating the Crusaders. On more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250-1517.
The first Mamelukes served the 'Abbasid caliphs at the end of the ninth century of Christian calendar in Baghdad. The Mameluke system was an evolution of a previous system, the Ghulam system, invented by the Caliph al-Mu'tasim, in which Turkish prisoners of war became the caliphal guard. This system ended in disaster in the 860s with the murder of four caliphs in a row, and the Mameluke system was created on its ruins. The main difference was that the Mamelukes were captured as children and then trained and moulded within the Islamic world to ensure their loyalty to their masters. The 'Abbasids "recruited" them mainly from areas near the Caucasus (mainly Circassian and Georgian) in later periods, and in the 13th - 14th centuries from areas north of the Black Sea (mainly Turkic, most of whom were Kipchak Turks) and of Yoruk background, as well as boys from East Slav populations. Those captured were of non-Muslim origin.
The Mameluke system gave rulers troops who had n link to any established power structure. Local non-Mameluke warriors were often more loyal to their tribal sheiks, their families, or nobles than to the sultan or caliph. If a commander conspired against the ruler, it was often not possible to deal with the conspiracy without causing unrest among the nobility. The Mameluke slave troops were strangers of the lowest possible status who could not conspire against the ruler and who could easily be punished if they caused trouble, making them a great military asset.
After Mamelukes were converted to Islam, many were trained as cavalry soldiers. Mamelukes had to follow the dictates of furusiyya, a code that included values such as courage and generosity, and also cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds, etc.
Mamelukes lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least twice a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mameluke practices.
While they were no longer actually slaves after training, they were still obliged to serve the Sultan. The Sultan kept them as an outsider force under his direct command, to use in the event of local tribal frictions. The Sultan could also send them as far as the Muslim regions of Iberia.
Sultans had the largest number of Mamelukes, but lesser amirs could have their own troops as well. Many Mamelukes rose to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status remained non-hereditary and sons were strictly prevented from following their fathers. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mameluke forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers. A similar development would occur in the Ottoman Empire with the Janissaries.
The origins of the Mameluke Sultanate of Egypt lie in the Ayyubid dynasty that Saladin (Salah al-Din) founded in 1174. With his uncle, Shirkuh, Saladin conquered Egypt for the Zengid King Nur al-Din of Damascus in 1169. By 1189, after the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin had consolidated the dynasty's control over the Middle East. After Saladin's death, his sons fell to squabbling over the division of the Empire, and each attempted to surround himself with larger expanded Mameluke retinues.
By 1200, Saladin's brother al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing of imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory, al-Adil incorporated the defeated Mameluke retinue into his own. This process was repeated at al-Adil's death in 1218, and as his son al-Kamil's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the power of the Mamelukes and soon involved them in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself.
1n 1315, they invaded and conquered a great part of Nubia, but the power remained with a Nubian prince who converted from Coptic Orthodox to Islam.
In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took Damietta. The Egyptian troops retreated at first. When the Egyptian sultan As-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son Turanshah and then his favorite wife Shajar al-Durr (or Shajarat ul-Dur). She took control with Mameluke support and launched a counterattack. Troops of the Bahri commander Baybars defeated Louis' troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamelukes in March 1250, and agreed to a ransom. Political pressure for a male leader made Shajar marry the Mameluke commander Aybak. Aybak was later killed in his bath, and in the power struggle that ensued the vice-regent Qutuz took over. He formally founded the first Mameluke sultanate and the Bahri dynasty.
The first Mameluke dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the Bahriyya or River Island regiment. The name Bahri (meaning "of the sea or river") referred to their center in al-Rodah Island in the Nile. The regiment consisted mainly of Kipchak Turks.
When the Mongol troops of Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 and advanced towards Syria, Mameluke emir Baybars left Damascus to Cairo where he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. After taking Damascus, Hulegu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt but Qutuz had Hulegu's envoys killed and, with Baybar's help, mobilized his troops. Although Hulegu had to leave for the East when great Khan Mongke died in action against the Southern Song, he left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge, Qutuz drew the Mongol army into an ambush near the Orontes River, routed them at the Battle of Ayn Jalut and captured and executed Kitbuqa.
After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamelukes. It was said that Baybars, who seized power, was involved in the assassination. In the following centuries power was often transferred this way: the average reign of a Mameluke ruler was only seven years.
Under the outstanding Sultan Baybars (r. 1260-1277), the Mamelukes stopped the Mongol expansion westwards and successfully fought against the Crusaders. The Mamelukes defeated the Mongols a second time at Homs in 1260 and began to drive them back east. In the process, they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, formed mail routes, and formed diplomatic connections between the local princes. Baybars' troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesaria in 1265, and massacred the inhabitants of Antioch in 1268. In 1291, the Mamelukes drove the last of the Crusaders out of Acre.
Mamelukes also defeated new Mongol attacks in Syria in 1271, 1281 (2nd Battle of Homs), 1303/1304 and 1312. They were defeated by the Mongols and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299.
Under the Burji Mamelukes, Cairo became the most important center for trade between the East, India, and Europe, and the economy flourished. The Burji (meaning "of the tower") dynasty consisted mainly of Circassians. Sultan Barquq (r. 1382-1399) successfully resisted Timur’s advance to the southwest and organized the new state. Sultan Barsbay (r. 1422-1438) pursued an unfortunate economic policy based on state monopolies, but led a successful expedition to Cyprus.
After 1450, there came a period of economic decline, which coincided with the obsolescence of the dynasty’s war machinery. In 1517, the Mamelukes were ousted by the Ottomans under Selim I and their territories annexed. The institution of the Mamelukes continued under the Ottomans, although not in the same form as under the Sultanate. For reasons of religious legitimation, the Mamelukes had Abbasid shadow caliphs under their charge in Cairo after 1260.
Under the Mamelukes, art and architecture flourished, Mameluke metalwork and glass is well represented in museum collections of Islamic art, and most of the existing monuments in the old quarters of Cairo, Damascus, Tripoli and Aleppo are Mameluke.
In 1768, Sultan Ali Bey al-Kabir declared independence from the Ottomans, but the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus. Napoleon defeated Mameluke troops when he attacked Egypt in 1798 and drove them to Upper Egypt. The Mamelukes still used their cavalry charge tactics, changed only by the addition of muskets.
After the departure of French troops in 1801, Mamelukes continued their struggle for independence, this time against the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. In 1803, Mameluke leaders Ibrahim Beg and Usman Beg wrote a letter to the Russian consul-general and asked him to act as a mediator with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Istanbul categorically refused to mediate because the Russian government was afraid of allowing Mamelukes to return to Georgia, where a strong national liberation movement was on the rise which might have been encouraged by a Mameluke return.
In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This was an excellent opportunity for the Mamelukes to seize power, but internal tension and betrayal prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamelukes defeated the Turkish forces several times, and in June the rival parties concluded a peace treaty by which Muhammad Ali who had been appointed as governor of Egypt on March 26, 1806, was to be removed and the state authority in Egypt returned to the Mamelukes. However, they were again unable to capitalize on the opportunity due to conflicts between the clans. Muhammad Ali kept his authority.
Muhammad Ali knew that eventually he would have to deal with the Mamelukes if he ever wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power.
On March 1, 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all Mamelukes to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamelukes paraded in Cairo. Near the Al-Azab gates, in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hll, Muhammad 'Ali's forces ambushed and killed almost all in what came to be known as the Massacre of the Citadel. According to the tradition, only one Mameluke named Hasan, survived when he cut his way through the Turks and jumped his horse over a precipice to freedom.
During the following week, hundreds of Mamelukes were killed throughout Egypt. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 were killed. Throughout Egypt an estimated 3,000 Mamelukes and their relatives were killed.
Despite these attempts by Muhammad 'Ali to defeat the Mamelukes in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now Sudan. In 1811, these Mamelukes established a state at Dunqulah in the Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad 'Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamelukes. In response, the pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamelukes, and reclaim it for Egypt. The pasha's forces received the submission of the kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamelukes, conquered Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi VII.
There were various offshoots of the Mamelukes. In 1206, the Mameluke commander of the Muslim forces in India, Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Aybak), proclaimed himself sultan, becoming in effect the first independent Sultan-e-Hind. This Mameluke dynasty of India lasted until 1290. was a term used for the early Turkish sultans of northern India who ruled from 1210 to 1290. In India, the term mamluk denotes a Turkish officer who was a slave; thus these rulers were also known for comprising the “slave dynasty” of Delhi. The ten main rulers of this dynasty were as follows: Qutb ud-Din Aibak (r. 1206-1210), Aram Shah (r. 1210), Iltutmish (r. 1210-1235), Ruknuddin Firuz (r. 1235), Raziyya (r. 1236-1240), Muizuddin Bahram (r. 1240-1242), Nasiruddin Mahmud (r.1246-1266), Balban (r. 1266-1287), Kaiqubad (r. 1287-1290), and Kaimurs (r. 1290). The historian Minhaj (c. thirteenth century of the Christian calendar) names these ruling houses after individual sultans, thus, Qutbi, Shamsi, and Balbani. With the exception of Aibak, all of these sultans wer Ilbari Turks, hence they have also been called the Ilbarites. The state under the Mamluks was an entity where ethnically restricted: power rested with the Turks alone and slave officers dominated the governing class. The Mamluks initiated the growth of an urban aristocratic culture and patronized the growth of Indo-Islamic architecture and the Persian language.
In Iran, the Mameluke corps were first introduced in the part of the Ottoman Empire that is now Iraq by pasha Hasan of Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1821, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mameluke officers of Georgian origin who succeeded in asserting autonomy from the Sublime Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow Daud Pasha, the last Mameluke ruler, and imposed direct control over Iraq.
There were even Mamelukes that served in the armies of Napoleon. Napoleon formed his own Mameluke corps, the last known Mameluke force, in the early years of the 19th century of the Christian calendar, and used Mamelukes in a number of his campaigns. Even his Imperial Guard had Mameluke soldiers during the Belgian campaign, including one of his personal servants, Napoleon's famous bodyguard Roustan was a Mameluke from Egypt.
One of the pictures by Francisco de Goya shows a charge of Mamelukes against the Madrilene on May 2, 1808. Throughout the Napoleonic era there was a special Mameluke corps in the French army. In the instructions that Napoleon gave to Kleber at his departure from Egypt, Napoleon wrote that he had already bought from Syrian merchants about 2,000 Mamelukes with whom he intended to form a special detachment. On September 14, 1799, General Kleber established a mounted company of Mameluke auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries from Turks captured at the siege of Acre.
On July 7, 1800, General Menou reorganized the company, forming three companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la Republique". In 1801, General Rapp was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamelukes under his command. On January 7, 1802, the previous order was cancelled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on April 21, 1802, reveals three officers and 155 other ranks. By decree of December 25, 1803, the Mamelukes were organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs-a-Cheval of the Imperial Guard.
Mamelukes fought well at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, and the regiment was granted a standard and its roster increased to accommodate a standard bearer and a trumpet. A decree of April 15, 1806 defined the strength of the squadron as 13 officers and 147 privates. Despite the decree of March 21, 1815, that stated that no foreigner could be admitted into the Imperial Guard, Napoleon's decree of April 24, 1815, prescribed amongst other things that the Chasseurs-a-Cheval of the Imperial Guard included a squadron of two companies of Mamelukes for the Belgian Campaign.
With the First Restoration, the company of the Mamelukes of the Old Guard was incorporated into the Corps Royal des Chasseurs de France. The Mamelukes of the Young Guard were incorporated into the 7th Chasseurs-a-Cheval.
A list of the Mameluke rulers includes:
In Egypt
Bahri Dynasty
* 1250 Shajar al-Durr (al-Salih Ayyub's Widow de facto ruler of Egypt)
* 1250 al-Muizz Izz-ad-Din Aybak
* 1257 al-Mansur Nur-ad-Din Ali
* 1259 al-Muzaffar Saif ad-Din Qutuz
* 1260 al-Zahir Rukn-ad-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari
* 1277 al-Said Nasir-ad-Din Barakah Khan
* 1280 al-Adil Badr al-Din Solamish
* 1280 al-Mansur Saif-ad-Din Qalawun al-Alfi
* 1290 al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil
* 1294 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun first reign
* 1295 al-Adil Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha
* 1297 al-Mansur Husam-ad-Din Lajin
* 1299 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun second reign
* 1309 al-Muzaffar Rukn-ad-Din Baybars II al-Jashankir
* 1310 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun third reign
* 1340 al-Mansur Saif-ad-Din Abu-Bakr
* 1341 al-Ashraf Ala'a-ad-Din Kujuk
* 1342 al-Nasir Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad
* 1342 al-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail
* 1345 al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban
* 1346 al-Muzaffar Zein-ad-Din Hajji
* 1347 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan first reign
* 1351 al-Salih Salah-ad-Din Ibn Muhammad
* 1354 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan second reign
* 1361 al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Mohamed Ibn Hajji
* 1363 al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban
* 1376 al-Mansur Ala-ad-Din Ali Ibn al-Ashraf Shaban
* 1382 al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II first reign
Burji Dynasty
* 1382 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq , first reign
* 1389 Hajji II second reign (with honorific title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) – Temporary Bahri rule
* 1390 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, Second reign – Burji rule re-established
* 1399 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj
* 1405 Al-Mansoor Azzaddin Abdal Aziz
* 1405 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj (second time)
* 1412 Al-Adil Al-Musta'in (Abbasid Caliph, proclaimed as Sultan)
* 1412 Al-Muayad Sayf ad-Din Shaykh
* 1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
* 1421 Az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Tatar
* 1421 As-Salih Nasir ad-Din Muhammad
* 1422 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Barsbay
* 1438 Al-Aziz Djamal ad-Din Yusuf
* 1438 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq
* 1453 Al-Mansoor Fahr ad-Din Osman
* 1453 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Enal
* 1461 Al-Muayad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad
* 1461 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushkadam
* 1467 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Belbay
* 1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha
* 1468 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay
* 1496 An-Nasir Muhammad
* 1498 Az-Zahir Qanshaw
* 1500 Al-Ashraf Janbulat
* 1501 Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman bay I
* 1501 Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri
* 1517 Al-Ashraf Tuman bay II
In India
* Qutb-ud-din Aybak (1206–1210), founded Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi
* Aram Shah (1210–1211)
* Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211–1236). Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.
* Rukn ud din Firuz (1236). Son of Iltutmish.
* Razia Sultana (1236–1240). Daughter of Iltutmish.
* Muiz ud din Bahram (1240–1242). Son of Iltutmish.
* Ala ud din Masud (1242–1246). Son of Rukn ud din.
* Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–1266). Son of Iltutmish.
* Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1286). Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.
* Muiz ud din Qaiqabad(1286–1290). Grandson of Balban and Nasir ud din.
* Kayumars (1290). Son of Muiz ud din.
In Iraq
* Hasan Pasha (1704–1723)
* Ahmet Pasha (1723–1747) Son of Hasan
* Sulaiman Abu Layla Pasha (1749–1762) Son-in-law of Ahmet
* Umar (1762 - 1776) Son of Ahmed
* Büyük Süleyman Pasha the Great (1780–1802) Son of Umar
* Ali Pasha (1802–1807) Son of Umar
* Küçük Süleyman Pasa the Little took (1807–1813) Son of Büyük Süleyman
* Sa'id Pasha (1813–1816) Son of Büyük Süleyman
* Daud Pasha (1817–1831) Son of Ali,Son-in-law of Büyük Süleyman and nephew
Mamluk see Mameluke
Mamluq see Mameluke
Mamaluke see Mameluke
Mamluke see Mameluke
Mameluke (in Arabic, Mamluk) (Mamluq) (Mamaluke) (Mamluke). Mameluke is Arabic for “white slave.” The word is related to the word for king, “malik,” indicating that a Mameluke was a slave owned by the ruler of the state.
Mamelukes were slaves that were used to form a solid foundation for the ruler of a country. Tribal frictions and a weak government had resulted in numerous revolutions in many states. The system of Mamelukes was intended to change this. Young boys were enslaved in countries far away, and then underwent rigid training before they joined the army of the state. As many of them came from Christian countries, they were converted to Islam. The Mamelukes formed an institution in the state, and clear regulations were imposed on their rights. By rule, the children of a Mameluke could not become a Mameluke; positions could not be transferred to relatives; and the right to transfer inheritance was strictly regulated.
The Mamelukes, at times, developed into a force so strong that they were able to overthrow the ruler of the country. This happened in Egypt in 1250, leading to the Mameluke dynasty which existed as an independent country until 1517, and as a subject of the Ottoman Empire until 1811.
The laws regulating Mamelukes were often not well respected and were frequently lifted. The definition of Mamelukes as slaves was never changed, not even when the Mamelukes became sultan. However, the ownership definition was changed, and the Mameluke system was understood as the real owner of the slaves.
Mameluke Sultanates were established and maintained by military (primarily Turkish and Circassian) slaves in Egypt (r.1250- 1517) and inSyria (r.1260-1516). The Egyptian Mameluke sultanatet had its origin in the Bahriyya, a military household of Qipcaq Turkish military slaves, which belonged to the bodyguard of the Ayyubid ruler of Egypt al-Malik al-Salih, Najm al-Din. The Bahriyya superceded the Ayyubids under the constraint of the military crises provoked by the crusade of Louis in 1249 and by the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1259. The Bahriyya line (1250-1390) was followed by the Burjiyya or Circassian line, which lasted until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1517. During the Ottoman period, the formation of Mameluke military households, known as Neo-Mamelukes and carrying the title of Bey, continued until they were destroyed by Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha in 1812.
The main capital of the Mamelukes was Cairo. Their name is derived from the Arabic mamluk (“taken into possession”). Historically, the Mamelukes were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste often defeating the Crusaders. On more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250-1517.
The first Mamelukes served the 'Abbasid caliphs at the end of the ninth century of Christian calendar in Baghdad. The Mameluke system was an evolution of a previous system, the Ghulam system, invented by the Caliph al-Mu'tasim, in which Turkish prisoners of war became the caliphal guard. This system ended in disaster in the 860s with the murder of four caliphs in a row, and the Mameluke system was created on its ruins. The main difference was that the Mamelukes were captured as children and then trained and moulded within the Islamic world to ensure their loyalty to their masters. The 'Abbasids "recruited" them mainly from areas near the Caucasus (mainly Circassian and Georgian) in later periods, and in the 13th - 14th centuries from areas north of the Black Sea (mainly Turkic, most of whom were Kipchak Turks) and of Yoruk background, as well as boys from East Slav populations. Those captured were of non-Muslim origin.
The Mameluke system gave rulers troops who had n link to any established power structure. Local non-Mameluke warriors were often more loyal to their tribal sheiks, their families, or nobles than to the sultan or caliph. If a commander conspired against the ruler, it was often not possible to deal with the conspiracy without causing unrest among the nobility. The Mameluke slave troops were strangers of the lowest possible status who could not conspire against the ruler and who could easily be punished if they caused trouble, making them a great military asset.
After Mamelukes were converted to Islam, many were trained as cavalry soldiers. Mamelukes had to follow the dictates of furusiyya, a code that included values such as courage and generosity, and also cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds, etc.
Mamelukes lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least twice a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mameluke practices.
While they were no longer actually slaves after training, they were still obliged to serve the Sultan. The Sultan kept them as an outsider force under his direct command, to use in the event of local tribal frictions. The Sultan could also send them as far as the Muslim regions of Iberia.
Sultans had the largest number of Mamelukes, but lesser amirs could have their own troops as well. Many Mamelukes rose to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status remained non-hereditary and sons were strictly prevented from following their fathers. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mameluke forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers. A similar development would occur in the Ottoman Empire with the Janissaries.
The origins of the Mameluke Sultanate of Egypt lie in the Ayyubid dynasty that Saladin (Salah al-Din) founded in 1174. With his uncle, Shirkuh, Saladin conquered Egypt for the Zengid King Nur al-Din of Damascus in 1169. By 1189, after the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin had consolidated the dynasty's control over the Middle East. After Saladin's death, his sons fell to squabbling over the division of the Empire, and each attempted to surround himself with larger expanded Mameluke retinues.
By 1200, Saladin's brother al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing of imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory, al-Adil incorporated the defeated Mameluke retinue into his own. This process was repeated at al-Adil's death in 1218, and as his son al-Kamil's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the power of the Mamelukes and soon involved them in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself.
1n 1315, they invaded and conquered a great part of Nubia, but the power remained with a Nubian prince who converted from Coptic Orthodox to Islam.
In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took Damietta. The Egyptian troops retreated at first. When the Egyptian sultan As-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son Turanshah and then his favorite wife Shajar al-Durr (or Shajarat ul-Dur). She took control with Mameluke support and launched a counterattack. Troops of the Bahri commander Baybars defeated Louis' troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamelukes in March 1250, and agreed to a ransom. Political pressure for a male leader made Shajar marry the Mameluke commander Aybak. Aybak was later killed in his bath, and in the power struggle that ensued the vice-regent Qutuz took over. He formally founded the first Mameluke sultanate and the Bahri dynasty.
The first Mameluke dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the Bahriyya or River Island regiment. The name Bahri (meaning "of the sea or river") referred to their center in al-Rodah Island in the Nile. The regiment consisted mainly of Kipchak Turks.
When the Mongol troops of Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 and advanced towards Syria, Mameluke emir Baybars left Damascus to Cairo where he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. After taking Damascus, Hulegu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt but Qutuz had Hulegu's envoys killed and, with Baybar's help, mobilized his troops. Although Hulegu had to leave for the East when great Khan Mongke died in action against the Southern Song, he left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge, Qutuz drew the Mongol army into an ambush near the Orontes River, routed them at the Battle of Ayn Jalut and captured and executed Kitbuqa.
After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamelukes. It was said that Baybars, who seized power, was involved in the assassination. In the following centuries power was often transferred this way: the average reign of a Mameluke ruler was only seven years.
Under the outstanding Sultan Baybars (r. 1260-1277), the Mamelukes stopped the Mongol expansion westwards and successfully fought against the Crusaders. The Mamelukes defeated the Mongols a second time at Homs in 1260 and began to drive them back east. In the process, they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, formed mail routes, and formed diplomatic connections between the local princes. Baybars' troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesaria in 1265, and massacred the inhabitants of Antioch in 1268. In 1291, the Mamelukes drove the last of the Crusaders out of Acre.
Mamelukes also defeated new Mongol attacks in Syria in 1271, 1281 (2nd Battle of Homs), 1303/1304 and 1312. They were defeated by the Mongols and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299.
Under the Burji Mamelukes, Cairo became the most important center for trade between the East, India, and Europe, and the economy flourished. The Burji (meaning "of the tower") dynasty consisted mainly of Circassians. Sultan Barquq (r. 1382-1399) successfully resisted Timur’s advance to the southwest and organized the new state. Sultan Barsbay (r. 1422-1438) pursued an unfortunate economic policy based on state monopolies, but led a successful expedition to Cyprus.
After 1450, there came a period of economic decline, which coincided with the obsolescence of the dynasty’s war machinery. In 1517, the Mamelukes were ousted by the Ottomans under Selim I and their territories annexed. The institution of the Mamelukes continued under the Ottomans, although not in the same form as under the Sultanate. For reasons of religious legitimation, the Mamelukes had Abbasid shadow caliphs under their charge in Cairo after 1260.
Under the Mamelukes, art and architecture flourished, Mameluke metalwork and glass is well represented in museum collections of Islamic art, and most of the existing monuments in the old quarters of Cairo, Damascus, Tripoli and Aleppo are Mameluke.
In 1768, Sultan Ali Bey al-Kabir declared independence from the Ottomans, but the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus. Napoleon defeated Mameluke troops when he attacked Egypt in 1798 and drove them to Upper Egypt. The Mamelukes still used their cavalry charge tactics, changed only by the addition of muskets.
After the departure of French troops in 1801, Mamelukes continued their struggle for independence, this time against the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. In 1803, Mameluke leaders Ibrahim Beg and Usman Beg wrote a letter to the Russian consul-general and asked him to act as a mediator with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in Istanbul categorically refused to mediate because the Russian government was afraid of allowing Mamelukes to return to Georgia, where a strong national liberation movement was on the rise which might have been encouraged by a Mameluke return.
In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This was an excellent opportunity for the Mamelukes to seize power, but internal tension and betrayal prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamelukes defeated the Turkish forces several times, and in June the rival parties concluded a peace treaty by which Muhammad Ali who had been appointed as governor of Egypt on March 26, 1806, was to be removed and the state authority in Egypt returned to the Mamelukes. However, they were again unable to capitalize on the opportunity due to conflicts between the clans. Muhammad Ali kept his authority.
Muhammad Ali knew that eventually he would have to deal with the Mamelukes if he ever wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power.
On March 1, 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all Mamelukes to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamelukes paraded in Cairo. Near the Al-Azab gates, in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hll, Muhammad 'Ali's forces ambushed and killed almost all in what came to be known as the Massacre of the Citadel. According to the tradition, only one Mameluke named Hasan, survived when he cut his way through the Turks and jumped his horse over a precipice to freedom.
During the following week, hundreds of Mamelukes were killed throughout Egypt. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 were killed. Throughout Egypt an estimated 3,000 Mamelukes and their relatives were killed.
Despite these attempts by Muhammad 'Ali to defeat the Mamelukes in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now Sudan. In 1811, these Mamelukes established a state at Dunqulah in the Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad 'Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamelukes. In response, the pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamelukes, and reclaim it for Egypt. The pasha's forces received the submission of the kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamelukes, conquered Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi VII.
There were various offshoots of the Mamelukes. In 1206, the Mameluke commander of the Muslim forces in India, Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Aybak), proclaimed himself sultan, becoming in effect the first independent Sultan-e-Hind. This Mameluke dynasty of India lasted until 1290. was a term used for the early Turkish sultans of northern India who ruled from 1210 to 1290. In India, the term mamluk denotes a Turkish officer who was a slave; thus these rulers were also known for comprising the “slave dynasty” of Delhi. The ten main rulers of this dynasty were as follows: Qutb ud-Din Aibak (r. 1206-1210), Aram Shah (r. 1210), Iltutmish (r. 1210-1235), Ruknuddin Firuz (r. 1235), Raziyya (r. 1236-1240), Muizuddin Bahram (r. 1240-1242), Nasiruddin Mahmud (r.1246-1266), Balban (r. 1266-1287), Kaiqubad (r. 1287-1290), and Kaimurs (r. 1290). The historian Minhaj (c. thirteenth century of the Christian calendar) names these ruling houses after individual sultans, thus, Qutbi, Shamsi, and Balbani. With the exception of Aibak, all of these sultans wer Ilbari Turks, hence they have also been called the Ilbarites. The state under the Mamluks was an entity where ethnically restricted: power rested with the Turks alone and slave officers dominated the governing class. The Mamluks initiated the growth of an urban aristocratic culture and patronized the growth of Indo-Islamic architecture and the Persian language.
In Iran, the Mameluke corps were first introduced in the part of the Ottoman Empire that is now Iraq by pasha Hasan of Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1821, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mameluke officers of Georgian origin who succeeded in asserting autonomy from the Sublime Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow Daud Pasha, the last Mameluke ruler, and imposed direct control over Iraq.
There were even Mamelukes that served in the armies of Napoleon. Napoleon formed his own Mameluke corps, the last known Mameluke force, in the early years of the 19th century of the Christian calendar, and used Mamelukes in a number of his campaigns. Even his Imperial Guard had Mameluke soldiers during the Belgian campaign, including one of his personal servants, Napoleon's famous bodyguard Roustan was a Mameluke from Egypt.
One of the pictures by Francisco de Goya shows a charge of Mamelukes against the Madrilene on May 2, 1808. Throughout the Napoleonic era there was a special Mameluke corps in the French army. In the instructions that Napoleon gave to Kleber at his departure from Egypt, Napoleon wrote that he had already bought from Syrian merchants about 2,000 Mamelukes with whom he intended to form a special detachment. On September 14, 1799, General Kleber established a mounted company of Mameluke auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries from Turks captured at the siege of Acre.
On July 7, 1800, General Menou reorganized the company, forming three companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la Republique". In 1801, General Rapp was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamelukes under his command. On January 7, 1802, the previous order was cancelled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on April 21, 1802, reveals three officers and 155 other ranks. By decree of December 25, 1803, the Mamelukes were organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs-a-Cheval of the Imperial Guard.
Mamelukes fought well at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, and the regiment was granted a standard and its roster increased to accommodate a standard bearer and a trumpet. A decree of April 15, 1806 defined the strength of the squadron as 13 officers and 147 privates. Despite the decree of March 21, 1815, that stated that no foreigner could be admitted into the Imperial Guard, Napoleon's decree of April 24, 1815, prescribed amongst other things that the Chasseurs-a-Cheval of the Imperial Guard included a squadron of two companies of Mamelukes for the Belgian Campaign.
With the First Restoration, the company of the Mamelukes of the Old Guard was incorporated into the Corps Royal des Chasseurs de France. The Mamelukes of the Young Guard were incorporated into the 7th Chasseurs-a-Cheval.
A list of the Mameluke rulers includes:
In Egypt
Bahri Dynasty
* 1250 Shajar al-Durr (al-Salih Ayyub's Widow de facto ruler of Egypt)
* 1250 al-Muizz Izz-ad-Din Aybak
* 1257 al-Mansur Nur-ad-Din Ali
* 1259 al-Muzaffar Saif ad-Din Qutuz
* 1260 al-Zahir Rukn-ad-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari
* 1277 al-Said Nasir-ad-Din Barakah Khan
* 1280 al-Adil Badr al-Din Solamish
* 1280 al-Mansur Saif-ad-Din Qalawun al-Alfi
* 1290 al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil
* 1294 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun first reign
* 1295 al-Adil Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha
* 1297 al-Mansur Husam-ad-Din Lajin
* 1299 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun second reign
* 1309 al-Muzaffar Rukn-ad-Din Baybars II al-Jashankir
* 1310 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun third reign
* 1340 al-Mansur Saif-ad-Din Abu-Bakr
* 1341 al-Ashraf Ala'a-ad-Din Kujuk
* 1342 al-Nasir Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad
* 1342 al-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail
* 1345 al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban
* 1346 al-Muzaffar Zein-ad-Din Hajji
* 1347 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan first reign
* 1351 al-Salih Salah-ad-Din Ibn Muhammad
* 1354 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan second reign
* 1361 al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Mohamed Ibn Hajji
* 1363 al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban
* 1376 al-Mansur Ala-ad-Din Ali Ibn al-Ashraf Shaban
* 1382 al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II first reign
Burji Dynasty
* 1382 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq , first reign
* 1389 Hajji II second reign (with honorific title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) – Temporary Bahri rule
* 1390 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, Second reign – Burji rule re-established
* 1399 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj
* 1405 Al-Mansoor Azzaddin Abdal Aziz
* 1405 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj (second time)
* 1412 Al-Adil Al-Musta'in (Abbasid Caliph, proclaimed as Sultan)
* 1412 Al-Muayad Sayf ad-Din Shaykh
* 1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
* 1421 Az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Tatar
* 1421 As-Salih Nasir ad-Din Muhammad
* 1422 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Barsbay
* 1438 Al-Aziz Djamal ad-Din Yusuf
* 1438 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq
* 1453 Al-Mansoor Fahr ad-Din Osman
* 1453 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Enal
* 1461 Al-Muayad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad
* 1461 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushkadam
* 1467 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Belbay
* 1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha
* 1468 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay
* 1496 An-Nasir Muhammad
* 1498 Az-Zahir Qanshaw
* 1500 Al-Ashraf Janbulat
* 1501 Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman bay I
* 1501 Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri
* 1517 Al-Ashraf Tuman bay II
In India
* Qutb-ud-din Aybak (1206–1210), founded Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi
* Aram Shah (1210–1211)
* Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211–1236). Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.
* Rukn ud din Firuz (1236). Son of Iltutmish.
* Razia Sultana (1236–1240). Daughter of Iltutmish.
* Muiz ud din Bahram (1240–1242). Son of Iltutmish.
* Ala ud din Masud (1242–1246). Son of Rukn ud din.
* Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–1266). Son of Iltutmish.
* Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1286). Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.
* Muiz ud din Qaiqabad(1286–1290). Grandson of Balban and Nasir ud din.
* Kayumars (1290). Son of Muiz ud din.
In Iraq
* Hasan Pasha (1704–1723)
* Ahmet Pasha (1723–1747) Son of Hasan
* Sulaiman Abu Layla Pasha (1749–1762) Son-in-law of Ahmet
* Umar (1762 - 1776) Son of Ahmed
* Büyük Süleyman Pasha the Great (1780–1802) Son of Umar
* Ali Pasha (1802–1807) Son of Umar
* Küçük Süleyman Pasa the Little took (1807–1813) Son of Büyük Süleyman
* Sa'id Pasha (1813–1816) Son of Büyük Süleyman
* Daud Pasha (1817–1831) Son of Ali,Son-in-law of Büyük Süleyman and nephew
Mamluk see Mameluke
Mamluq see Mameluke
Mamaluke see Mameluke
Mamluke see Mameluke
Mameto
Mameto. In Brazil, a circumcized black, usually a Muslim.
Mameto. In Brazil, a circumcized black, usually a Muslim.
Ma Ming-hsin
Ma Ming-hsin (Muhammad Amin) (d. 1781). Chinese Muslim leader. He was instrumental in the development and spread of the “New Teaching.”
The founder of the "new sect" as opposed to the "old sect" which embraced long accepted Chinese Muslim doctrines of accommodation to Confucian ideology.
Ma taught the way of the Zahiriya branch of the Naqshbandi order after he returned from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Armed conflict with the old sect occurred around Lauchou, a known center of the Chinese Muslims. This conflict led to a rebellion against Chinese rule. The militancy of the new sect showed first in Kansu and Shensi from 1862 to 1877. In the second rebellion, which racked Yunnan from 1856 and 1873, its leader Tu Wenhsiu, succeeded in establishing a separate Muslim state for sixteen years.
Ming-hsin, Ma see Ma Ming-hsin
Muhammad Amin see Ma Ming-hsin
Amin, Muhammad see Ma Ming-hsin
Ma Ming-hsin (Muhammad Amin) (d. 1781). Chinese Muslim leader. He was instrumental in the development and spread of the “New Teaching.”
The founder of the "new sect" as opposed to the "old sect" which embraced long accepted Chinese Muslim doctrines of accommodation to Confucian ideology.
Ma taught the way of the Zahiriya branch of the Naqshbandi order after he returned from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Armed conflict with the old sect occurred around Lauchou, a known center of the Chinese Muslims. This conflict led to a rebellion against Chinese rule. The militancy of the new sect showed first in Kansu and Shensi from 1862 to 1877. In the second rebellion, which racked Yunnan from 1856 and 1873, its leader Tu Wenhsiu, succeeded in establishing a separate Muslim state for sixteen years.
Ming-hsin, Ma see Ma Ming-hsin
Muhammad Amin see Ma Ming-hsin
Amin, Muhammad see Ma Ming-hsin
Mamluk
Mamluk. See Mameluke.
Mamluk. See Mameluke.
Mamluks
Mamluks. See Mameluke.
Mamluks. See Mameluke.
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-Ma’mun) ('Abdallah al-Mamun) (Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun) (September 14, 786 - August 9, 833). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 813-833). He restored the unity of the empire and, in 827, proclaimed Mu‘tazilism as the official doctrine. One of the logical consequences of this step was imposing the doctrine that the Qur’an was created. This measure inaugurated a period of “trial” (in Arabic, mihna) which was to last officially during the caliphates of his successors al-Mu‘tasim bi-Allah and al-Wathiq bi-‘llah. Al-Ma’mun’s measure was revoked by the Caliph al-Mutawakkil. This doctrine was strongly opposed by many, the most prominent among them being Ahmad ibn Hanbal, whom the caliph had flogged. Al-Ma’mun excelled in Hanafi jurisprudence and was distinguished by his love of knowledge. He encouraged the translation into Arabic of Greek and Syriac works on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
Al-Mamun was the son of Harun al-Rashid and a Persian slave girl, Marajil. Born about 786, he was slightly older than his half brother Amin, son of the Arab Zubayda, but Amin was first heir to the caliphate and al-Mamun second.
In 802, Harun al-Rashid father of al-Mamun and Amin ordered that Amin would succeed him and that al-Mamun would serve as governor of Khurasan (with Fadl ibn-Sahl as vizier) and as caliph after the death of Amin. Al-Mamun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman while Amin's mother was a member of the reigning 'Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Mamun's moves toward independence, Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a civil war in which al-Mamun's newly recruited Khurasani troops, led by Tahir bin Husain, defeated Amin's armies and laid siege to Baghdad. In 811, Amin was beheaded and al-Mamun was recognized as caliph throughout the empire.
Al-Mamun became caliph but continued to reside in the East despite disturbances in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. In the struggle of rival interest groups, al-Mamun, hoping for wider support, in 817 designated as his successor Ali ar-Rida, head of the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's cousin. This step provoked a revolt in Baghdad, and Ibrahim, al-Mamun's uncle, was proclaimed caliph. Al-Mamun moved slowly back toward Iraq, entered Baghdad without difficulty, and ended the revolt (819). Ali ar-Rida had meanwhile died at Meshed.
(Al-Mamun, in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should oulive al-Mamun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive al-Mamun and saw al-Mamun's gesture as empty. Indeed, ar-Rida died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the 'Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.)
A significant development during al-Mamun's reign was the rise of a semi-independent hereditary dynasty under the caliph. A Persian general called Tahir played a large part in al-Mamun's success against his brother. After some time in the West, he was, in 821, made governor of Khurasan, where there was serious trouble. Tahir gave signs of aiming at independence, and, when he died in 822, al-Mamun, who could not risk losing the province, appointed Tahir's son Talha to the governorship. One of Talha's brothers succeeded in 828. On the model of the Tahirid, independent dynasties, nominally appointed by and subordinate to the caliph, became a feature of the Islamic world, until the caliphs had no real power left.
(Al-Mamun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Mamun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Persian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Mamun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as al-Mamun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.)
For most of the rest of his reign, there were disorders to be suppressed in various parts of the empire. Despite this fact, however, trade flourished, and the 'Abbasids were at the zenith of their prosperity. By 830, al-Mamun felt capable of mounting annual expeditions against the Byzantines. It was on one of these that he died in August 9, 833 at Tarsus. He was succeeded by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim.
(At-Tabari recounts how al-Mamun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him hw splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh date. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered. Al-Mamun died. As he was dying, he spoke, expressing his belief in the unity of God and his reliance on God's mercy. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear.)
Al-Mamun became an enthusiast for Greek thought and is credited with the founding of the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), an institute for translating foreign, especially Greek, books into Arabic. Translations had been made of Sanskrit and Persian works in the time of his great-grandfather and of Greek books of that of his father. Many Greek books were already extant in Iraq in Syriac translations, and most of the first translations into Arabic were made by Christians from these Syriac versions. The earliest interest of the Arabs was in astronomy (with astrology) or medicine, but Greek philosophy also attracted attention.
The interest in Greek philosophy is linked with the rise of the theological school of the Mutazilites. Nineteenth century European scholars admired their apparent rationalism and liberal views, such as a belief in freedom of the will. It is now realized that, despite their interest in Greek ideas, they remained close to their Islamic basics. Several leading Mutazilites were prominent at al-Mamun's court, notably Thumama and Ahmad ibn-Abi Duad. Al-Mamun was probably attracted not only by the philosophical but also by the political aspect of their thought, for they were attempting to reconcile contemporary tensions. The stimulation of interest in Greek works influence the whole subsequent course of Islamic thought.
In accordance with Mutazilite teaching, al-Mamun established toward the end of his reign (perhaps in 827) the inquisition, or mihna. All higher officials had publicly to profess that they believed the Qur'an to be the created not the uncreated, word of God. This was not mere theological hairsplitting but the basis of a hoped for compromise between opposing forces. Most officials made the required declaration, but a leading jurist, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, refused and was prevented from lecturing. The inquisition lasted until about 850.
The mihna is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious text, and a loyalty oath. The casualties of 'Abbasid inquisition would not approach a fraction of those executed in Europe under similar circumstances. In the effort to centralize power and test the loyalty of his subjects, al-Mamun required elites, scholars, judges and other government officials to undergo the test, which was a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The penalty for failing the mihna could include death.
The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Mamun's sympathy for Mu'tazili theology. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning on the basis of the Qur'an. This defied the literalist position, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an and the hadith. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than eternal, in opposition to general Muslim opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were co-eternal. The fact that the Mu'tazili school had its foundations in teh paganism of Greece further disenchanted a majority of Islamic clerics.
Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious schlars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulama became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in 848. The failure of the mihna seriously damaged caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulama as a result of the mihna.
The ulama and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali legal school, became famous for his opposition to the mihna. Al-Mamun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance.
Al-Mamun's reign is marked by his efforts to the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Mamun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. It is said that, victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Mamun made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over a copy of the Almagest. Al-Mamun also conducted, in the plains of Mesopotamia, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree, Almanon crater, on the Moon, was named in recognition of al-Mamun's contributions to astronomy.
There were a number of other key developments in the reign of al-Mamun. The shakiriya, which were to trigger the movement of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra during al-Mu'tasim's reign, were raised in al-Mamun's time. The shakiriya were military units from Central Asia and North Africa, hired, complete with their commanders, to serve under the Caliph.
Al-Mamun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign because she had failed to bear him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Mamun was able to select one himself. The judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Mamun's experience, no further 'Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.
Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, al-Mamun ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza. He apparently entered the pyramid by unblocking a tunnel made by grave robbers in ancient times. Because the pyramid had already been robbed, his expedition found only the empty granite sarcophagus.
The 'Abbasid empire grew during the reign of al-Mamun. Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central 'Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. However, battles against the Byzantine Empire continued in Asia Minor, and al-Mamun would die while leading an expedition in Sardis.
Abu'l-'Abbas 'Abd Allah al-Ma'mun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
'Abdallah al-Mamun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-Ma’mun) ('Abdallah al-Mamun) (Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun) (September 14, 786 - August 9, 833). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 813-833). He restored the unity of the empire and, in 827, proclaimed Mu‘tazilism as the official doctrine. One of the logical consequences of this step was imposing the doctrine that the Qur’an was created. This measure inaugurated a period of “trial” (in Arabic, mihna) which was to last officially during the caliphates of his successors al-Mu‘tasim bi-Allah and al-Wathiq bi-‘llah. Al-Ma’mun’s measure was revoked by the Caliph al-Mutawakkil. This doctrine was strongly opposed by many, the most prominent among them being Ahmad ibn Hanbal, whom the caliph had flogged. Al-Ma’mun excelled in Hanafi jurisprudence and was distinguished by his love of knowledge. He encouraged the translation into Arabic of Greek and Syriac works on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
Al-Mamun was the son of Harun al-Rashid and a Persian slave girl, Marajil. Born about 786, he was slightly older than his half brother Amin, son of the Arab Zubayda, but Amin was first heir to the caliphate and al-Mamun second.
In 802, Harun al-Rashid father of al-Mamun and Amin ordered that Amin would succeed him and that al-Mamun would serve as governor of Khurasan (with Fadl ibn-Sahl as vizier) and as caliph after the death of Amin. Al-Mamun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman while Amin's mother was a member of the reigning 'Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Mamun's moves toward independence, Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a civil war in which al-Mamun's newly recruited Khurasani troops, led by Tahir bin Husain, defeated Amin's armies and laid siege to Baghdad. In 811, Amin was beheaded and al-Mamun was recognized as caliph throughout the empire.
Al-Mamun became caliph but continued to reside in the East despite disturbances in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. In the struggle of rival interest groups, al-Mamun, hoping for wider support, in 817 designated as his successor Ali ar-Rida, head of the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's cousin. This step provoked a revolt in Baghdad, and Ibrahim, al-Mamun's uncle, was proclaimed caliph. Al-Mamun moved slowly back toward Iraq, entered Baghdad without difficulty, and ended the revolt (819). Ali ar-Rida had meanwhile died at Meshed.
(Al-Mamun, in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should oulive al-Mamun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive al-Mamun and saw al-Mamun's gesture as empty. Indeed, ar-Rida died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the 'Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.)
A significant development during al-Mamun's reign was the rise of a semi-independent hereditary dynasty under the caliph. A Persian general called Tahir played a large part in al-Mamun's success against his brother. After some time in the West, he was, in 821, made governor of Khurasan, where there was serious trouble. Tahir gave signs of aiming at independence, and, when he died in 822, al-Mamun, who could not risk losing the province, appointed Tahir's son Talha to the governorship. One of Talha's brothers succeeded in 828. On the model of the Tahirid, independent dynasties, nominally appointed by and subordinate to the caliph, became a feature of the Islamic world, until the caliphs had no real power left.
(Al-Mamun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Mamun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Persian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Mamun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as al-Mamun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.)
For most of the rest of his reign, there were disorders to be suppressed in various parts of the empire. Despite this fact, however, trade flourished, and the 'Abbasids were at the zenith of their prosperity. By 830, al-Mamun felt capable of mounting annual expeditions against the Byzantines. It was on one of these that he died in August 9, 833 at Tarsus. He was succeeded by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim.
(At-Tabari recounts how al-Mamun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him hw splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh date. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered. Al-Mamun died. As he was dying, he spoke, expressing his belief in the unity of God and his reliance on God's mercy. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear.)
Al-Mamun became an enthusiast for Greek thought and is credited with the founding of the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), an institute for translating foreign, especially Greek, books into Arabic. Translations had been made of Sanskrit and Persian works in the time of his great-grandfather and of Greek books of that of his father. Many Greek books were already extant in Iraq in Syriac translations, and most of the first translations into Arabic were made by Christians from these Syriac versions. The earliest interest of the Arabs was in astronomy (with astrology) or medicine, but Greek philosophy also attracted attention.
The interest in Greek philosophy is linked with the rise of the theological school of the Mutazilites. Nineteenth century European scholars admired their apparent rationalism and liberal views, such as a belief in freedom of the will. It is now realized that, despite their interest in Greek ideas, they remained close to their Islamic basics. Several leading Mutazilites were prominent at al-Mamun's court, notably Thumama and Ahmad ibn-Abi Duad. Al-Mamun was probably attracted not only by the philosophical but also by the political aspect of their thought, for they were attempting to reconcile contemporary tensions. The stimulation of interest in Greek works influence the whole subsequent course of Islamic thought.
In accordance with Mutazilite teaching, al-Mamun established toward the end of his reign (perhaps in 827) the inquisition, or mihna. All higher officials had publicly to profess that they believed the Qur'an to be the created not the uncreated, word of God. This was not mere theological hairsplitting but the basis of a hoped for compromise between opposing forces. Most officials made the required declaration, but a leading jurist, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, refused and was prevented from lecturing. The inquisition lasted until about 850.
The mihna is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious text, and a loyalty oath. The casualties of 'Abbasid inquisition would not approach a fraction of those executed in Europe under similar circumstances. In the effort to centralize power and test the loyalty of his subjects, al-Mamun required elites, scholars, judges and other government officials to undergo the test, which was a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The penalty for failing the mihna could include death.
The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Mamun's sympathy for Mu'tazili theology. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning on the basis of the Qur'an. This defied the literalist position, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an and the hadith. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than eternal, in opposition to general Muslim opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were co-eternal. The fact that the Mu'tazili school had its foundations in teh paganism of Greece further disenchanted a majority of Islamic clerics.
Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious schlars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulama became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in 848. The failure of the mihna seriously damaged caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulama as a result of the mihna.
The ulama and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali legal school, became famous for his opposition to the mihna. Al-Mamun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance.
Al-Mamun's reign is marked by his efforts to the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Mamun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. It is said that, victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Mamun made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over a copy of the Almagest. Al-Mamun also conducted, in the plains of Mesopotamia, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree, Almanon crater, on the Moon, was named in recognition of al-Mamun's contributions to astronomy.
There were a number of other key developments in the reign of al-Mamun. The shakiriya, which were to trigger the movement of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra during al-Mu'tasim's reign, were raised in al-Mamun's time. The shakiriya were military units from Central Asia and North Africa, hired, complete with their commanders, to serve under the Caliph.
Al-Mamun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign because she had failed to bear him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Mamun was able to select one himself. The judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Mamun's experience, no further 'Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.
Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, al-Mamun ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza. He apparently entered the pyramid by unblocking a tunnel made by grave robbers in ancient times. Because the pyramid had already been robbed, his expedition found only the empty granite sarcophagus.
The 'Abbasid empire grew during the reign of al-Mamun. Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central 'Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. However, battles against the Byzantine Empire continued in Asia Minor, and al-Mamun would die while leading an expedition in Sardis.
Abu'l-'Abbas 'Abd Allah al-Ma'mun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
'Abdallah al-Mamun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Abbas ‘Abd Allah al-
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al-
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al- (Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al-Ma’mun) (b. 1185). Sovereign of the Almohad dynasty (r.1229-1232). He was very well-read, and equally versed in profane and religious learning.
Abu'l-'Ala' Idris al-Ma'mun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al-
Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al- (Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al-Ma’mun) (b. 1185). Sovereign of the Almohad dynasty (r.1229-1232). He was very well-read, and equally versed in profane and religious learning.
Abu'l-'Ala' Idris al-Ma'mun see Ma’mun, Abu’l-‘Ala’ Idris al-
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