Ha’iri
Ha’iri (Shaykh ‘Abd al-Karim Yazdi Ha’iri) (Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi) (‘Abd al-Karī̄m al-Ḥa’irī̄ al-Yazdī</I>̄) (1859 — January 30, 1937). Persian religious leader. He argued that politics in the Muslim world were being controlled by Western powers and were consequently hostile to Islam. In order to prevent the extinction of Islam, therefore, a responsible religious leader must not interfere in politics. He trained many disciples who later on became religious leaders and who, unlike their master, undertook political activities, the best known example being Ruhollah (in Arabic, Ruh Allah) Khomeini.
Ha’iri was the most prominent teacher among the ‘ulama’ (community of religious scholars) in the city of Qom from 1921 to 1936. He received religious training in Iraq from Mirza Hasan Shirazi (d. 1896), Muhammad al-Fisharaki al-Isfahani (d. 1899), and Mulla Muhammad Kazim Khurasani (d. 1911). He persisted throughout his life in maintaining a position of strict non-involvement in political matters. Between 1900 and 1913, he moved between the western Iranian town of Arak, where he had established a center of learning, and Iraq in order to avoid being involved in political matters, such as the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 and the anti-British movement in Iraq. From Karbala, Iraq, he moved to Arak in 1913, and then to Qom in 1920. There, he founded a seminary called the Hawzah-yi ‘Ilmiyah, which became the premier institution of religious education in Iran.
Ha’iri maintained his policy of strict non-intervention in political affairs throughout his stay in Qom and until the end of his life in 1936. This is clear from his silence during the British expulsion of Shi‘a leaders from Iraq in 1923 and the insurrection by some Isfahan clergy in Iran in 1924 (over opium production) and in the case of the exiling of Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Bafqi (owing to his criticism of the behavior of ladies of the royal court in the Qom shrine) in 1928. Apart from his wish not to invite military intervention by Reza Khan Pahlavi, which might hurt the Hawzah-yi ‘Ilmiyah, there was also the fact that he considered these activities as political. This position of political non-interference over the years was a cause of wonderment to many, but, according to one of his sons, was rooted in his natural disposition. During his stay in Qom, he became involved with political issues only twice, and even then only momentarily and against his better judgment. It was Ha’iri, together with Muhammad Husayn Na’ini (d. 1936) and Abu al-Hasan Isfahani (d. 1945), who convinced Reza Khan in 1924 to drop the idea of making Iran a republic. In 1932, Ha’iri sent a strongly worded message to Reza Shah in which he said that, although up to then he had not interfered in any political matters, certain new policies (the Dress Law of 1928 and the general curtailment of the social standing of the ‘ulama’) were contrary to Shi‘a law and that he was duty bound to inform the shah that his actions were intolerable.
Ha’iri did not press this and other issues and, out of concern for the long-term well-being of Islam in the clerical community, he did not exhort other ‘ulama’ or his followers to openly revolt against the government. He once publicly stated, “It is due to this security [brought by Reza Shah] that I can fulfill my durites to Islam and teach in this city,” and he exhorted all Iranians to follow their monarch. Ha’iri’s most famous student was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (d. 1989), who clearly disagreed with his teacher on the role of the marja‘ al-taqlid, the most distinguished rank among the religious leaders. Ha’iri advanced the notion that a Shi‘a could follow more than one marja‘ al-taqlid on different aspects of Islamic law, a position later supported by Ayatollah Murtaza Mutahhari (d. 1979), who was one of Khomeini’s most famous students and who believed that Islamic jurisprudence had grown too complex to be mastered by one individual in all its aspects.
Shaykh ‘Abd al-Karim Yazdi Ha’iri see Ha’iri
Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi see Ha’iri
Yazdi, Abdolkarim Haeri see Ha’iri
'Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi see Ha’iri
Yazdi, 'Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al- see Ha’iri
Ha’iri (Shaykh ‘Abd al-Karim Yazdi Ha’iri) (Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi) (‘Abd al-Karī̄m al-Ḥa’irī̄ al-Yazdī</I>̄) (1859 — January 30, 1937). Persian religious leader. He argued that politics in the Muslim world were being controlled by Western powers and were consequently hostile to Islam. In order to prevent the extinction of Islam, therefore, a responsible religious leader must not interfere in politics. He trained many disciples who later on became religious leaders and who, unlike their master, undertook political activities, the best known example being Ruhollah (in Arabic, Ruh Allah) Khomeini.
Ha’iri was the most prominent teacher among the ‘ulama’ (community of religious scholars) in the city of Qom from 1921 to 1936. He received religious training in Iraq from Mirza Hasan Shirazi (d. 1896), Muhammad al-Fisharaki al-Isfahani (d. 1899), and Mulla Muhammad Kazim Khurasani (d. 1911). He persisted throughout his life in maintaining a position of strict non-involvement in political matters. Between 1900 and 1913, he moved between the western Iranian town of Arak, where he had established a center of learning, and Iraq in order to avoid being involved in political matters, such as the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 and the anti-British movement in Iraq. From Karbala, Iraq, he moved to Arak in 1913, and then to Qom in 1920. There, he founded a seminary called the Hawzah-yi ‘Ilmiyah, which became the premier institution of religious education in Iran.
Ha’iri maintained his policy of strict non-intervention in political affairs throughout his stay in Qom and until the end of his life in 1936. This is clear from his silence during the British expulsion of Shi‘a leaders from Iraq in 1923 and the insurrection by some Isfahan clergy in Iran in 1924 (over opium production) and in the case of the exiling of Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Bafqi (owing to his criticism of the behavior of ladies of the royal court in the Qom shrine) in 1928. Apart from his wish not to invite military intervention by Reza Khan Pahlavi, which might hurt the Hawzah-yi ‘Ilmiyah, there was also the fact that he considered these activities as political. This position of political non-interference over the years was a cause of wonderment to many, but, according to one of his sons, was rooted in his natural disposition. During his stay in Qom, he became involved with political issues only twice, and even then only momentarily and against his better judgment. It was Ha’iri, together with Muhammad Husayn Na’ini (d. 1936) and Abu al-Hasan Isfahani (d. 1945), who convinced Reza Khan in 1924 to drop the idea of making Iran a republic. In 1932, Ha’iri sent a strongly worded message to Reza Shah in which he said that, although up to then he had not interfered in any political matters, certain new policies (the Dress Law of 1928 and the general curtailment of the social standing of the ‘ulama’) were contrary to Shi‘a law and that he was duty bound to inform the shah that his actions were intolerable.
Ha’iri did not press this and other issues and, out of concern for the long-term well-being of Islam in the clerical community, he did not exhort other ‘ulama’ or his followers to openly revolt against the government. He once publicly stated, “It is due to this security [brought by Reza Shah] that I can fulfill my durites to Islam and teach in this city,” and he exhorted all Iranians to follow their monarch. Ha’iri’s most famous student was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (d. 1989), who clearly disagreed with his teacher on the role of the marja‘ al-taqlid, the most distinguished rank among the religious leaders. Ha’iri advanced the notion that a Shi‘a could follow more than one marja‘ al-taqlid on different aspects of Islamic law, a position later supported by Ayatollah Murtaza Mutahhari (d. 1979), who was one of Khomeini’s most famous students and who believed that Islamic jurisprudence had grown too complex to be mastered by one individual in all its aspects.
Shaykh ‘Abd al-Karim Yazdi Ha’iri see Ha’iri
Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi see Ha’iri
Yazdi, Abdolkarim Haeri see Ha’iri
'Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al-Yazdi see Ha’iri
Yazdi, 'Abd al-Karim al-Ha'iri al- see Ha’iri
Haitham
Haitham (Abu Ali Hasan ibn al-Haitham) (Alhazen) (Al-Hazen) (Haithem, al-) (965-c.1039). Considered in the West to be the “Father of Modern Optics.” See Ibn al-Haytham.
Ptolemy the Second see Haitham
Ptolemaeus Secundus see Haitham
Basri, al- see Haitham
The Physicist see Haitham
Ibn al-Haitham see Haitham
Ibn al-Haytham see Haitham
Haitham (Abu Ali Hasan ibn al-Haitham) (Alhazen) (Al-Hazen) (Haithem, al-) (965-c.1039). Considered in the West to be the “Father of Modern Optics.” See Ibn al-Haytham.
Ptolemy the Second see Haitham
Ptolemaeus Secundus see Haitham
Basri, al- see Haitham
The Physicist see Haitham
Ibn al-Haitham see Haitham
Ibn al-Haytham see Haitham
Haji
Haji (Raja Haji) (Raja Haji Fisabililah) (r.1777-1784). Fourth Bugis yang di pertuan muda of Johor/Riau. Raja Haji controlled the state during the minority of Sultan Mahmud III. He is credited in the Tufhat al-Nafis (written by his grandson) with spreading the influence of Riau throughout the western part of the archipelago and with bringing Riau to a high point of economic prosperity. Fearing that he might unite the Malays against them, the Dutch attacked Riau in 1784. Breaking the siege, Raja Haji led an attack on Dutch Melaka. There, he was shot and killed, whereupon the Dutch sacked Riau and effectively destroyed the state.
Raja Haji see Haji
Raja Haji Fisabililah see Haji
Fisabililah, Raja Haji see Haji
Haji (Raja Haji) (Raja Haji Fisabililah) (r.1777-1784). Fourth Bugis yang di pertuan muda of Johor/Riau. Raja Haji controlled the state during the minority of Sultan Mahmud III. He is credited in the Tufhat al-Nafis (written by his grandson) with spreading the influence of Riau throughout the western part of the archipelago and with bringing Riau to a high point of economic prosperity. Fearing that he might unite the Malays against them, the Dutch attacked Riau in 1784. Breaking the siege, Raja Haji led an attack on Dutch Melaka. There, he was shot and killed, whereupon the Dutch sacked Riau and effectively destroyed the state.
Raja Haji see Haji
Raja Haji Fisabililah see Haji
Fisabililah, Raja Haji see Haji
Hajjaj
Hajjaj (al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi) (Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf) (Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf al-Kulayb) (June 661-714). Most famous general and governor of the Umayyads and of ‘Abd al-Malik. He besieged the anti-caliph ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr at Mecca, had the Holy City bombarded and took it after seven months in 692. He then became governor of the Hejaz, the Yemen and the Yamama and had the Ka ‘ba restored. In 694, he was entrusted with the governorship of Iraq, in turmoil because of the intrigues of the Kharijites. The sermon with which he installed himself in Kufa has found its place in Arabic literature. Having removed the Kharijite danger in Iraq, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and Sijistan. When he was beleaguered in Basra by Ibn al-Ash‘ath, Syrian troops came to his rescue and the Iraqi Arabs were defeated. Having pacified the Kurdish and Daylami brigands, he built the fortified town of Wasit to isolate the Syrians from the Iraqis. The conquests of Transoxiana by Qutayba ibn Muslim, of Oman by Mujja‘a ibn Si‘r, and of India by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi during the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I were the results of al-Hajjaj’s efforts. He sponsored a new text of the Qur’an, began to strike purely Arabic coins, and made efforts to improve agriculture. Al-Hajjaj is considered one of the greatest statesmen, not only of the Umayyads, but of the whole Islamic world.
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi see Hajjaj
Thaqafi, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al- see Hajjaj
Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf see Hajjaj
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Kulayb see Hajjaj
Kulayb, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al- see Hajjaj
Hajjaj (al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi) (Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf) (Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf al-Kulayb) (June 661-714). Most famous general and governor of the Umayyads and of ‘Abd al-Malik. He besieged the anti-caliph ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr at Mecca, had the Holy City bombarded and took it after seven months in 692. He then became governor of the Hejaz, the Yemen and the Yamama and had the Ka ‘ba restored. In 694, he was entrusted with the governorship of Iraq, in turmoil because of the intrigues of the Kharijites. The sermon with which he installed himself in Kufa has found its place in Arabic literature. Having removed the Kharijite danger in Iraq, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and Sijistan. When he was beleaguered in Basra by Ibn al-Ash‘ath, Syrian troops came to his rescue and the Iraqi Arabs were defeated. Having pacified the Kurdish and Daylami brigands, he built the fortified town of Wasit to isolate the Syrians from the Iraqis. The conquests of Transoxiana by Qutayba ibn Muslim, of Oman by Mujja‘a ibn Si‘r, and of India by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi during the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I were the results of al-Hajjaj’s efforts. He sponsored a new text of the Qur’an, began to strike purely Arabic coins, and made efforts to improve agriculture. Al-Hajjaj is considered one of the greatest statesmen, not only of the Umayyads, but of the whole Islamic world.
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi see Hajjaj
Thaqafi, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al- see Hajjaj
Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf see Hajjaj
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Kulayb see Hajjaj
Kulayb, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al- see Hajjaj
Hajji Bayram Wali
Hajji Bayram Wali (1352-1429). Patron saint of Ankara and the founder of the order of the Bayramiyya.
Wali, Hajji Bayram see Hajji Bayram Wali
Hajji Bayram Wali (1352-1429). Patron saint of Ankara and the founder of the order of the Bayramiyya.
Wali, Hajji Bayram see Hajji Bayram Wali
Hajji Giray
Hajji Giray (d. 1466). Founder of the Giray dynasty of khans of the Crimea.
Giray, Hajji see Hajji Giray
Hajji Giray (d. 1466). Founder of the Giray dynasty of khans of the Crimea.
Giray, Hajji see Hajji Giray
Hajji Khalfa
Hajji Khalfa. See Katib Celebi.
Khalfa, Hajji see Hajji Khalfa.
Hajji Khalfa. See Katib Celebi.
Khalfa, Hajji see Hajji Khalfa.
Hajji Pasha
Hajji Pasha (Jelal al-Din Hajji Pasha). Fifteenth century Turkish physician and the author of several medical texts.
Jelal al-Din Hajji Pasha see Hajji Pasha
Hajji Pasha (Jelal al-Din Hajji Pasha). Fifteenth century Turkish physician and the author of several medical texts.
Jelal al-Din Hajji Pasha see Hajji Pasha
Hajjiyya
Hajjiyya. Islamic title for a person that has performed the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, or is in the course of performing it. The term hajjiyy (masculine) or hajjiyya (feminine) is added to the name of the person and is considered an honorable title. For many Muslims, earlier in Islamic history, going on hajj was an act that could only be performed once in a lifetime by the few, due to long distances, dangers and the costs. This percentage has increased in modern times, as better boats and overland transportation (as well as airplanes) have made distances less of a problem.
As more people (but still only a low number, below ten percent) go on the hajj, the importance of being a hajjiyy or hajjiyya, has been watered down. While the total time used on the hajj in old times could be years, now many Muslims manage to squeeze the full hajj into an extended holiday of three to six weeks.
Some of the old days’ grandeur is also lost with the ease and safety of the modern hajj. Medical personnel, accessibility to water, and the extension of the Great Mosque of Mecca has drastically reduced the number of people dying or getting hurt or sick while on the hajj.
hajjiyy see Hajjiyya.
Hajjiyya. Islamic title for a person that has performed the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, or is in the course of performing it. The term hajjiyy (masculine) or hajjiyya (feminine) is added to the name of the person and is considered an honorable title. For many Muslims, earlier in Islamic history, going on hajj was an act that could only be performed once in a lifetime by the few, due to long distances, dangers and the costs. This percentage has increased in modern times, as better boats and overland transportation (as well as airplanes) have made distances less of a problem.
As more people (but still only a low number, below ten percent) go on the hajj, the importance of being a hajjiyy or hajjiyya, has been watered down. While the total time used on the hajj in old times could be years, now many Muslims manage to squeeze the full hajj into an extended holiday of three to six weeks.
Some of the old days’ grandeur is also lost with the ease and safety of the modern hajj. Medical personnel, accessibility to water, and the extension of the Great Mosque of Mecca has drastically reduced the number of people dying or getting hurt or sick while on the hajj.
hajjiyy see Hajjiyya.
Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al- (al-Hajj 'Umar ibn Sa'id Tall) (El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall) (1797-1864). Celebrated Tukulor conqueror, who founded a short-lived kingdom in west Sudan. He became the khalifa of the Tijaniyya order for the Sudan and established himself in Futa Jallon in 1838, preaching Holy War against the Bambara kingdom of Segu and the Kaarta. He was defeated by the French in 1857. In 1861, he took the town of Segu, and Hamdallahi, the capital of the Fulani of Masina, and had the latter’s king Ahmadu-Ahmadu killed in 1862.
Umar Tall's name is spelled variously: in particular, his first name is commonly transliterated in French as Omar; the patronymic, ibn Sa'id, is often omitted; and the final element of his name, Tall, is spelt variously as Taal or Tal.
The honorific El Hadj (also al-Hajj or el-Hadj), reserved for a Muslim who has successfully made the Hajj to Mecca, almost always precedes Umar Tall's name.
Born Umar bin Sa'id in Halwar in the Kingdom of Fouta Tooro (present-day Senegal), Umar Tall attended a madrassa before embarking on the Hajj in 1820. In 1826, after many years of scholarship, Umar Tall returned with the title El Hadj and assumed the caliphate of the Tijaniyya sufi brotherhood in the Sudan.
Settling in Sokoto, he took several wives, one of whom was a daughter of the Fula Sultan of Sokoto, Muhammed Bello. In 1836, El Hajj Umar Tall moved to the Kingdom of Fouta Djallon and then to Dinguiraye, in present-day Guinea, where he began preparations for his jihad.
In 1848, El Hajj Umar Tall's Toucouleur army, equipped with European light arms, invaded several neighboring, non-Muslim, Malinké regions and met with immediate success. Umar Tall pressed on into what is today the region of Kayes in Mali, conquering a number of cities and building a tata (fortification) near the city of Kayes that is today a popular tourist destination.
In April 1857, Umar Tall declared war on the Khasso kingdom and besieged the French colonial army at Medina Fort. The siege failed on July 18 of the same year when Louis Faidherbe, French governor of Senegal, arrived with relief forces.
After his failure to defeat the French, El Hadj Umar Tall launched a series of assaults on the Bambara kingdoms of Kaarta and Ségou. The Kaarta capital of Nioro du Sahel fell quickly to Umar Tall's mujahideen, followed by Ségou on March 10, 1861.
While Umar Tall's wars thus far had been against the animist Bambara or the Christian French, he now turned his attention to the smaller Islamic states of the region. Installing his son Ahmadu Tall as imam of Ségou, Umar Tall marched down the Niger, on the Massina imamate of Hamdullahi. More than 70,000 died in the three battles that followed
until the final fall and destruction of Hamdullahi on March 16, 1862.
Now controlling the entire Middle Niger, Umar Tall moved against Timbuktu, only to be repulsed in 1863 by combined forces of the Tuaregs, Moors, and Fulani tribes. Meanwhile, a rebellion broke out in Hamdullahi under Balobo, brother of executed Massina monarch Amadu Amadu; in 1864, Balobo's combined force of Peuls and Kountas drove Umar Tall's army from the city and into Bandiagara, where Umar Tall died in an explosion of his gunpowder reserves on February 12. His nephew Tidiani Tall succeeded him as the Toucouleur emperor, though his son Ahmadu Seku did much of the work to keep the empire intact from Ségou. However, the French continued to advance, finally entering Ségou itself in 1890.
El Hadj Umar Tall remains a legendary figure in Senegal, Guinea, and Mali, though his legacy varies by country. Where the Senegalese tend to remember him as a hero of anti-French resistance, Malian sources tend to describe him as an invader who prepared the way for the French by weakening West Africa. Umar Tall also figures prominently in Maryse Condé's historical novel Segu.
al-Hajj 'Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
Hajj Umar Taal, al- see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
Now controlling the entire Middle Niger, Umar Tall moved against Timbuktu, only to be repulsed in 1863 by combined forces of the Tuaregs, Moors, and Fulani tribes. Meanwhile, a rebellion broke out in Hamdullahi under Balobo, brother of executed Massina monarch Amadu Amadu; in 1864, Balobo's combined force of Peuls and Kountas drove Umar Tall's army from the city and into Bandiagara, where Umar Tall died in an explosion of his gunpowder reserves on February 12. His nephew Tidiani Tall succeeded him as the Toucouleur emperor, though his son Ahmadu Seku did much of the work to keep the empire intact from Ségou. However, the French continued to advance, finally entering Ségou itself in 1890.
El Hadj Umar Tall remains a legendary figure in Senegal, Guinea, and Mali, though his legacy varies by country. Where the Senegalese tend to remember him as a hero of anti-French resistance, Malian sources tend to describe him as an invader who prepared the way for the French by weakening West Africa. Umar Tall also figures prominently in Maryse Condé's historical novel Segu.
al-Hajj 'Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
El Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
Hajj Umar Taal, al- see Hajj ‘Umar Tal, al-
Hakam I
Hakam I (al-Hakam I ibn Hisham) (Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman) (770-822). Umayyad amir of Cordoba (r.796-822). After one of the numerous rebellions by the neo-Muslims in Cordoba, he banished over 20,000 families from the country. About two thirds of them went to Egypt and later to Crete, the remainder going to Fez.
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman I was Umayyad Emir of Cordoba from 796 until 822 in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). During his reign he crushed a rebellion led by clerics in a suburb called al-Ribad on the south bank of the Guadalquivir river. He punished the inhabitants by exiling them by ship. They eventually reached Alexandria and dominated the city until 827, after which they were expelled. They sailed on to Crete, where they founded an independent emirate that survived until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.
Al-Hakam I died in 822 C.E. after having ruled for 26 years. He was a controversial figure. Some hailed him as a great warrior, and bestowed on him the title of Al-Muzaffar. Some regarded him as a ruthless tyrant and inconsiderate ruler. He used force where force was necessary and resorted to a policy of peace and conciliation where such a course was in the public interest. He was against the monopolization of power by the theologians and strove to maintain a proper equation between the State and the theologians. He consolidated Muslim rule in Spain and during his long reign the Muslims extended their conquests.
al-Hakam I ibn Hisham see Hakam I
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman see Hakam I
Hakam I (al-Hakam I ibn Hisham) (Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman) (770-822). Umayyad amir of Cordoba (r.796-822). After one of the numerous rebellions by the neo-Muslims in Cordoba, he banished over 20,000 families from the country. About two thirds of them went to Egypt and later to Crete, the remainder going to Fez.
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman I was Umayyad Emir of Cordoba from 796 until 822 in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). During his reign he crushed a rebellion led by clerics in a suburb called al-Ribad on the south bank of the Guadalquivir river. He punished the inhabitants by exiling them by ship. They eventually reached Alexandria and dominated the city until 827, after which they were expelled. They sailed on to Crete, where they founded an independent emirate that survived until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.
Al-Hakam I died in 822 C.E. after having ruled for 26 years. He was a controversial figure. Some hailed him as a great warrior, and bestowed on him the title of Al-Muzaffar. Some regarded him as a ruthless tyrant and inconsiderate ruler. He used force where force was necessary and resorted to a policy of peace and conciliation where such a course was in the public interest. He was against the monopolization of power by the theologians and strove to maintain a proper equation between the State and the theologians. He consolidated Muslim rule in Spain and during his long reign the Muslims extended their conquests.
al-Hakam I ibn Hisham see Hakam I
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman see Hakam I
Hakam II
Hakam II ( al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III) (Al-Hakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III) (January 13, 915 - October 16, 976). Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba (r.961-976). He enlarged and embellished the Great Mosque of Cordoba, and gradually became the suzerain of all the Christian princes of the north. In 966, the Normans made a new attempt to land in Spain. Al-Hakam’s reign was one of the most peaceful and fruitful of the Cordoban dynasty.
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets.
He was fond of books and learning, and amassed a vast library with 400,000 books (this was sacked in the Berber siege of Cordoba in 1100). He even sent his agents to purchase 'first edition' books from the Muslim east, such as Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs) by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.
During his reign, a massive translation effort was undertaken, and many books were translated from Latin and Greek into Arabic. He formed a joint committee of Arab Muslims and Iberian Mozarab Christians for this task.
His building works included an expansion of the main mosque of Cordoba (962-966), the Mezquita, and the completion of the Royal residence Medina Azahara (976), which Abd ar-Rahman III had begun in 936.
As well, the famous physician, scientist, and surgeon Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) was active in Al-Hakam's court during his reign.
Whilst the internal administration was left increasingly to the Vizir Al-Mushafi, General Ghalib was gradually gaining influence as leader of the army. He was chiefly pre-occupied with repulsing the last Norman attacks (966, 971), and with the struggle against the Zirids and the Fatimids in northern Morocco. The Fatimids were defeated in Morocco in 974, while Al-Hakam II was able to maintain the supremacy of the Caliphate over the Christian states of Navarre, Castile and Leon.
In his youth his loves seem to have been entirely homosexual. He was known to have openly kept a male harem. This exclusivity was a problem, since it was essential to produce an heir. A resolution was reached by his taking a concubine who dressed in boys' clothes and was give the masculine name of Jafar.
He was succeeded by his son, Hisham II al-Mu'ayad, who was a nominal ruler under the Hajib (Grand Vizier) al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir.
al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Al-Hakam II ibn 'Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Hakam II ( al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III) (Al-Hakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III) (January 13, 915 - October 16, 976). Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba (r.961-976). He enlarged and embellished the Great Mosque of Cordoba, and gradually became the suzerain of all the Christian princes of the north. In 966, the Normans made a new attempt to land in Spain. Al-Hakam’s reign was one of the most peaceful and fruitful of the Cordoban dynasty.
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets.
He was fond of books and learning, and amassed a vast library with 400,000 books (this was sacked in the Berber siege of Cordoba in 1100). He even sent his agents to purchase 'first edition' books from the Muslim east, such as Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs) by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.
During his reign, a massive translation effort was undertaken, and many books were translated from Latin and Greek into Arabic. He formed a joint committee of Arab Muslims and Iberian Mozarab Christians for this task.
His building works included an expansion of the main mosque of Cordoba (962-966), the Mezquita, and the completion of the Royal residence Medina Azahara (976), which Abd ar-Rahman III had begun in 936.
As well, the famous physician, scientist, and surgeon Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) was active in Al-Hakam's court during his reign.
Whilst the internal administration was left increasingly to the Vizir Al-Mushafi, General Ghalib was gradually gaining influence as leader of the army. He was chiefly pre-occupied with repulsing the last Norman attacks (966, 971), and with the struggle against the Zirids and the Fatimids in northern Morocco. The Fatimids were defeated in Morocco in 974, while Al-Hakam II was able to maintain the supremacy of the Caliphate over the Christian states of Navarre, Castile and Leon.
In his youth his loves seem to have been entirely homosexual. He was known to have openly kept a male harem. This exclusivity was a problem, since it was essential to produce an heir. A resolution was reached by his taking a concubine who dressed in boys' clothes and was give the masculine name of Jafar.
He was succeeded by his son, Hisham II al-Mu'ayad, who was a nominal ruler under the Hajib (Grand Vizier) al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir.
al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Al-Hakam II ibn 'Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Hakim Ata
Hakim Ata (d. 1186). Turkish saint of Khwarazm and author of popular poems on mystic life. His works are very popular down to modern times in Turkestan and in the Volga basin.
Ata, Hakim see Hakim Ata
Hakim Ata (d. 1186). Turkish saint of Khwarazm and author of popular poems on mystic life. His works are very popular down to modern times in Turkestan and in the Volga basin.
Ata, Hakim see Hakim Ata
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al- (Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim) (Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh - literally "Ruler by Allah's Command") (b.985 - February 12/13, 1021). Fatimid caliph (r. 996-1021). He was famous because of his excesses, his cruelty and his persecutions, particularly of the Christians. The divine character which certain of his supporters attributed to him is an article of faith with the Druzes. His end has always been a mystery. {See also Caliphs; Druze; and Fatimids.}
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-Azīz (975–996) at the age of eleven on October 14, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim’s Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim’s caliphate.
Initially, Barjawan, his wasita (the equivalent of a vizier, as intermediary between ruler and subjects) acted as the virtual head of the Fatimid state. However, after the latter’s removal in 1000, Hakim held the reins of power in his own hands limiting the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Also Al-Hakim is a central figure in the history of the Druze religious sect. For much of his reign, Hakim was hostile to religious minorities, most notably demonstrated in his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Al-Ḥākim was born in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah (d. 995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily.
Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this woman was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named Ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.
Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.
In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son.
On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His father's body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter. They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz. Al-Ḥākim was sworn in by Barjawan, a "white eunuch whom al-‘Azīz had appointed as Ustad's tutor.
Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, Ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of wasīta "chief minister" from ‘Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time, the office of sifāra "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amīn ad-Dawla - "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.
Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from ‘Alī.
Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī da‘wah "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called wasītas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-Ḥākim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to al-Ḥākim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity."
Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the ‘Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine Ali and Fatima related ancestry. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the ‘Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry also because of Al-Hakim’s alleged Christian mother he was accused of over sympathizing with non-Muslims and that he gave them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule such accusations where manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids and that eventually led to the persecution of non-Muslims from 1007 till 1012. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including that written by the Mu‘tazili ‘Ali b. Sa‘id al-Istakri (1013).
Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da‘wa (preaching) centered in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da‘is concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da‘is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da‘is soon led to concrete results in Iraq. In 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim.
In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim’s most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the Dar al-‘ilm (House of Knowledge), sometimes also called Dar al-hikma. A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur’an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dar al-‘ilm, which was equipped with a vast library. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da‘is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da‘wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.
In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Hākim "Hākim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar".
Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da‘is a priority. In his time, various study sessions (majalis) were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private ‘wisdom sessions’ (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still adopted by the Druze as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried. It is often abbreviated as Majlis (session).
Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-Ḥākim. This re-established diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.
From 996 to 1006, when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax.
In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abū Bakr, ‘Umār and ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān) and against ‘Ā'isha (wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law ‘Alī, who had demanded the position of Caliph for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad caliphate, Mu‘awiyah I, and others among the Ṣaḥābah of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase as-salāh khayr min an-nawm - "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed the morning prayer be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that ḥayyi ‘alā khayr al-‘amal - "come to the best of deeds" - should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – Salāt at-Tarāwih and Salāt ad-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.
Al-Hakim disliked the influence of the Christian Church in Jerusalem. He ordered random arrests, executions, and the destruction of churches as early as 1001. His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. In 1004 he decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
In 1005, following the tradition of the caliphate, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyār - "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the mintaq or zunnar "belt" and ‘imāmah "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews were to wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews were to replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the Ahl al-Kitab had to wear two different colored shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.
Al-Ḥākim engaged in other erratic behavior in 1005: he ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and had them discarded in the desert. He also forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and go to bed in the mornings and severely punished anyone caught violating his orders.
Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.
From 1007 to 1012, there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile. On October 18, 1009, al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the permission of Al-Hakim's successor.
From 1012 to 1021, al-Ḥākim became more tolerant toward the Jews and Christians and hostile toward the Sunnis. Ironically, he developed a particularly hostile attitude with regard to the Muslim Shiites. It was during this period, in the year 1017, that the unique religion of the Druze began to develop as an independent religion based on the revelation (Kashf) of al-Ḥākim as divine.
While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief dāʿī, there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity.
Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for shirk. Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the Muwahhidun movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.
The Druze find this assertion offensive; they hold ad-Darazi as the first apostate of the sect and their beliefs regarding al-Ḥākim are complex. Following a typical Isma'ili pattern, they place a preeminent teacher at the innermost circle of divinely inspired persons. For the Druze, the exoteric is taught by the Prophet, the esoteric by his secret assistants, and the esoteric of the esoteric by Imām al-Ḥākim.
Confusion and slander by opponents of the Druze were generally left uncorrected as the teachings of the sect are secret and the Druze preferred taqiyya when independence was impossible.
In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 and at the age of 36, Hakim left for one of his night journeys to the al-Muqattam hills outside of Cairo, and never returned. A search found only his donkey and bloodstained garments. The disappearance has remained a mystery.
Al-Ḥākim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
"Ruler by Allah's Command" see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al- (Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim) (Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh - literally "Ruler by Allah's Command") (b.985 - February 12/13, 1021). Fatimid caliph (r. 996-1021). He was famous because of his excesses, his cruelty and his persecutions, particularly of the Christians. The divine character which certain of his supporters attributed to him is an article of faith with the Druzes. His end has always been a mystery. {See also Caliphs; Druze; and Fatimids.}
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-Azīz (975–996) at the age of eleven on October 14, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim’s Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim’s caliphate.
Initially, Barjawan, his wasita (the equivalent of a vizier, as intermediary between ruler and subjects) acted as the virtual head of the Fatimid state. However, after the latter’s removal in 1000, Hakim held the reins of power in his own hands limiting the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Also Al-Hakim is a central figure in the history of the Druze religious sect. For much of his reign, Hakim was hostile to religious minorities, most notably demonstrated in his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Al-Ḥākim was born in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah (d. 995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily.
Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this woman was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named Ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.
Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.
In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son.
On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His father's body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter. They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz. Al-Ḥākim was sworn in by Barjawan, a "white eunuch whom al-‘Azīz had appointed as Ustad's tutor.
Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, Ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of wasīta "chief minister" from ‘Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time, the office of sifāra "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amīn ad-Dawla - "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.
Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from ‘Alī.
Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī da‘wah "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called wasītas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-Ḥākim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to al-Ḥākim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity."
Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the ‘Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine Ali and Fatima related ancestry. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the ‘Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry also because of Al-Hakim’s alleged Christian mother he was accused of over sympathizing with non-Muslims and that he gave them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule such accusations where manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids and that eventually led to the persecution of non-Muslims from 1007 till 1012. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including that written by the Mu‘tazili ‘Ali b. Sa‘id al-Istakri (1013).
Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da‘wa (preaching) centered in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da‘is concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da‘is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da‘is soon led to concrete results in Iraq. In 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim.
In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim’s most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the Dar al-‘ilm (House of Knowledge), sometimes also called Dar al-hikma. A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur’an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dar al-‘ilm, which was equipped with a vast library. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da‘is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da‘wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.
In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Hākim "Hākim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar".
Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da‘is a priority. In his time, various study sessions (majalis) were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private ‘wisdom sessions’ (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still adopted by the Druze as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried. It is often abbreviated as Majlis (session).
Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-Ḥākim. This re-established diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.
From 996 to 1006, when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax.
In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abū Bakr, ‘Umār and ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān) and against ‘Ā'isha (wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law ‘Alī, who had demanded the position of Caliph for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad caliphate, Mu‘awiyah I, and others among the Ṣaḥābah of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase as-salāh khayr min an-nawm - "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed the morning prayer be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that ḥayyi ‘alā khayr al-‘amal - "come to the best of deeds" - should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – Salāt at-Tarāwih and Salāt ad-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.
Al-Hakim disliked the influence of the Christian Church in Jerusalem. He ordered random arrests, executions, and the destruction of churches as early as 1001. His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. In 1004 he decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
In 1005, following the tradition of the caliphate, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyār - "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the mintaq or zunnar "belt" and ‘imāmah "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews were to wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews were to replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the Ahl al-Kitab had to wear two different colored shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.
Al-Ḥākim engaged in other erratic behavior in 1005: he ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and had them discarded in the desert. He also forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and go to bed in the mornings and severely punished anyone caught violating his orders.
Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.
From 1007 to 1012, there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile. On October 18, 1009, al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the permission of Al-Hakim's successor.
From 1012 to 1021, al-Ḥākim became more tolerant toward the Jews and Christians and hostile toward the Sunnis. Ironically, he developed a particularly hostile attitude with regard to the Muslim Shiites. It was during this period, in the year 1017, that the unique religion of the Druze began to develop as an independent religion based on the revelation (Kashf) of al-Ḥākim as divine.
While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief dāʿī, there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity.
Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for shirk. Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the Muwahhidun movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.
The Druze find this assertion offensive; they hold ad-Darazi as the first apostate of the sect and their beliefs regarding al-Ḥākim are complex. Following a typical Isma'ili pattern, they place a preeminent teacher at the innermost circle of divinely inspired persons. For the Druze, the exoteric is taught by the Prophet, the esoteric by his secret assistants, and the esoteric of the esoteric by Imām al-Ḥākim.
Confusion and slander by opponents of the Druze were generally left uncorrected as the teachings of the sect are secret and the Druze preferred taqiyya when independence was impossible.
In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 and at the age of 36, Hakim left for one of his night journeys to the al-Muqattam hills outside of Cairo, and never returned. A search found only his donkey and bloodstained garments. The disappearance has remained a mystery.
Al-Ḥākim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
"Ruler by Allah's Command" see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim, Muhsin al-
Hakim, Muhsin al- (Muhsin al-Tabataba'i al-Hakim) (1889-1970). Most widely followed Shi ‘a mujtahid (interpreter of Islamic law) of the 1960s. Sayyid al-Hakim was born in Najaf, Iraq, into the religiously prominent Tabataba’i family of Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Pakistan. He was trained in Islamic law and theology in Najaf, studying with Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Yazdi, Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Na’ini, and others. Recognized as the leading teacher at the seminaries in Najaf, he became Shiism’s chief authority when Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Borujerdi of Qom died in 1962. With the tithes of the faithful, forwarded to him by his clerical representatives around the Shi‘a world, Ayatollah al-Hakim administered the hawzah (theological center) of Najaf and provided for the financial needs of educational centers in Iraq and other countries. His hallmark was giving mosques and Islamic centers gifts of books and libraries.
Ayatollah al-Hakim was moderate in his theology. His initiatives were educational, and in his later years, political, as he led Shi‘a clerics in an offensive against communism. His relations with Iraq’s Hashemite government (1923-1958) were amiable, but Iraq’s subsequent governments he deemed to be religiously illegitimate. He sought to meet the challenge of secularism through a series of steps aimed at educating Muslims to the need for Islamic standards in government and society and through cooperation with practicing Sunni Muslims. Among his initiatives were the sponsorship of Jama‘at al-‘Ulama’ (Society of Religious Scholars) and endorsement of Hizb al-Da’wah (Party of the Call [to Islam]), clandestine groups that strove to educate Shi‘as to the need for government that meets minimum Islamic requirements. To this end, he dispatched politically activist clerics to Lebanon and elsewhere and sanctioned political assertiveness by Shi‘as, a major change from traditional Shi‘a quietism and a major contributor to subsequent political ferment in such countries as Iraq.
Ayatollah al-Hakim opposed the Iraqi Government of ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim (1958-1963) because it was secular and because its land reform involved confiscation of private property, considered to be protected by Islamic law. Alarmed by the appeal of “atheistic” communism to Muslims, he issued a fatwa (religious proclamation) in 1960 forbidding Shi‘is to have any connection with the Communist Party. He lent his name to a joint Shi‘a-Sunni political party during the brief period in 1960 when the Iraqi government allowed organized opposition. He also led the Shi‘a clergy in opposition to the Iraqi governments of ‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif and ‘Abd al-Rahman ‘Arif (1963-1968), judging them to be sectarian, as well as secular and socialistic.
During the last two years of his life, Ayatollah al-Hakim was tormented by Iraq’s Ba‘thist Government. In 1969, when he declined to side with the government in its quarrel with the shah of Iran, he was placed under house arrest. His son Mahdi was sentenced to death and funds belonging to the hawzah were confiscated by the government. Ayatollah al-Hakim responded with a fatwa forbidding practicing Shi‘as from membership in the Ba‘th party.
Ayatollah al-Hakim fathered ten sons, many of whom, along with their sons, were executed by the Ba‘th government of Saddam Hussein during the 1980s.
Hakim, Muhsin al- (Muhsin al-Tabataba'i al-Hakim) (1889-1970). Most widely followed Shi ‘a mujtahid (interpreter of Islamic law) of the 1960s. Sayyid al-Hakim was born in Najaf, Iraq, into the religiously prominent Tabataba’i family of Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Pakistan. He was trained in Islamic law and theology in Najaf, studying with Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Yazdi, Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Na’ini, and others. Recognized as the leading teacher at the seminaries in Najaf, he became Shiism’s chief authority when Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Borujerdi of Qom died in 1962. With the tithes of the faithful, forwarded to him by his clerical representatives around the Shi‘a world, Ayatollah al-Hakim administered the hawzah (theological center) of Najaf and provided for the financial needs of educational centers in Iraq and other countries. His hallmark was giving mosques and Islamic centers gifts of books and libraries.
Ayatollah al-Hakim was moderate in his theology. His initiatives were educational, and in his later years, political, as he led Shi‘a clerics in an offensive against communism. His relations with Iraq’s Hashemite government (1923-1958) were amiable, but Iraq’s subsequent governments he deemed to be religiously illegitimate. He sought to meet the challenge of secularism through a series of steps aimed at educating Muslims to the need for Islamic standards in government and society and through cooperation with practicing Sunni Muslims. Among his initiatives were the sponsorship of Jama‘at al-‘Ulama’ (Society of Religious Scholars) and endorsement of Hizb al-Da’wah (Party of the Call [to Islam]), clandestine groups that strove to educate Shi‘as to the need for government that meets minimum Islamic requirements. To this end, he dispatched politically activist clerics to Lebanon and elsewhere and sanctioned political assertiveness by Shi‘as, a major change from traditional Shi‘a quietism and a major contributor to subsequent political ferment in such countries as Iraq.
Ayatollah al-Hakim opposed the Iraqi Government of ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim (1958-1963) because it was secular and because its land reform involved confiscation of private property, considered to be protected by Islamic law. Alarmed by the appeal of “atheistic” communism to Muslims, he issued a fatwa (religious proclamation) in 1960 forbidding Shi‘is to have any connection with the Communist Party. He lent his name to a joint Shi‘a-Sunni political party during the brief period in 1960 when the Iraqi government allowed organized opposition. He also led the Shi‘a clergy in opposition to the Iraqi governments of ‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif and ‘Abd al-Rahman ‘Arif (1963-1968), judging them to be sectarian, as well as secular and socialistic.
During the last two years of his life, Ayatollah al-Hakim was tormented by Iraq’s Ba‘thist Government. In 1969, when he declined to side with the government in its quarrel with the shah of Iran, he was placed under house arrest. His son Mahdi was sentenced to death and funds belonging to the hawzah were confiscated by the government. Ayatollah al-Hakim responded with a fatwa forbidding practicing Shi‘as from membership in the Ba‘th party.
Ayatollah al-Hakim fathered ten sons, many of whom, along with their sons, were executed by the Ba‘th government of Saddam Hussein during the 1980s.
Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakim, Tawfiq al- (Tawfiq el-Hakim) (Tawfik el-Hakim) (Aduu al Mar'a - "Enemy of woman") (October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987). Egyptian dramatist and novelist. Hakim was born in Alexandria. He was principally a dramatist, but he also exercised a great deal of influence on the development of the Egyptian novel. As a dramatist, he was influenced by Europeans like Ibsen and Shaw. He was a master of lines. He dealt with problems in his dramas and was concerned with identity. In his early writings, the Pharaonism movement was prevailing in the cultural life of Egypt, claiming that there was an eternal Egypt which did not change even in difficult times. Hakim dealt with Egyptians, relations and attitudes towards the West, the conflict between the spiritual East and the material West. Of Hakim’s novels, Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, is considered to be the best. It is based upon Hakim’s own experiences in public administration. Hakim’s most famous literary works include: The Return of the Spirit (1933 novel); The People of the Cave (1933 drama); Sharazad (Sherazade - 1934 novel); Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces (1937 novel); Pact with Satan (1938 short stories); and A Sparrow from the East (Bird from the East - 1938 novel).
Hakim was viewed as something of a misogynist in his younger years, having written a few misogynistic articles and remaining a bachelor for an unusually long period of time; he was given the laqab (i.e. epithet) of ('Aduu al Mar'a), meaning "Enemy of woman." However, he eventually married and had two children, a son and a daughter. His wife died in 1977; his son died in 1978 in a car accident. He was survived by his daughter after his death in 1987.
A more complete list of his works follows:
* A Bullet in the Heart, 1926 (Plays)
* Leaving Paradise, 1926 (Plays)
* The People of the Cave, 1933 (Play)
* The Return of the Spirit, 1933 (Novel)
* Sharazad, 1934 (Play)
* Muhammad the Prophet, 1936 (Biography)
* A Man without a Soul, 1937 (Play)
* Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, 1937 (Novel)
* Pact with Satan, 1938 (Short stories)
* A Sparrow from the East, 1938 (Novel)
* Ash'ab, 1938 (Novel)
* The Devil's Era, 1938 (Philosophical Stories)
* My Donkey told me, 1938 (Philosophical Essays)
* Braxa/The problem of ruling, 1939 (Play)
* The Dancer of the Temple, 1939 (Short Stories)
* Pygmalion, 1942
* Solomon the Wise, 1943
* Boss Kudrez's Building, 1948
* King Oedipus, 1949
* Soft Hands, 1954
* Isis, 1955
* The Deal, 1956
* The Sultan's Dilemma, 1960
* The Tree Climber, 1966
* The Fate of a Cockroach, 1966
* Anxiety Bank, 1967
* The Return of Consciousness, 1974
Tawfiq el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Tawfik el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
'Aduu al Mar'a see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
"Enemy of woman" see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakim, Tawfiq al- (Tawfiq el-Hakim) (Tawfik el-Hakim) (Aduu al Mar'a - "Enemy of woman") (October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987). Egyptian dramatist and novelist. Hakim was born in Alexandria. He was principally a dramatist, but he also exercised a great deal of influence on the development of the Egyptian novel. As a dramatist, he was influenced by Europeans like Ibsen and Shaw. He was a master of lines. He dealt with problems in his dramas and was concerned with identity. In his early writings, the Pharaonism movement was prevailing in the cultural life of Egypt, claiming that there was an eternal Egypt which did not change even in difficult times. Hakim dealt with Egyptians, relations and attitudes towards the West, the conflict between the spiritual East and the material West. Of Hakim’s novels, Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, is considered to be the best. It is based upon Hakim’s own experiences in public administration. Hakim’s most famous literary works include: The Return of the Spirit (1933 novel); The People of the Cave (1933 drama); Sharazad (Sherazade - 1934 novel); Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces (1937 novel); Pact with Satan (1938 short stories); and A Sparrow from the East (Bird from the East - 1938 novel).
Hakim was viewed as something of a misogynist in his younger years, having written a few misogynistic articles and remaining a bachelor for an unusually long period of time; he was given the laqab (i.e. epithet) of ('Aduu al Mar'a), meaning "Enemy of woman." However, he eventually married and had two children, a son and a daughter. His wife died in 1977; his son died in 1978 in a car accident. He was survived by his daughter after his death in 1987.
A more complete list of his works follows:
* A Bullet in the Heart, 1926 (Plays)
* Leaving Paradise, 1926 (Plays)
* The People of the Cave, 1933 (Play)
* The Return of the Spirit, 1933 (Novel)
* Sharazad, 1934 (Play)
* Muhammad the Prophet, 1936 (Biography)
* A Man without a Soul, 1937 (Play)
* Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, 1937 (Novel)
* Pact with Satan, 1938 (Short stories)
* A Sparrow from the East, 1938 (Novel)
* Ash'ab, 1938 (Novel)
* The Devil's Era, 1938 (Philosophical Stories)
* My Donkey told me, 1938 (Philosophical Essays)
* Braxa/The problem of ruling, 1939 (Play)
* The Dancer of the Temple, 1939 (Short Stories)
* Pygmalion, 1942
* Solomon the Wise, 1943
* Boss Kudrez's Building, 1948
* King Oedipus, 1949
* Soft Hands, 1954
* Isis, 1955
* The Deal, 1956
* The Sultan's Dilemma, 1960
* The Tree Climber, 1966
* The Fate of a Cockroach, 1966
* Anxiety Bank, 1967
* The Return of Consciousness, 1974
Tawfiq el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Tawfik el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
'Aduu al Mar'a see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
"Enemy of woman" see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakkari
Hakkari. Name of a Kurdish tribe and of a Turkish province in the extreme southeast of Turkey.
Hakkari. Name of a Kurdish tribe and of a Turkish province in the extreme southeast of Turkey.
Halabi, Burhan al-Din al-
Halabi, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Halabi) (d. 1549). Hanafi scholar from Aleppo. His handbook on Hanafi law met with great success. It was translated into Turkish and became authoritative in the Ottoman Empire.
Burhan al-Din al-Halabi see Halabi, Burhan al-Din al-
Halabi, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Halabi) (d. 1549). Hanafi scholar from Aleppo. His handbook on Hanafi law met with great success. It was translated into Turkish and became authoritative in the Ottoman Empire.
Burhan al-Din al-Halabi see Halabi, Burhan al-Din al-
Halabi, Nur al-Din al-
Halabi, Nur al-Din al- (Nur al-Din al-Halabi) (1567-1635). Arab author. He wrote a biography of the Prophet which found a wide circulation and was translated into Turkish.
Nur al-Din al-Halabi see Halabi, Nur al-Din al-
Halabi, Nur al-Din al- (Nur al-Din al-Halabi) (1567-1635). Arab author. He wrote a biography of the Prophet which found a wide circulation and was translated into Turkish.
Nur al-Din al-Halabi see Halabi, Nur al-Din al-
Halet Efendi
Halet Efendi (Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi) (1761—1822). Ottoman statesman. He used the Janissaries as an instrument to maintain his influence over the sultan, and for a time controlled nominations to the posts of Grand Vizier and Shaykh al-Islam. He played a part in the expedition against ‘Ali Pasha Tepedelenli, the governor of Jannina, which provoked the Greek revolt in the Morea in 1821.
Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi was an Ottoman Empire Foreign Minister and ambassador to Paris from 1802 to 1806. He was ambassador to the court of Napoleon I in 1806. He was succeeded in this role by Muhib Efendi, who was ambassador from 1806 to 1811.
In 1819, Halet Efendi brought the attention of Sultan Mahmud II to the power-grabbing activities of Ali Pasha in Ottoman Europe. As Mahmud II sent an army against Ali Pasha, the latter responded by encouraging a rebellion against Ottoman power in Greece. These events led to the catastrophic Greek insurrection in 1821. Halet Efendi was thus considered as partly responsible for the rebellion, and was strangled and beheaded in Konya in November 1822.
Efendi, Halet see Halet Efendi
Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi see Halet Efendi
Effendi, Mohamed-Sayd Halet see Halet Efendi
Halet Efendi (Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi) (1761—1822). Ottoman statesman. He used the Janissaries as an instrument to maintain his influence over the sultan, and for a time controlled nominations to the posts of Grand Vizier and Shaykh al-Islam. He played a part in the expedition against ‘Ali Pasha Tepedelenli, the governor of Jannina, which provoked the Greek revolt in the Morea in 1821.
Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi was an Ottoman Empire Foreign Minister and ambassador to Paris from 1802 to 1806. He was ambassador to the court of Napoleon I in 1806. He was succeeded in this role by Muhib Efendi, who was ambassador from 1806 to 1811.
In 1819, Halet Efendi brought the attention of Sultan Mahmud II to the power-grabbing activities of Ali Pasha in Ottoman Europe. As Mahmud II sent an army against Ali Pasha, the latter responded by encouraging a rebellion against Ottoman power in Greece. These events led to the catastrophic Greek insurrection in 1821. Halet Efendi was thus considered as partly responsible for the rebellion, and was strangled and beheaded in Konya in November 1822.
Efendi, Halet see Halet Efendi
Mohamed-Sayd Halet Effendi see Halet Efendi
Effendi, Mohamed-Sayd Halet see Halet Efendi
Haleti, ‘Azmi-zade Mustafa
Haleti, ‘Azmi-zade Mustafa (‘Azmi-zade Mustafa Haleti) (1570-1631). Ottoman poet and scholar. He is considered the master of the quatrain in Turkish literature.
‘Azmi-zade Mustafa Haleti see Haleti, ‘Azmi-zade Mustafa
Haleti, ‘Azmi-zade Mustafa (‘Azmi-zade Mustafa Haleti) (1570-1631). Ottoman poet and scholar. He is considered the master of the quatrain in Turkish literature.
‘Azmi-zade Mustafa Haleti see Haleti, ‘Azmi-zade Mustafa
Hali
Hali (Khwaja Altaf Husayn Hali) (1837-1914). Urdu poet. He revolutionized Urdu poetry by introducing the dynamics of Pan-Islamism and paved the way for Urdu and Indo-Persian political poems.
Altaf Husayn chose the pen name Hali (“contemporary”), which aptly expressed his deepest concerns. Born in Panipat, near Delhi, into a respected family, he ran away to Delhi at the age of seventeen and came under the influence of some of the best minds of the time, including the poet Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib. In 1871, Hali obtained an educational position in Lahore. Together with Muhammad Husain Azad and a group of liberal British educators, he was active in the Anjuman-e Punjab, a society dedicated to social and literary reform. During this period, he wrote poetry on patriotic and naturalistic themes. He returned to Delhi in 1875, became an active supporter of Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s reformist programs, and wrote his famous hortatory long poem Musaddas in 1879.
Retiring to Panipat in 1887, he wrote his most influential poetry and prose, including his Muqaddama (introduction to his divan, 1894), Yadgar-e Ghalib (a literary biography of the poet, 1897), Hayat-e javed (a biography of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 1901), and Chup ki dad (1905), a moving poem on the silent suffering and noble qualities of Indian women. Hali attempted a Western interpretation of the nature of poetry and pleaded for a literature that was socially responsible, realistic, and “natural.”
Khwaja Altaf Husayn Hali see Hali
"contemporary" see Hali
Hali (Khwaja Altaf Husayn Hali) (1837-1914). Urdu poet. He revolutionized Urdu poetry by introducing the dynamics of Pan-Islamism and paved the way for Urdu and Indo-Persian political poems.
Altaf Husayn chose the pen name Hali (“contemporary”), which aptly expressed his deepest concerns. Born in Panipat, near Delhi, into a respected family, he ran away to Delhi at the age of seventeen and came under the influence of some of the best minds of the time, including the poet Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib. In 1871, Hali obtained an educational position in Lahore. Together with Muhammad Husain Azad and a group of liberal British educators, he was active in the Anjuman-e Punjab, a society dedicated to social and literary reform. During this period, he wrote poetry on patriotic and naturalistic themes. He returned to Delhi in 1875, became an active supporter of Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s reformist programs, and wrote his famous hortatory long poem Musaddas in 1879.
Retiring to Panipat in 1887, he wrote his most influential poetry and prose, including his Muqaddama (introduction to his divan, 1894), Yadgar-e Ghalib (a literary biography of the poet, 1897), Hayat-e javed (a biography of Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 1901), and Chup ki dad (1905), a moving poem on the silent suffering and noble qualities of Indian women. Hali attempted a Western interpretation of the nature of poetry and pleaded for a literature that was socially responsible, realistic, and “natural.”
Khwaja Altaf Husayn Hali see Hali
"contemporary" see Hali
Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb
Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb (Halimah bint Abdullah) (Halimah As-Sa'diyah). Foster mother of the Prophet.
Halimah bint Abi Dhu'ayb was the foster-mother and wetnurse of the Prophet Muhammad. Halimah and her husband were from the tribe of Sa'd b. Bakr, a subdivision of Hawazin (a large North Arabian tribe or group of tribes). Other transliterations or versions of her name are Halimah bint Abdullah and Halimah As-Sa'diyah.
She died in Cyprus at an old age when she fell from her mule during a siege of Larnaca. She was buried near the salt lake and her grave became a sacred shrine. The shrine, and later the mosque and the whole complex was named after her. According to Shi'a belief, her grave lies in Jannatul Baqi, Madinah (Medina), Saudi Arabia.
Halimah bint Abdullah see Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb
Halimah As-Sa'diyah see Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb
Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb (Halimah bint Abdullah) (Halimah As-Sa'diyah). Foster mother of the Prophet.
Halimah bint Abi Dhu'ayb was the foster-mother and wetnurse of the Prophet Muhammad. Halimah and her husband were from the tribe of Sa'd b. Bakr, a subdivision of Hawazin (a large North Arabian tribe or group of tribes). Other transliterations or versions of her name are Halimah bint Abdullah and Halimah As-Sa'diyah.
She died in Cyprus at an old age when she fell from her mule during a siege of Larnaca. She was buried near the salt lake and her grave became a sacred shrine. The shrine, and later the mosque and the whole complex was named after her. According to Shi'a belief, her grave lies in Jannatul Baqi, Madinah (Medina), Saudi Arabia.
Halimah bint Abdullah see Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb
Halimah As-Sa'diyah see Halima bint Abi Dhu’ayb
Halime, Hadje
Hadje Halime (b. 1930, Salamat, Chad - d. January 7, 2001) was a Chadian activist, educator, and politician called the "mother of the revolution". Hadjé Halimé Oumar was born in the town of Salamat in 1930 to a mother from Salamat and a father from Abeche. She became involved with the Parti Progressiste Tchadien (PPT) in 1950 while working as a Quranic instructor. She was able to bring in more women who did not know French due to her knowledge of Chadian Arabic. At the time she had only a limited grasp of French. She was particularly close to Gabriel Lisette, the founder of the party, and his wife, Lisette Yéyon. She became responsible for recruiting Northern women following the General Meeting of April 2, 1950. Halimé harshly criticized the colonial administration's poll tax, and declared that if the PPT secured a victory, the poll tax would be abolished for all despite the platform calling for ending the tax only on women. She declared that Lisette was the undisputed leader of the party, despite the rise of Southern Chadian politician Francois Tombalbaye, and traveled to France on Lisette's urging to meet with the French politician Rene Coty.
However, in 1959 and 1960, Tombalbaye gained power and Lisette was removed from power. Halimé became the target of repression soon after independence, unlike her PPT female colleague Kaltouma Nguembang. As part of a purge of those near to Lisette, Halimé's only son was murdered, and she was arrested in September 1963. At first, she was taken to Massenya in Chari-Baguirmi Region, then to a central prison in Chad's capital of N'Djamena, and finally to a dreaded prison at Kela. At the Kela prison, she was regularly tortured by guards through electrocution while French and Israeli army officers supervised. Her torture resulted in her losing all her fingernails and hair. Despite Tombalbaye wanting Halimé to be killed, a French officer spared her life. In an interview, she stated that only her faith was able to keep her going through the difficult circumstances of torture. She was finally released on April 28, 1975, days after the overthrow of Tombalbaye and his regime. Out of 600 people who were imprisoned during this purge, she was one of only 45 who lived.
Lisette, who had been exiled in France, helped bring her to Paris to receive medical treatment. Halimé spent time in a hospital in Cote d'Ivoire, where the president Felix Houphouet-Boigny mandated that her medical care be free. She later joined the National Liberation Front of Chad or FROLINAT, which was based in Libya. In 1978, she moved to Tripoli and returned to politics. FROLINAT members dubbed her "the mother of the revolution", and the party seized power in 1979. She also began educating girls in Libya and founded an Islamic school, the Rising New Generation, where she taught religion, home economics, and child care. She taught over 3600 girls at the school during her years there.
Halime returned to N'Djamena in 1980 with the Popular Armed Forces (FAP) leader Goukouni Oueddei. She was then the president of the women's faction of FROLINAT. After the election of Hissene Habre in 1982, she left with forces loyal to Oueddeï in Libya. While in Libya, Halimé taught military skills to exiled Chadian women. She returned to Chad in 1991, a year after the overthrow of Habré by Idriss Deby. Many people told Deby they would support him only if he received the backing of Halimé, which she eventually gave. Shortly after her return, she won a seat in Chad's parliament and served there until 1996.
In 1993, Halime participated in the National Sovereign Conference (CNS), and was one of the most fervent defenders of the Arabic language. In 1994, she created an association called Women Az-Zara. On behalf of the association, she was voted among ten women candidates to be a member of the Higher Council of Transition, staying four years. In June 1996, she ran for parliament as a member of the opposition National Front of Chad party, as it was impossible to run as an independent. She was defeated but maintained the election was rigged. Halimé afterwards cared for orphans whose parents were killed during the Habré regime. She also opened an Arabic school in N'Djamena.
Halime went on six pilgrimages to Mecca in her life, including one last trip in 2000. She died on January 7, 2001.
Halim Hafez
Halim Hafez (Abdul Halim Hafez) (Abd el-Halim Hafez) (Abdel Halim Ismail Shabana) (el-Andaleeb el-Asmar - "The Dark Nightingale") (June 21, 1929 - March 30, 1977). “Nightingale of the Nile.” In a society that generally reserves true respect for the old, it surprised everyone when Halim Hafez took over the musical arena in his early twenties to become the golden boy of the nationalist revolution of 1952. He came at the right time with short patriotic songs that pleased President Nasser as well as the young generation of the day who embraced him as their spokesperson. By the 1960s his new, short, light songs, with their distinct melodic style, gave way to a partnership with Mohamed Abd el-Wahaab and a return to the long classical form. He was ill with bilharzia almost all his life, and involved the nation in his ongoing fight for good health with a vulnerability that charmed the nation. For men, he offered a rather camp alternative role in an oppressively masculine society. His little boy lost image had women crooning to mother him. He died in 1977, perhaps the last superstar of the great artists’ era. {See also Nasser.}
Halim Hafez was one of the most popular Egyptian singers and actors not only in Egypt but throughout the Middle East from the 1950s to the 1970s. He is widely considered to be one of the four 'greats' of Egyptian and Arabic music,along with Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Farid Al Attrach. Halim's music is still played on radio daily in Egypt and the Arab world. His name is sometimes written as 'Abd el-Halim Hafez, and he was also sometimes known as el-Andaleeb el-Asmar (the Dark Nightingale).
Halim was born in El-Halawat, in Ash Sharqiyah Governorate, 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Cairo, Egypt. Halim was the fourth child of Sheikh Ali Ismail Shabana. He had two brothers, Ismail and Mohammed, and one sister, Aliah. Halim's mother died from complications after giving birth to him, and his father died five months later leaving Abdel Halim and his siblings orphaned at a young age. Abdel Halim was raised by his aunt and uncle in Cairo.
His musical abilities first became apparent while he was in primary school, and his older brother Ismail Shabana was his first music teacher. At the age of 11 he joined the Arabic Music Institute in Cairo and became known for singing the songs of Mohammed Abdel Wahab. He graduated from the Higher Theatrical Music Institute as an oboe player.
While singing in clubs in Cairo, Halim was drafted as a last-minute substitute when singer Karem Mahmoud was unable to sing a scheduled live radio performance in honor of the first anniversary of the 1952 Revolution, on June 18, 1953. Abdel Halim's performance was enormously popular with the live audience, and was heard by Hafez Abd El Wahab, supervisor of musical programming for Egyptian national radio, who decided to support the then unknown singer. Abdel Halim took 'Hafez', Abdel Wahab's first name, as his stage-surname in recognition of his patronage. His songs became so popular that arenas and stadiums could not handle the masses. He later began to perform in deserts, Roman coliseums, and outdoor arenas.
Abdel Halim went on to become one of the most popular singers and actors of his generation, and is considered one of the four greats of Egyptian and Arabic music, along with Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Farid Al Attrach.
Abdel Halim never married, although rumors persist that he was secretly married to actress Soad Hosny for six years. What is known for certain is that Abdel Halim only truly fell in love once, in his youth. He fell in love with a young woman whose parents refused to allow them to marry. After four years, her parents finally approved, but the girl died of a chronic disease before the wedding. Abdel Halim never recovered from her loss, and dedicated many of his saddest songs to her memory, including Fi Youm, Fi Shahr, Fi Sana (In a Day, a Month, a Year) and the poignant Qariat el-Fingan (The Fortune-teller).
At the age of 11 Abdel Halim contracted Bilharzia — a parasitic water-born disease — and was periodically and painfully afflicted by it. During his lifetime, many artists and commentators accused Abdel Halim of using this to gain sympathy from female fans. His death from the disease put to rest such accusations.
Abdel Halim died on March 30, 1977, a few months short of his 48th birthday, while undergoing treatment for Bilharzia in King's College Hospital, London. His funeral (in Cairo) was attended by millions of people – more than any funeral in Egyptian history except those of President Nasser (1970) and Umm Kulthum (1975). Fourteen women committed suicide on hearing of his death. He is buried in Al Rifa'i Mosque in Cairo.
Abdel Halim's music is still popular across the Arab world, and he is widely regarded as one of the most famous and popular singers in the Arab world. His albums have sold more copies since his death than any other Arab artist except Umm Kulthum.
Abdel Halim Hafez's song Khosara enjoyed international fame in 1999 when producer Timbaland used elements (called "sampling") from it for Jay-Z's song "Big Pimpin'". Two complete bars from "Khosara" were re-recorded, not sampled, and used without permission from the song's producer and copyright holder, Magdi el-Amroussi. However, Jay-Z's use of a re-recording, rather than a sample allowed Jay-Z to avoid paying royalties for the use of the song.
His most famous songs include Ahwak ("I love you"), Khosara ("What a loss"), Gana El Hawa ("Love came to us"), Sawah ("Wanderer"), Zay el Hawa ("It feels like love"), and El Massih ("The Christ"), among the 260 songs that he recorded. His last, and perhaps most famous song, Qariat el-Fingan ("The fortune-teller"), featured lyrics by Nizar Qabbani and music by Mohammed Al-Mougy. He starred in sixteen films, including "Dalilah", which was Egypt's first color motion picture.
Along with Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Magdi el-Amroussi, Abdel Halim was a founder of the Egyptian recording company Soutelphan, which continues to operate to this day as a subsidiary of EMI Arabia. The company was founded in 1961.
In 2006 a feature film about his life, "Haleem", was released starring the late actor Ahmad Zaki in the title role, produced by the Good News Group.
The films of Abdel Halim Hafez include:
* Lahn El Wafa (The Song of Truth) as Galal
o Released: March 1, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Ibrahim Amara
* Ayyamna al-Holwa (Our Beautiful Days) as Ali
o Released: March 1, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Faten Hamama, Omar Sharif, Ahmed Ramzy
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
* Ayam We Layali (Days and Nights)
o Released: September 8, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Eman
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
* Mawed Gharam (Promised Love) as Samir
o Released: January 3, 1956
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Faten Hamama
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
* Dalila (Dalila) as Ahmed
o October 20, 1956
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Mohamad Karim
o Notes: This was the first Egyptian colored movie in Cinemascope.
* Banat El Yom (The Girls of Today) as Khaled
o Released: November 10, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Magda, Amal Farid
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
o Notes: In this movie, Abdel Halim Hafez the song "Ahwak" for the first time.
* Fata Ahlami (The Man Of My Dreams)
o Released: March 7, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Amal Farid
o Directed by: Helmi Rafleh
* Alwisada El Khalia (The Empty Pillow) as Salah
o Released: December 20, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Lubna Abed El Aziz
o Directed by: Salah Abu Yousef
* Share' El Hob (Love Street)
o Released: March 5, 1958
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Sabah
o Directed By: Ez El Deen Zol Faqar
* Hekayit Hob (A Love Story) as Ahmed Sami
o Released: January 12, 1959
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Mariam Fakher El Deen
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
* El Banat Wel Seif (Girls and Summer)
o Released: September 5, 1960
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Suad Husni, Zizi El Badrawi
o Directed by: Salah Abu Yousef, Ez El Deen Zol Faqar, Fateen Abed El Wahhab
o Notes: This movie consisted of 3 stories. Abdel Halim Hafez acted in one
* Yom Men Omri (A Day of My Life) as Salah
o Released: February 8, 1961
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Zubaida Tharwat
o Directed by: Atef Salem
* El Khataya (The Sins) as Hussien
o Released: November 12, 1962
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Madiha Yousri, Hasan Yousef, Nadia Lutfi
o Directed by: Hassan El Imam
o Songs: Wehyat Alby, Maghroor, Last Adry, Olly Haga, El Helwa
* Maabodat El Gamahir (The Beloved Diva) as Ibrahim Farid
o Released: January 13, 1963
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
o Songs: Haga Ghareeba, Balash Etaab, Last Kalby, Gabbar, Ahebek
* Abi Foq El Shagara (My Father Atop a Tree) as Adel
o Released: February 17, 1969
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Nadia Lutfi, Mervat Amin
o Directed by: Hussein Kamal
o Songs: Ady El Belag, El Hawa Hawaya, Ahdan El Habayeb, Ya Khali El Alb, Gana El Hawa
o Notes: This was the last film Abdel Halim Hafez acted in.
Abdul Halim Hafez see Halim Hafez
Abd el-Halim Hafez see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Halim see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Abdul Halim see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Abd el-Halim see Halim Hafez
“Nightingale of the Nile” see Halim Hafez
Halim Hafez (Abdul Halim Hafez) (Abd el-Halim Hafez) (Abdel Halim Ismail Shabana) (el-Andaleeb el-Asmar - "The Dark Nightingale") (June 21, 1929 - March 30, 1977). “Nightingale of the Nile.” In a society that generally reserves true respect for the old, it surprised everyone when Halim Hafez took over the musical arena in his early twenties to become the golden boy of the nationalist revolution of 1952. He came at the right time with short patriotic songs that pleased President Nasser as well as the young generation of the day who embraced him as their spokesperson. By the 1960s his new, short, light songs, with their distinct melodic style, gave way to a partnership with Mohamed Abd el-Wahaab and a return to the long classical form. He was ill with bilharzia almost all his life, and involved the nation in his ongoing fight for good health with a vulnerability that charmed the nation. For men, he offered a rather camp alternative role in an oppressively masculine society. His little boy lost image had women crooning to mother him. He died in 1977, perhaps the last superstar of the great artists’ era. {See also Nasser.}
Halim Hafez was one of the most popular Egyptian singers and actors not only in Egypt but throughout the Middle East from the 1950s to the 1970s. He is widely considered to be one of the four 'greats' of Egyptian and Arabic music,along with Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Farid Al Attrach. Halim's music is still played on radio daily in Egypt and the Arab world. His name is sometimes written as 'Abd el-Halim Hafez, and he was also sometimes known as el-Andaleeb el-Asmar (the Dark Nightingale).
Halim was born in El-Halawat, in Ash Sharqiyah Governorate, 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Cairo, Egypt. Halim was the fourth child of Sheikh Ali Ismail Shabana. He had two brothers, Ismail and Mohammed, and one sister, Aliah. Halim's mother died from complications after giving birth to him, and his father died five months later leaving Abdel Halim and his siblings orphaned at a young age. Abdel Halim was raised by his aunt and uncle in Cairo.
His musical abilities first became apparent while he was in primary school, and his older brother Ismail Shabana was his first music teacher. At the age of 11 he joined the Arabic Music Institute in Cairo and became known for singing the songs of Mohammed Abdel Wahab. He graduated from the Higher Theatrical Music Institute as an oboe player.
While singing in clubs in Cairo, Halim was drafted as a last-minute substitute when singer Karem Mahmoud was unable to sing a scheduled live radio performance in honor of the first anniversary of the 1952 Revolution, on June 18, 1953. Abdel Halim's performance was enormously popular with the live audience, and was heard by Hafez Abd El Wahab, supervisor of musical programming for Egyptian national radio, who decided to support the then unknown singer. Abdel Halim took 'Hafez', Abdel Wahab's first name, as his stage-surname in recognition of his patronage. His songs became so popular that arenas and stadiums could not handle the masses. He later began to perform in deserts, Roman coliseums, and outdoor arenas.
Abdel Halim went on to become one of the most popular singers and actors of his generation, and is considered one of the four greats of Egyptian and Arabic music, along with Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Farid Al Attrach.
Abdel Halim never married, although rumors persist that he was secretly married to actress Soad Hosny for six years. What is known for certain is that Abdel Halim only truly fell in love once, in his youth. He fell in love with a young woman whose parents refused to allow them to marry. After four years, her parents finally approved, but the girl died of a chronic disease before the wedding. Abdel Halim never recovered from her loss, and dedicated many of his saddest songs to her memory, including Fi Youm, Fi Shahr, Fi Sana (In a Day, a Month, a Year) and the poignant Qariat el-Fingan (The Fortune-teller).
At the age of 11 Abdel Halim contracted Bilharzia — a parasitic water-born disease — and was periodically and painfully afflicted by it. During his lifetime, many artists and commentators accused Abdel Halim of using this to gain sympathy from female fans. His death from the disease put to rest such accusations.
Abdel Halim died on March 30, 1977, a few months short of his 48th birthday, while undergoing treatment for Bilharzia in King's College Hospital, London. His funeral (in Cairo) was attended by millions of people – more than any funeral in Egyptian history except those of President Nasser (1970) and Umm Kulthum (1975). Fourteen women committed suicide on hearing of his death. He is buried in Al Rifa'i Mosque in Cairo.
Abdel Halim's music is still popular across the Arab world, and he is widely regarded as one of the most famous and popular singers in the Arab world. His albums have sold more copies since his death than any other Arab artist except Umm Kulthum.
Abdel Halim Hafez's song Khosara enjoyed international fame in 1999 when producer Timbaland used elements (called "sampling") from it for Jay-Z's song "Big Pimpin'". Two complete bars from "Khosara" were re-recorded, not sampled, and used without permission from the song's producer and copyright holder, Magdi el-Amroussi. However, Jay-Z's use of a re-recording, rather than a sample allowed Jay-Z to avoid paying royalties for the use of the song.
His most famous songs include Ahwak ("I love you"), Khosara ("What a loss"), Gana El Hawa ("Love came to us"), Sawah ("Wanderer"), Zay el Hawa ("It feels like love"), and El Massih ("The Christ"), among the 260 songs that he recorded. His last, and perhaps most famous song, Qariat el-Fingan ("The fortune-teller"), featured lyrics by Nizar Qabbani and music by Mohammed Al-Mougy. He starred in sixteen films, including "Dalilah", which was Egypt's first color motion picture.
Along with Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Magdi el-Amroussi, Abdel Halim was a founder of the Egyptian recording company Soutelphan, which continues to operate to this day as a subsidiary of EMI Arabia. The company was founded in 1961.
In 2006 a feature film about his life, "Haleem", was released starring the late actor Ahmad Zaki in the title role, produced by the Good News Group.
The films of Abdel Halim Hafez include:
* Lahn El Wafa (The Song of Truth) as Galal
o Released: March 1, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Ibrahim Amara
* Ayyamna al-Holwa (Our Beautiful Days) as Ali
o Released: March 1, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Faten Hamama, Omar Sharif, Ahmed Ramzy
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
* Ayam We Layali (Days and Nights)
o Released: September 8, 1955
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Eman
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
* Mawed Gharam (Promised Love) as Samir
o Released: January 3, 1956
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Faten Hamama
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
* Dalila (Dalila) as Ahmed
o October 20, 1956
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Mohamad Karim
o Notes: This was the first Egyptian colored movie in Cinemascope.
* Banat El Yom (The Girls of Today) as Khaled
o Released: November 10, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Magda, Amal Farid
o Directed by: Henry Barakat
o Notes: In this movie, Abdel Halim Hafez the song "Ahwak" for the first time.
* Fata Ahlami (The Man Of My Dreams)
o Released: March 7, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Amal Farid
o Directed by: Helmi Rafleh
* Alwisada El Khalia (The Empty Pillow) as Salah
o Released: December 20, 1957
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Lubna Abed El Aziz
o Directed by: Salah Abu Yousef
* Share' El Hob (Love Street)
o Released: March 5, 1958
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Sabah
o Directed By: Ez El Deen Zol Faqar
* Hekayit Hob (A Love Story) as Ahmed Sami
o Released: January 12, 1959
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Mariam Fakher El Deen
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
* El Banat Wel Seif (Girls and Summer)
o Released: September 5, 1960
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Suad Husni, Zizi El Badrawi
o Directed by: Salah Abu Yousef, Ez El Deen Zol Faqar, Fateen Abed El Wahhab
o Notes: This movie consisted of 3 stories. Abdel Halim Hafez acted in one
* Yom Men Omri (A Day of My Life) as Salah
o Released: February 8, 1961
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Zubaida Tharwat
o Directed by: Atef Salem
* El Khataya (The Sins) as Hussien
o Released: November 12, 1962
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Madiha Yousri, Hasan Yousef, Nadia Lutfi
o Directed by: Hassan El Imam
o Songs: Wehyat Alby, Maghroor, Last Adry, Olly Haga, El Helwa
* Maabodat El Gamahir (The Beloved Diva) as Ibrahim Farid
o Released: January 13, 1963
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia
o Directed by: Helmy Halim
o Songs: Haga Ghareeba, Balash Etaab, Last Kalby, Gabbar, Ahebek
* Abi Foq El Shagara (My Father Atop a Tree) as Adel
o Released: February 17, 1969
o Starring: Abdel Halim Hafez, Nadia Lutfi, Mervat Amin
o Directed by: Hussein Kamal
o Songs: Ady El Belag, El Hawa Hawaya, Ahdan El Habayeb, Ya Khali El Alb, Gana El Hawa
o Notes: This was the last film Abdel Halim Hafez acted in.
Abdul Halim Hafez see Halim Hafez
Abd el-Halim Hafez see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Halim see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Abdul Halim see Halim Hafez
Hafez, Abd el-Halim see Halim Hafez
“Nightingale of the Nile” see Halim Hafez
Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Haliqarnas Baliqcisi (Haliqarnas Baliqcisi - "Fisherman of Halicarnassus") (Cevat Shakir Kabaagacli) (Kabaagacli Cevat Sakir) (b. April 17 1890, Crete - d. October 13 1973, Izmir). Turkish novelist and short story writer. He labored increasingly to develop the seaport of Bodrum where he had been banished for one of his publications.
Baliqcisi, Haliqarnas see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Cevat Shakir Kabaagacli see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Kabaagacli, Cevat Shakir see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
"Fisherman of Halicarnassus" see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Kabaagacli Cevat Sakir see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Sakir, Kabaagacli Cevat see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Haliqarnas Baliqcisi (Haliqarnas Baliqcisi - "Fisherman of Halicarnassus") (Cevat Shakir Kabaagacli) (Kabaagacli Cevat Sakir) (b. April 17 1890, Crete - d. October 13 1973, Izmir). Turkish novelist and short story writer. He labored increasingly to develop the seaport of Bodrum where he had been banished for one of his publications.
Baliqcisi, Haliqarnas see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Cevat Shakir Kabaagacli see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Kabaagacli, Cevat Shakir see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
"Fisherman of Halicarnassus" see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Kabaagacli Cevat Sakir see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Sakir, Kabaagacli Cevat see Haliqarnas Baliqcisi
Hallaj
Hallaj (Abu’l-Mughith al-Hallaj) (Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj) (Mansur al-Hallaj) (Mansūr-e Hallāj) (Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj) (c. 858 - March 26, 922). Arabic speaking mystic theologian of Persian origin. A monogamist and profoundly faithful to Sunnism, he led a fervently ascetic life. He made the pilgrimage to Mecca three times and travelled far and wide in the Islamic world. The main aim of his preaching was to enable everyone to find God within his or her own heart, but he was accused of deception, false miracles, magic and sorcery by Mu‘tazilites, Sufis and Shi ‘is. According to a hostile account of the grammarians of Basra, he proclaimed: “I am (God) the Truth.” Having been imprisoned in Baghdad for nine years, he finally was executed.
Al-Hallaj was the most famous and controversial Sufi figure in medieval Islam. Born in Fars, a cotton-carder -- an hallaj -- by trade, al-Hallaj pursued the mystical path under two spiritual masters, one of whom, Junayd, was lauded for his “sobriety.”
Al-Hallaj, however, has been viewed as the exemplar of “intoxication,” since he once declared: “Ana’l-Haqq” (“I am Truth!”). Since “Truth” is one of the names of God, this was considered blasphemy.
Al-Hallaj traveled widely, performing the pilgrimage -- the hajj -- three times, and making numerous enemies as well as friends in the Muslim communities of Central and Southern Asia.
A book of poetry and one of anecdotes are among the numerous writings ascribed to al-Hallaj. He never tired of talking about the relationship of love between man and God. For al-Hallaj, this relationship entails endless suffering, but it also brings a strange kind of joy, known only to the devotee.
Al-Hallaj became the first Sufi martyr -- the first shahid -- when he was executed by dismemberment, and his corpse was crucified (or hanged) and burned. Each act of his degradation has become a topic of his subsequent exaltation among Sufi poets, including Jalal ad-Din Rumi, the founder of the “Whirling Dervishes.”
Abu’l-Mughith al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Mansūr-e Hallāj see Hallaj
Mansur al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj see Hallaj
Hallaj (Abu’l-Mughith al-Hallaj) (Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj) (Mansur al-Hallaj) (Mansūr-e Hallāj) (Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj) (c. 858 - March 26, 922). Arabic speaking mystic theologian of Persian origin. A monogamist and profoundly faithful to Sunnism, he led a fervently ascetic life. He made the pilgrimage to Mecca three times and travelled far and wide in the Islamic world. The main aim of his preaching was to enable everyone to find God within his or her own heart, but he was accused of deception, false miracles, magic and sorcery by Mu‘tazilites, Sufis and Shi ‘is. According to a hostile account of the grammarians of Basra, he proclaimed: “I am (God) the Truth.” Having been imprisoned in Baghdad for nine years, he finally was executed.
Al-Hallaj was the most famous and controversial Sufi figure in medieval Islam. Born in Fars, a cotton-carder -- an hallaj -- by trade, al-Hallaj pursued the mystical path under two spiritual masters, one of whom, Junayd, was lauded for his “sobriety.”
Al-Hallaj, however, has been viewed as the exemplar of “intoxication,” since he once declared: “Ana’l-Haqq” (“I am Truth!”). Since “Truth” is one of the names of God, this was considered blasphemy.
Al-Hallaj traveled widely, performing the pilgrimage -- the hajj -- three times, and making numerous enemies as well as friends in the Muslim communities of Central and Southern Asia.
A book of poetry and one of anecdotes are among the numerous writings ascribed to al-Hallaj. He never tired of talking about the relationship of love between man and God. For al-Hallaj, this relationship entails endless suffering, but it also brings a strange kind of joy, known only to the devotee.
Al-Hallaj became the first Sufi martyr -- the first shahid -- when he was executed by dismemberment, and his corpse was crucified (or hanged) and burned. Each act of his degradation has become a topic of his subsequent exaltation among Sufi poets, including Jalal ad-Din Rumi, the founder of the “Whirling Dervishes.”
Abu’l-Mughith al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Mansūr-e Hallāj see Hallaj
Mansur al-Hallaj see Hallaj
Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj see Hallaj
Hamad III
Hamad III (Ahmadu ibn Ahmadu) (d. 1862). Ruler of Macina at the time of its conquest by al-Hajj ‘Umar. He succeeded his father, Hamad II, as ruler of the theocratic Islamic state of Macina in 1853. His first concern was to maintain independence from the neighboring Bambara state of Segu, which had formerly controlled Macina. By the end of the decade, the primary challenge came from the Tukolor imperialist al-Hajj ‘Umar, who was determined to conquer Macina despite Hamad’s protestations that it was already an Islamic state. Hamad allied with Segu against ‘Umar, but the Tukolor leader conquered them both. Hamad was killed by ‘Umar in 1862 when Macina fell. Two years later, Macina revolted and ‘Umar was killed by the armies of Hamad’s uncle, Ba Lobbo.
Ahmadu ibn Ahmadu see Hamad III
Hamad III (Ahmadu ibn Ahmadu) (d. 1862). Ruler of Macina at the time of its conquest by al-Hajj ‘Umar. He succeeded his father, Hamad II, as ruler of the theocratic Islamic state of Macina in 1853. His first concern was to maintain independence from the neighboring Bambara state of Segu, which had formerly controlled Macina. By the end of the decade, the primary challenge came from the Tukolor imperialist al-Hajj ‘Umar, who was determined to conquer Macina despite Hamad’s protestations that it was already an Islamic state. Hamad allied with Segu against ‘Umar, but the Tukolor leader conquered them both. Hamad was killed by ‘Umar in 1862 when Macina fell. Two years later, Macina revolted and ‘Umar was killed by the armies of Hamad’s uncle, Ba Lobbo.
Ahmadu ibn Ahmadu see Hamad III
Hamad Bari
Hamad Bari (Hamadu) (Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo Cisse) (Sekou Ahmadu) (1775-1845). Leader of the Islamic revolution in Macina (Mali). He studied under the great Fula revolutionary, ‘Uthman dan Fodio, and participated in ‘Uthman’s jihad at Gobir in northern Nigeria (around 1805). From his experience, Hamad received inspiration to introduce Islamic reform into his own society. After leaving ‘Uthman’s homeland he settled in a province of Macina, teaching and amassing followers. As with other Islamic revolutionaries, much of his support came from Fula less interested in religious reform than in overthrowing the old ruling class or settling local grievances. When the ruler of Macina moved against him, Hamad fled to his future capital of Hamdullahi. His flight emulated those of the Prophet Muhammad and ‘Uthman dan Fodio. At Hamdullahi, in 1818, Hamad proclaimed a jihad. He was successful in Macina, but failed in his campaigns against the Mossi states. In 1831, he defeated the Tuareg of Timbuktu, but he never brought that city entirely under control. He established his administration according to Islamic principles, and ruled what has often been referred to as the most strictly theocratic Islamic state in West Africa. At his death, he was succeeded by a son, Hamad II (1845-1853).
Bari, Hamad see Hamad Bari
Hamadu see Hamad Bari
Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo Cisse see Hamad Bari
Cisse, Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo see Hamad Bari
Sekou Ahmadu see Hamad Bari
Ahmadu, Sekou see Hamad Bari
Hamad Bari (Hamadu) (Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo Cisse) (Sekou Ahmadu) (1775-1845). Leader of the Islamic revolution in Macina (Mali). He studied under the great Fula revolutionary, ‘Uthman dan Fodio, and participated in ‘Uthman’s jihad at Gobir in northern Nigeria (around 1805). From his experience, Hamad received inspiration to introduce Islamic reform into his own society. After leaving ‘Uthman’s homeland he settled in a province of Macina, teaching and amassing followers. As with other Islamic revolutionaries, much of his support came from Fula less interested in religious reform than in overthrowing the old ruling class or settling local grievances. When the ruler of Macina moved against him, Hamad fled to his future capital of Hamdullahi. His flight emulated those of the Prophet Muhammad and ‘Uthman dan Fodio. At Hamdullahi, in 1818, Hamad proclaimed a jihad. He was successful in Macina, but failed in his campaigns against the Mossi states. In 1831, he defeated the Tuareg of Timbuktu, but he never brought that city entirely under control. He established his administration according to Islamic principles, and ruled what has often been referred to as the most strictly theocratic Islamic state in West Africa. At his death, he was succeeded by a son, Hamad II (1845-1853).
Bari, Hamad see Hamad Bari
Hamadu see Hamad Bari
Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo Cisse see Hamad Bari
Cisse, Ahmad ibn Muhammad Lobbo see Hamad Bari
Sekou Ahmadu see Hamad Bari
Ahmadu, Sekou see Hamad Bari
Hamadhani
Hamadhani (Ahmad Badi‘ al-Zaman al-Hamadhani) (“the Prodigy of the Age”) (Badi al-Zaman) (Badi uz-Zaman - “Wonder of the Age”) (Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Hamadhani) (967-1007). Arabo-Persian author and letter-writer. His name is perpetuated by his Sessions, sketches which represent keen observations of everyday life. They were to serve as a model for almost a thousand years.
Al-Hamadhani was a native of Hamadhan in Persia, but wrote in Arabic. After a restless youth, al-Hamadhani settled at Herat in Afghanistan under the patronage of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna.
Al-Hamadhani and al-Hariri were the great exponents of the literary genre known as the maqama. The maqama is a kind of short story, or episode, written in rhymed prose, an old literary device much used in the Qur’an. Al-Hamadhani’s Maqamat represent the adventures of an unscrupulous vagabond, Abu’l-Fath of Alexandria. In the Maqamat, the narrator continually meets Abu’l-Fath in unexpected situations and finds him earning his living by imposing on good nature and gullibility. These stories act as a frame for the author’s virtuosity in word manipulation, his use of elaborate figures of speech and his placing of an apposite quotation or allusion.
These Maqamat, not perhaps easy for us to appreciate, constitute the only prose fiction in classical Arabic literature, apart from popular romances such as the Arabian Nights and the Romances of the Bani Hilal and philosophical parables such as those written by Ibn Sina and Ibn Tufail’s Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (“Alive Son of Awake”). The Maqamat resemble the “picaresque” novel but they are shorter self-contained units, and depend, as has been said, largely upon the author’s skill with language.
Ahmad Badi‘ al-Zaman al-Hamadhani see Hamadhani
“The Prodigy of the Age” see Hamadhani
Badi al-Zaman see Hamadhani
Zaman, Badi al- see Hamadhani
“Wonder of the Age” see Hamadhani
Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Hamadhani see Hamadhani
Hamadhani (Ahmad Badi‘ al-Zaman al-Hamadhani) (“the Prodigy of the Age”) (Badi al-Zaman) (Badi uz-Zaman - “Wonder of the Age”) (Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Hamadhani) (967-1007). Arabo-Persian author and letter-writer. His name is perpetuated by his Sessions, sketches which represent keen observations of everyday life. They were to serve as a model for almost a thousand years.
Al-Hamadhani was a native of Hamadhan in Persia, but wrote in Arabic. After a restless youth, al-Hamadhani settled at Herat in Afghanistan under the patronage of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna.
Al-Hamadhani and al-Hariri were the great exponents of the literary genre known as the maqama. The maqama is a kind of short story, or episode, written in rhymed prose, an old literary device much used in the Qur’an. Al-Hamadhani’s Maqamat represent the adventures of an unscrupulous vagabond, Abu’l-Fath of Alexandria. In the Maqamat, the narrator continually meets Abu’l-Fath in unexpected situations and finds him earning his living by imposing on good nature and gullibility. These stories act as a frame for the author’s virtuosity in word manipulation, his use of elaborate figures of speech and his placing of an apposite quotation or allusion.
These Maqamat, not perhaps easy for us to appreciate, constitute the only prose fiction in classical Arabic literature, apart from popular romances such as the Arabian Nights and the Romances of the Bani Hilal and philosophical parables such as those written by Ibn Sina and Ibn Tufail’s Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (“Alive Son of Awake”). The Maqamat resemble the “picaresque” novel but they are shorter self-contained units, and depend, as has been said, largely upon the author’s skill with language.
Ahmad Badi‘ al-Zaman al-Hamadhani see Hamadhani
“The Prodigy of the Age” see Hamadhani
Badi al-Zaman see Hamadhani
Zaman, Badi al- see Hamadhani
“Wonder of the Age” see Hamadhani
Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Hamadhani see Hamadhani
Hamallah
Hamallah (Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna Omar) (1893-1943). Founder of the Hamallist Islamic protest movement, one of the most violent anti-colonial episodes in French West Africa. Hamallah was the son of a Berber trader and a Fula slave woman. He received a modest Islamic education at Nioro du Sahil in present Mali before becoming a disciple of al-Akhdar, a former member of the Tijani Islamic brotherhood who had been ousted for adopting a different rosary. When al-Akhdar died in 1909, Hamallah became the leader of the movement based at Nioro.
The Tijani brotherhood under the famous revolutionary al-Hajj ‘Umar had been in the forefront of resistance to the French, but after ‘Umar’s defeat the Tijaniyya came to support the colonialists. Any splinter groups distrusted by the Tijaniyya were also distrusted by the French. Hamallah’s preaching differed from Tijaniyya orthodoxy in its emphasis on egalitarianism, mysticism and faith, in addition to the different rosary.
Hamallah himself never made anti-French statements nor did he preach in public. Hamallah’s many followers, however, refused to acknowledge traditional Tijani Islamic leaders and it was those Tijani Islamic leaders who had the ear of the French.
Nevertheless, a 1916 report on the movement by the well-known ethnographer Paul Marty was favorable towards Hamallah. Meanwhile, Hamallah’s following had spread throughout the western Sudan. Although Hamallists consciously ignored the colonialists, Hamallah avoided any illegal activity.
In 1925, amid fears of a worldwide Islamic conspiracy, the French authorities deported Hamallah to Mauritania. Hamallah’s followers in the French Sudan (Mali), who at the time were not under the direct control of Hamallah, took a militant stance against the French and the Tijani brotherhood. Violence erupted. The most violent incident occurred in 1930 at Kaedi, Mauritania, where about thirty people were killed during an assault on the district office.
Hamallah denounced the violence. Nevertheless, the French relocated Hamallah to the Ivory Coast where it was hoped that his influence would become dissipated.
Instead of seeing his influence wane, Hamallah became something of a cause celebre. He won the support of some highly educated Islamic clerics and important Senegalese politicians such as Galandou Diouf and Lamine Gueye.
Diouf and Gueye intervened on Hamallah’s behalf and Hamallah returned home in 1935.
In 1940, near Nioro, a Hamallist band apparently led by three of his sons, attacked a camp of Tenwajib pastoralists, a group which had been harassing the Hamillists for many years. Over four hundred Tenwajib, mainly women and children, were massacred.
In response, the French rounded up six hundred Hamallists, shot thirty-three leaders, including Hamallah’s sons, and imprisoned the rest. Governor General Boisson deported Hamallah to Algeria, and two years later he was removed to France.
Hamallah’s deportation did not stem the violence associated with his movement. In 1941, six Europeans were killed by Hamallists at Bobo Dioulasso (Upper Volta). Such incidences of violence would continue until 1951. However, after 1946, a new freedom of political expression in French West Africa permitted the creation of less violent channels of protest, and the Hamallist movement became integrated with the Rassemblement Democratique Africain, the largest anti-colonial party in French West Africa.
As for Hamallah, while in exile in France, Hamallah staged a fast protesting his deportation. It was complications resulting from this fast which led to Hamallah’s death in 1943.
Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna Omar see Hamallah
Omar, Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna see Hamallah
Hamallah (Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna Omar) (1893-1943). Founder of the Hamallist Islamic protest movement, one of the most violent anti-colonial episodes in French West Africa. Hamallah was the son of a Berber trader and a Fula slave woman. He received a modest Islamic education at Nioro du Sahil in present Mali before becoming a disciple of al-Akhdar, a former member of the Tijani Islamic brotherhood who had been ousted for adopting a different rosary. When al-Akhdar died in 1909, Hamallah became the leader of the movement based at Nioro.
The Tijani brotherhood under the famous revolutionary al-Hajj ‘Umar had been in the forefront of resistance to the French, but after ‘Umar’s defeat the Tijaniyya came to support the colonialists. Any splinter groups distrusted by the Tijaniyya were also distrusted by the French. Hamallah’s preaching differed from Tijaniyya orthodoxy in its emphasis on egalitarianism, mysticism and faith, in addition to the different rosary.
Hamallah himself never made anti-French statements nor did he preach in public. Hamallah’s many followers, however, refused to acknowledge traditional Tijani Islamic leaders and it was those Tijani Islamic leaders who had the ear of the French.
Nevertheless, a 1916 report on the movement by the well-known ethnographer Paul Marty was favorable towards Hamallah. Meanwhile, Hamallah’s following had spread throughout the western Sudan. Although Hamallists consciously ignored the colonialists, Hamallah avoided any illegal activity.
In 1925, amid fears of a worldwide Islamic conspiracy, the French authorities deported Hamallah to Mauritania. Hamallah’s followers in the French Sudan (Mali), who at the time were not under the direct control of Hamallah, took a militant stance against the French and the Tijani brotherhood. Violence erupted. The most violent incident occurred in 1930 at Kaedi, Mauritania, where about thirty people were killed during an assault on the district office.
Hamallah denounced the violence. Nevertheless, the French relocated Hamallah to the Ivory Coast where it was hoped that his influence would become dissipated.
Instead of seeing his influence wane, Hamallah became something of a cause celebre. He won the support of some highly educated Islamic clerics and important Senegalese politicians such as Galandou Diouf and Lamine Gueye.
Diouf and Gueye intervened on Hamallah’s behalf and Hamallah returned home in 1935.
In 1940, near Nioro, a Hamallist band apparently led by three of his sons, attacked a camp of Tenwajib pastoralists, a group which had been harassing the Hamillists for many years. Over four hundred Tenwajib, mainly women and children, were massacred.
In response, the French rounded up six hundred Hamallists, shot thirty-three leaders, including Hamallah’s sons, and imprisoned the rest. Governor General Boisson deported Hamallah to Algeria, and two years later he was removed to France.
Hamallah’s deportation did not stem the violence associated with his movement. In 1941, six Europeans were killed by Hamallists at Bobo Dioulasso (Upper Volta). Such incidences of violence would continue until 1951. However, after 1946, a new freedom of political expression in French West Africa permitted the creation of less violent channels of protest, and the Hamallist movement became integrated with the Rassemblement Democratique Africain, the largest anti-colonial party in French West Africa.
As for Hamallah, while in exile in France, Hamallah staged a fast protesting his deportation. It was complications resulting from this fast which led to Hamallah’s death in 1943.
Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna Omar see Hamallah
Omar, Hamahu’allah ibn Sharif Muhammad ibn Sidna see Hamallah
Hamama, Faten
Faten Hamama (Arabic: فاتن حمامة, Fātan Ḥamāmah), 27 May 1931 – 17 January 2015) was an Egyptian film and television actress and producer.
Faten Hamama (Arabic: فاتن حمامة, Fātan Ḥamāmah), 27 May 1931 – 17 January 2015) was an Egyptian film and television actress and producer.
She made her screen debut in 1939, when she was only seven years old. Her earliest roles were minor, but her activity and gradual success helped to establish her as a distinguished Egyptian actress. Eventually, and after many successful performances, she was able to achieve stardom. Revered as an icon in Egyptian and Middle Eastern cinema, Hamama substantially helped in improving the cinema industry in Egypt and emphasized the importance of women in cinema and Egyptian society.
After a seven-year hiatus from acting, Hamama returned in 2000 in what was a much anticipated television mini-series, Wajh al-Qamar (وجه القمر, Face of the Moon). In 2000, she was selected as Star of the Century by the Egyptian Writers and Critics organization. In 2007, eight of the films she starred in were included in the top 100 films in the history of Egyptian cinema by the cinema committee of the Supreme Council of Culture in Cairo.
Faten Hamama was born in 1931 to a Muslim lower middle class family in Mansoura, Egypt (according to her birth certificate), but she claimed to have been born in the Abdeen quarter of Cairo. Her father, Ahmed Hamama, worked as a clerk in the Egyptian Ministry of Education and her mother was a housewife. She had an older brother, Muneer, a younger sister, Layla, and a younger brother, Mazhar. Her aspiration for acting arose at an early age. Hamama was influenced by Assia Dagher as a child. When she was six years old, her father took her to the theater to see an Assia Dagher film; when the audience clapped for Assia, Faten told her father she felt they were clapping for her.
When Faten won a children's beauty pageant in Egypt, her father sent her picture to the director Mohammed Karim who was looking for a young female child to play the role of a small girl with the famous actor and musician Mohamed Abdel Wahab in the film Yawm Said (يوم سعيد, Happy Day, 1939). After an audition, Abdel Wahab decided that Faten was the one he was looking for. After her role in the film, people called her "Egypt's own Shirley Temple". The director liked her acting and was impressed with her so much that he signed a contract with her father. Four years later, she was chosen by Kareem for another role with Abdel Wahab in the film Rossassa Fel Qalb (رصاصة في القلب,Bullet in the Heart, 1944) and in another film two years later, Dunya (دنيا, Universe, 1946). After her success, Hamama moved with her parents to Cairo and started her study in the High Institute of Acting in 1946.
Youssef Wahbi, an Egyptian actor and director, recognized the young actress's talent so he offered her a lead role in the 1946 film Malak al-Rahma (ملاك الرحمة, Angel of Mercy). The film attracted widespread media attention, and Hamama, who was only 15 at the time, became famous for her melodramatic role. In 1949, Hamama had roles in three films with Wahbi: Kursi Al-I'etraf (كرسي الاعتراف, Chair of Confession), Al-Yateematain (اليتيمتين, The Two Orphans), and Sït Al-Bayt (ست البيت, Lady of the House). All were successful films.
The 1950s were the beginning of the golden age of the Egyptian cinema industry and Hamama was a big part of it. In 1952 she starred in the film Lak Yawm Ya Zalem (لك يوم يا ظالم, Your Day will Come) which was nominated at the Cannes Film Festival for the Prix International award. She also played lead roles in Yousef Shaheen's Baba Ameen(بابا أمين, Ameen, my Father, 1950) and Sira' Fi Al-Wadi (صراع في الوادي, Struggle in the Valley, 1954) which was a strong nominee in the 1954 Cannes Film Festival for the Prix International award. Hamama is also known for playing the lead role in the first Egyptian mystery film Manzel Raqam 13 (منزل رقم 13, House Number 13). In 1963, she received an award for her role in the political film La Waqt Lel Hob (لا وقت للحب, No Time for Love). Hamama was also able to make it to Hollywood; in 1963 she had a role in the crime film, Cairo.
In 1947, Hamama married actor/director Ezzel Dine Zulficar while filming the Abu Zayd al-Hilali (أبو زيد الهلالي) film. They started a production company which produced the film Maw'ed Ma' Al-Hayat (موعد مع الحياة, Date with Life) in which she starred. This particular film earned her the title of the "lady of the Arabic screen". She divorced Zulficar in 1954. One year later, she married Egyptian film star Omar Sharif. Hamama continued to act in films directed by her first husband.
In 1954, while filming a Youssef Chahine film, Struggle in the Valley, Hamama refused to have the Egyptian actor Shukry Sarhan as a co-star, and Chahine offered Omar Sharif the role. Omar had just graduated from college then and was working for his father; Hamama accepted him as her co-star. Hamama had never agreed to act any scene involving a kiss in her career, but she shockingly agreed to do so in this film. The two fell in love, and Sharif converted to Islam and married her. This marriage started a new era of Hamama's career as the couple made many films together. Sharif and Hamama were the romantic leads of Ayyamna Al-Holwa (أيامنا الحلوة, Our Sweet Days), Ardh Al-Salam (أرض السلام, Land of Peace), La Anam (لا أنام, Sleepless), and Sayyidat Al-Qasr (سيدة القصر, The Lady of the Palace). Their last film together, before their divorce, was Nahr Al-Hob (نهر الحب, The River of Love) in 1960.
Hamama left Egypt from 1966 to 1971 due to the harassment by Egyptian Intelligence. She had been a supporter of the 1952 Revolution, but later became an opponent of the Free Officers and their oppressive regime. Consequently, she was forbidden to travel or participate in film festivals. She was only able to leave Egypt after many controversial disputes.
While Hamama was away, then President Gamal Abdel Nasser asked famous writers, journalists and friends to try to convince her to return to Egypt. He called her a "national treasure" and had even awarded her an honorary decoration in 1965. However, she would not return until 1971, after Nasser's death.
Hamama played roles conveying messages of democracy. She often criticized the laws in Egypt in her films. In the 1972 film Imbarotiriyat Meem (إمبراطورية ميم, The Empire of M), Hamama presented a pro-democratic point of view and received an award from the Soviet Union of Women in the Moscow International Festival. Her most significant political film was Oridu Hallan (أريد حلاً, I Want a Solution). In this film, she criticized laws governing marriage and divorce in Egypt. After the film, the Egyptian government abrogated a law that forbade wives from divorcing their husbands, therefore allowing khul'.
Hamama played roles conveying messages of democracy. She often criticized the laws in Egypt in her films. In the 1972 film Imbarotiriyat Meem (إمبراطورية ميم, The Empire of M), Hamama presented a pro-democratic point of view and received an award from the Soviet Union of Women in the Moscow International Festival. Her most significant political film was Oridu Hallan (أريد حلاً, I Want a Solution). In this film, she criticized laws governing marriage and divorce in Egypt. After the film, the Egyptian government abrogated a law that forbade wives from divorcing their husbands, therefore allowing khul'.
As Hamama became older, her acting roles declined and she made fewer films compared to earlier in her career, but nevertheless the films she was able to make tended to be successful. She made her first television appearances in her late career. She starred in the TV mini-series Dameer Ablah Hikmat (ضمير أبلة حكمت, Mrs. Hikmat's Conscience).
After 1993, her career came to a halt. It was not until 2000 that she returned in the successful TV mini-series Wajh ِِal-Qamar which was broadcast on 23 TV channels in the Middle East. In this mini-series, Hamama portrayed and criticized many problems in Egyptian and Middle Eastern society. Despite some criticisms, the mini-series received much praise and acclaim. Hamama was awarded the Egyptian Best TV Actor of the Year and the mini-series won the Best TV Series Award in the Egyptian Radio and Television Festival.
Before the 1950s, Hamama had leading roles in 30 films, in which she often played the role of a weak, empathetic, poor girl. After the 1950s, Hamama was in search of her real identity and was trying to establish herself as a distinct figure. During this period, her choice of material and roles was somewhat limited. However, film producers soon capitalized on her popularity with audiences in local and Middle Eastern markets and she began to play realistic, strong women, such as in Sira' Fi Al-Wadi (صراع في الوادي,Struggle in the Valley, 1954) where she portrayed a rich man's daughter who, contrary to stereotype, was a realistic woman who helped and supported the poor. In the 1952 film Miss Fatmah (الأستاذة فاطمة), Hamama starred as a law student who believed women were as important as men in society.
In Imbratoriyat Meem (امبراطورية ميم, The Empire of M), she played the role of a widow who takes care of her large family and suffers hardship. Her most influential film was Oridu Hallan (أريد حلا, I Want a Solution) which criticized the laws of marriage and divorce in Egypt. A law in Egypt that forbade khul' ( خلع ) – a divorce initiated by the wife.
Most critics agree that Hamama's most challenging role was in the 1959 film Dua'e Al-Karawan (دعاء الكروان, The Nightingale's Prayer), which was chosen as one of the best Egyptian film productions. It is based on the novel by the same name by the prominent Egyptian writer Taha Hussein. In this film, Hamama played the role of Amnah, a young woman who seeks revenge from her uncle for the honor killing of her sister. After this film, Hamama carefully picked her roles. In 1960, she starred in the film Nahr Hob (نهر حب, Love River) which was based on Leo Tolstoy's well known novel Anna Karenina and in 1961, she played the lead role in the film La Tutf'e al-Shams (لا تطفئ الشمس, Don't Turn Off the Sun) based on the novel by Ihsan Abdel Quddous.
Faten Hamama died on January 17, 2015, aged 83 due to health problems. Her son Tarek Sharif did not state the exact cause of death.
Hamama met director Ezzel Dine Zulficar, while filming Abu Zayd al-Hilali (أبو زيد الهلالى) in 1947, fell in love and wed. The marriage lasted for seven years. They divorced in 1954. The two remained friends, and Hamama continued to star in his films after the divorce. They had one child, a daughter, Nadia Zulficar. In 1954, Hamama chose Omar Sharif to co-star with her in a film. In this film, she uncharacteristically agreed to a romantic scene involving a kiss. During the filming, they fell in love. Sharif converted to Islam and married her. The couple co-starred in many films. However, after nearly two decades together, the couple divorced in 1974; they had one son, Tarek Sharif.
Hamama later married Dr Mohamed Abdel Wahab Mahmoud, an Egyptian physician. They resided in Cairo until her death on January 17, 2015 following a short illness.
Throughout Hamama's career, she received numerous accolades for best actress, and was nominated for the Cannes Film Festival's Prix International for her role in 1950's Your Day Will Come. She received her first award in 1951 for her role in I'm the Past. The country's Ministry of Guidance also awarded her the title of Best Actress in both 1955 and 1961. These were followed by many different awards for best actress from various national and international events. International ones included special awards for acting at the first Tehran International Film Festival in 1972 for her role in The Thin Thread, and in 1977 for her role in Mouths and Rabbits. In 1973, she received the Special Award at the Moscow International Film Festival for her role in Empire M. Other international accolades include the Best Actress awards at the Jakarta Film Festival in 1963 for her role in The Open Door, and at the Carthage Film Festival in 1988 for her role in Bitter Days, Nice Days.
Hamama was also a recipient of the Lebanese Order of Merit in 1984 for her role in The Night of Fatma's Arrest. She was later presented lifetime achievement awards, including one at the Montpellier Mediterranean Film Festival in 1993, and another at the Dubai International Film Festival in 2009. In 2001, the Egyptian Writers and Critics Organization chose her as "Star of the Century" at the Alexandria International Film Festival, honoring her lengthy career in Egyptian cinema.
Hamas
Hamas. Palestinian Islamist political group, especially active with military actions. Hamas is not an abbreviation but rather is a nickname which is derived from the Arabic word for “zeal.” The full name Harakatu al-Mujawamati al-Islamiya means Islamic Resistance Movement (or Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyah -- Movement of Islamic Resistance).
Hamas was the most important Palestinian Islamist organization in the occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip. It was established in December 1987, at the very beginning of the Palestinian
uprising (intifadah), as the organizational expression of Muslim Brotherhood participation in the anti-Israeli resistance after two decades of Islamic political quietism. Its armed wing is called ‘Izz al-Din al-Qassam Forces, a reference to the shaykh killed by the British at the beginning of the great Palestinian revolt in 1936.
Until the intifadah, Islam rarely constituted the primary justification for the liberation struggle of the Palestinians. Rather, this was maintained in the name of Arab or Palestinian nationalism. “Official” Islam, an integral part of Jordanian authority in the West Bank or an autonomous force in Gaza, was content to preside solely in religious matters. At the end of the 1970s, however, a new type of Islamic activism appeared. Claiming the authority of the Muslim Brotherhood and linked with its Egyptian and Jordanian branches, this movement had as its primary preoccupation the re-islamization of society. This quest was characterized by vigorous preaching in the mosques and also by attacks on unveiled women and the destruction of bars and cinemas. Some of these new Islamists had a strongly anti-Israeli discourse – Israel is believed to constitute the spearhead of Western aggression against Islam, so the liberation of Palestine is fundamentally a religious question. Their practice, however, was politically restrained. The Muslim Brothers refrained from confronting the occupying power and confined their political activities to the struggle against the Palestinian Communist Party. At this time, Fatah, the main wing of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and Jordan were happy to encourage the Islamist attacks on the left, and Israel had an interest in encouraging any division among the Palestinians. Although this political behavior cost the Muslim Brothers political legitimacy in the view of many Palestinians, they managed to establish a large social welfare network in the Gaza Strip under the charismatic coordination of Shaykh Ahmad Yasin, a handicapped schoolmaster. They also infiltrated the majority of mosques in Gaza and came to control the Islamic University. In the West Bank, however, the Muslim Brothers failed to establish a network or to find a charismatic leader. Their only strongholds were in the universities.
With the appearance at the beginning of the 1980s of Islamic Jihad cells – rivaling the Muslim Brotherhood in Islamic activism but fundamentally different in political behavior – Islam became truly integral to the politics of the occupied territories. Under the leadership of Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ‘Awdah, a lecturer at the Islamic University in Gaza, and Dr. Fathi Shiqaqi, a physician from Rafiah on the Egyptian border, various small groups made jihad against Israel in all its forms, including armed struggle, the central religious duty. In doing so, they claimed the authority of Sayyid Qutb, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader executed in 1966, of some Egyptian Islamic Jihad members, and of intellectuals of the Islamic revolution in Iran. Their activists came either from the ranks of the Muslim Brothers, whose political conduct they criticized, or from the religious wing of Fatah. In 1986-1987 they engaged in a series of anti-Israeli guerrilla operations. Although maintaining a very small membership, they thus played an important role in inciting the intifadah. In the process, Islam regained political legitimacy among the Palestinians for the first time since the 1930s.
Almost spontaneous at the beginning, the uprising very quickly became organized through local and regional committees. Within this mobilization of the entire Palestinian society, Hamas was created in Gaza at the initiative of Dr. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Rantisi, a physician working at the Islamic University, and of Shaykh Yasin. This new organization initially attracted Muslim Brothers only on an individual basis. In February 1988, however, the brotherhood formally adopted Hamas as its “strong arm.” In its covenant (mithaq) published in August 1988, Hamas explains its anti-Israeli engagement in terms of jihad, now an individual religious duty, and claims continuity with the jihad of the Muslim Brothers since the 1930s. For Hamas, Israel, the state of the Jews who want the destruction of Islam, cannot legitimately exist, and the military option as embodied in holy jihad is the only one available for the liberation of Palestine. Hamas presents its relationship with the PLO as that of a relative: “Can a Muslim abandon his relatives and friends? Our homeland is one, our disaster is one, our fate is one.” In spite of this, the seeds of tension with the nationalists remain: for Hamas, “Palestine is on Islamic waqf (pious endowment) until the end of time. Neither it nor any part of it may be given up.” Furthermore, “the Islamicity of Palestine is a part of our religion and whoever gives up on his religion is lost.” In the name of religion, therefore, Hamas rejects the political program adopted by the PLO when creating the Palestinian state in November 1988. The PLO had recognized the legitimacy of the Israeli state’s existence and demanded the holding of an international conference under United Nations auspices for the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel.
In 1993, more than five years after its foundation, Hamas could boast an important following, estimated at thirty to forty percent of the population. This was due in part to growing frustration and despair and to the political legitimacy it had gained by its anti-Israeli commitment, but also to its capacity to mobilize at the same time the most traditional sectors of the society. In spite of sporadic tensions, general violent confrontation between Hamas and Fatah was avoided. Hamas denounced the September 13, 1993, breakthrough in which the Israelis and the PLO agreed to limited Palestinian autonomy in Jericho and the Gaza Strip, and Hamas continued to target both Israelis and Palestinian “collaborators.” The movement was banned by Israel, and its founder Shaykh Yasin and hundreds of its followers were put in jail.
Hamas was never willing to accept any compromise with Israel. In Article 11 of its Charter, Hamas declares that no party has the right to give up any Palestinian land. Article 13 of the same Charter posits that jihad is the only solution to the struggle with Israel and that other measures, such as international peace conferences, are “a waste of time and a kind of child’s play.”
The jihad of Hamas has involved actions against moderate Palestinians (especially members of PLO), in addition to attacks on Israelis.
In the charter of Hamas strong sentiments against the Western world and Jews are clearly expressed. Quotations from the Qur’an are frequently used.
Hamas is both a social and a militant organization. Hamas is involved in welfare schemes and education of Palestinians, in vocational training, health care and also with providing jobs to the unemployed.
Hamas also became known for their suicide bombers. The suicide bombers came from a special branch of Hamas, called the Allotment of the Power of Religion – the ‘Izzu ad-Dini al-Qasam. Members of this brigade believe that death in the name of Allah is the greatest of deeds.
With the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in May 1994, Hamas threatened with civil war, and continued with attacks on Israel. A bomb in a bus in Tel Aviv, where 22 were killed, and the detention of hundreds of Hamas activists by Israel, brought Hamas into the headlines of the world press.
Hamas has a lot of support among Palestinians, even if these numbers go quickly up and down depending on change in social conditions and politics in Palestine. With the Israeli killings of stone throwing Palestinians in late 2000, Hamas became stronger than ever. Indeed, with the advent of the new century, Hamas came to be a real threat to the power position of the PLO.
In January 2006, Hamas was successful in the Palestinian parliamentary elections, taking 76 of the 132 seats in the chamber, while the previous ruling Fatah party took 43. After Hamas's election victory, violent and non-violent conflicts arose between Hamas and Fatah. Following the Battle of Gaza in June 2007, elected Hamas officials were ousted from their positions in the Palestinian National Authority government in the West Bank and replaced by rival Fatah members and independents. Hamas retained control of Gaza. On June 18, 2007, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas (Fatah) issued a decree outlawing the Hamas militia. Israel then immediately imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, and Hamas launched Qassam attacks on areas of Israel near its border with Gaza. Hamas rocket attacks ceased following an Egyptian brokered ceasefire that went into effect on June 19, 2008, but rocket attacks by other organizations continued despite action taken by Hamas to prevent them. Two months before the end of the six-month ceasefire the conflict escalated after an Israeli incursion into Gaza on November 4 that killed seven Hamas militants which led to a renewal of Hamas rocket attacks and the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict began when Israel invaded Gaza in late December, 2008. Israel withdrew its forces from Gaza in mid-January 2009, but has maintained its blockade of Gaza's border and airspace.
Since June 2007, after winning a large majority in the Palestinian Parliament and defeating rival Palestinian party Fatah in a series of violent clashes, Hamas has governed the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories. The governments of Canada, the European Union, Israel, Japan, and the United States classify Hamas as a terrorist organization. The United Kingdom and Australia, classify only Hamas' independant military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades as a terrorist organization.
Harakatu al-Mujawamati al-Islamiya see Hamas.
Islamic Resistance Movement see Hamas.
Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyah see Hamas.
Movement of Islamic Resistance see Hamas.
Until the intifadah, Islam rarely constituted the primary justification for the liberation struggle of the Palestinians. Rather, this was maintained in the name of Arab or Palestinian nationalism. “Official” Islam, an integral part of Jordanian authority in the West Bank or an autonomous force in Gaza, was content to preside solely in religious matters. At the end of the 1970s, however, a new type of Islamic activism appeared. Claiming the authority of the Muslim Brotherhood and linked with its Egyptian and Jordanian branches, this movement had as its primary preoccupation the re-islamization of society. This quest was characterized by vigorous preaching in the mosques and also by attacks on unveiled women and the destruction of bars and cinemas. Some of these new Islamists had a strongly anti-Israeli discourse – Israel is believed to constitute the spearhead of Western aggression against Islam, so the liberation of Palestine is fundamentally a religious question. Their practice, however, was politically restrained. The Muslim Brothers refrained from confronting the occupying power and confined their political activities to the struggle against the Palestinian Communist Party. At this time, Fatah, the main wing of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and Jordan were happy to encourage the Islamist attacks on the left, and Israel had an interest in encouraging any division among the Palestinians. Although this political behavior cost the Muslim Brothers political legitimacy in the view of many Palestinians, they managed to establish a large social welfare network in the Gaza Strip under the charismatic coordination of Shaykh Ahmad Yasin, a handicapped schoolmaster. They also infiltrated the majority of mosques in Gaza and came to control the Islamic University. In the West Bank, however, the Muslim Brothers failed to establish a network or to find a charismatic leader. Their only strongholds were in the universities.
With the appearance at the beginning of the 1980s of Islamic Jihad cells – rivaling the Muslim Brotherhood in Islamic activism but fundamentally different in political behavior – Islam became truly integral to the politics of the occupied territories. Under the leadership of Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ‘Awdah, a lecturer at the Islamic University in Gaza, and Dr. Fathi Shiqaqi, a physician from Rafiah on the Egyptian border, various small groups made jihad against Israel in all its forms, including armed struggle, the central religious duty. In doing so, they claimed the authority of Sayyid Qutb, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader executed in 1966, of some Egyptian Islamic Jihad members, and of intellectuals of the Islamic revolution in Iran. Their activists came either from the ranks of the Muslim Brothers, whose political conduct they criticized, or from the religious wing of Fatah. In 1986-1987 they engaged in a series of anti-Israeli guerrilla operations. Although maintaining a very small membership, they thus played an important role in inciting the intifadah. In the process, Islam regained political legitimacy among the Palestinians for the first time since the 1930s.
Almost spontaneous at the beginning, the uprising very quickly became organized through local and regional committees. Within this mobilization of the entire Palestinian society, Hamas was created in Gaza at the initiative of Dr. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Rantisi, a physician working at the Islamic University, and of Shaykh Yasin. This new organization initially attracted Muslim Brothers only on an individual basis. In February 1988, however, the brotherhood formally adopted Hamas as its “strong arm.” In its covenant (mithaq) published in August 1988, Hamas explains its anti-Israeli engagement in terms of jihad, now an individual religious duty, and claims continuity with the jihad of the Muslim Brothers since the 1930s. For Hamas, Israel, the state of the Jews who want the destruction of Islam, cannot legitimately exist, and the military option as embodied in holy jihad is the only one available for the liberation of Palestine. Hamas presents its relationship with the PLO as that of a relative: “Can a Muslim abandon his relatives and friends? Our homeland is one, our disaster is one, our fate is one.” In spite of this, the seeds of tension with the nationalists remain: for Hamas, “Palestine is on Islamic waqf (pious endowment) until the end of time. Neither it nor any part of it may be given up.” Furthermore, “the Islamicity of Palestine is a part of our religion and whoever gives up on his religion is lost.” In the name of religion, therefore, Hamas rejects the political program adopted by the PLO when creating the Palestinian state in November 1988. The PLO had recognized the legitimacy of the Israeli state’s existence and demanded the holding of an international conference under United Nations auspices for the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel.
In 1993, more than five years after its foundation, Hamas could boast an important following, estimated at thirty to forty percent of the population. This was due in part to growing frustration and despair and to the political legitimacy it had gained by its anti-Israeli commitment, but also to its capacity to mobilize at the same time the most traditional sectors of the society. In spite of sporadic tensions, general violent confrontation between Hamas and Fatah was avoided. Hamas denounced the September 13, 1993, breakthrough in which the Israelis and the PLO agreed to limited Palestinian autonomy in Jericho and the Gaza Strip, and Hamas continued to target both Israelis and Palestinian “collaborators.” The movement was banned by Israel, and its founder Shaykh Yasin and hundreds of its followers were put in jail.
Hamas was never willing to accept any compromise with Israel. In Article 11 of its Charter, Hamas declares that no party has the right to give up any Palestinian land. Article 13 of the same Charter posits that jihad is the only solution to the struggle with Israel and that other measures, such as international peace conferences, are “a waste of time and a kind of child’s play.”
The jihad of Hamas has involved actions against moderate Palestinians (especially members of PLO), in addition to attacks on Israelis.
In the charter of Hamas strong sentiments against the Western world and Jews are clearly expressed. Quotations from the Qur’an are frequently used.
Hamas is both a social and a militant organization. Hamas is involved in welfare schemes and education of Palestinians, in vocational training, health care and also with providing jobs to the unemployed.
Hamas also became known for their suicide bombers. The suicide bombers came from a special branch of Hamas, called the Allotment of the Power of Religion – the ‘Izzu ad-Dini al-Qasam. Members of this brigade believe that death in the name of Allah is the greatest of deeds.
With the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority in May 1994, Hamas threatened with civil war, and continued with attacks on Israel. A bomb in a bus in Tel Aviv, where 22 were killed, and the detention of hundreds of Hamas activists by Israel, brought Hamas into the headlines of the world press.
Hamas has a lot of support among Palestinians, even if these numbers go quickly up and down depending on change in social conditions and politics in Palestine. With the Israeli killings of stone throwing Palestinians in late 2000, Hamas became stronger than ever. Indeed, with the advent of the new century, Hamas came to be a real threat to the power position of the PLO.
In January 2006, Hamas was successful in the Palestinian parliamentary elections, taking 76 of the 132 seats in the chamber, while the previous ruling Fatah party took 43. After Hamas's election victory, violent and non-violent conflicts arose between Hamas and Fatah. Following the Battle of Gaza in June 2007, elected Hamas officials were ousted from their positions in the Palestinian National Authority government in the West Bank and replaced by rival Fatah members and independents. Hamas retained control of Gaza. On June 18, 2007, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas (Fatah) issued a decree outlawing the Hamas militia. Israel then immediately imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, and Hamas launched Qassam attacks on areas of Israel near its border with Gaza. Hamas rocket attacks ceased following an Egyptian brokered ceasefire that went into effect on June 19, 2008, but rocket attacks by other organizations continued despite action taken by Hamas to prevent them. Two months before the end of the six-month ceasefire the conflict escalated after an Israeli incursion into Gaza on November 4 that killed seven Hamas militants which led to a renewal of Hamas rocket attacks and the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict began when Israel invaded Gaza in late December, 2008. Israel withdrew its forces from Gaza in mid-January 2009, but has maintained its blockade of Gaza's border and airspace.
Since June 2007, after winning a large majority in the Palestinian Parliament and defeating rival Palestinian party Fatah in a series of violent clashes, Hamas has governed the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories. The governments of Canada, the European Union, Israel, Japan, and the United States classify Hamas as a terrorist organization. The United Kingdom and Australia, classify only Hamas' independant military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades as a terrorist organization.
Harakatu al-Mujawamati al-Islamiya see Hamas.
Islamic Resistance Movement see Hamas.
Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyah see Hamas.
Movement of Islamic Resistance see Hamas.
Hamawi, Yaqut ibn 'Abdullah al-Rumi al-
Yaqut ibn 'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi (1179–1229) (Arabic: ياقوت الحموي الرومي) was an Islamic biographer and geographer renowned for his encyclopedic writings on the Muslim world. "al-Rumi" ("from Rum") refers to his Greek (Byzantine) descent; "al-Hamawi" is taken after Hama, Syria, and ibn-Abdullah is a reference to his father's name, Abdullah. The word yāqūt means ruby or hyacinth.
Yaqut was working as a slave to a trader, Askar ibn Abi Nasr al-Hamawi, who lived in Baghdad, Iraq. His master taught him accounting and trading and sent him to trade on his behalf. He later freed him of his obligations and that enabled Yaqut to dedicate himself to his scholarly tasks. He was one of the last scholars who had access to the libraries east of the Caspian Sea before the Mongol invasion of Central Asia. Yaqut travelled to the peaceful scholarly city of ancient Merv in present-day Turkmenistan. There Yaqut spent two years in libraries, learning much of the knowledge he would later use in his works. Yaqut spent the last few years of his life in Aleppo and died there.
The works of al-Hamawi include the following:
- Kitab mu'jam al-buldan (معجم البلدان "Dictionary of Countries")
- Mu'jam al-udabā', (معجم الأدباء "Dictionary of Writers") written in 1226.
- al-Mushtarak wadh'ā wal-Muftaraq Sa'qā (المشترک وضعا والمفترق صعقا )
Hamd Allah
Hamd Allah (Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Qazwini) (c.1281-after 1339). Persian historian and geographer from Qazvin. His work is important for the period of the Il-Khans.
Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Qazwini see Hamd Allah
Qazwini, Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al- see Hamd Allah
Hamd Allah (Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Qazwini) (c.1281-after 1339). Persian historian and geographer from Qazvin. His work is important for the period of the Il-Khans.
Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Qazwini see Hamd Allah
Qazwini, Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al- see Hamd Allah
Hamdan
Hamdan (Banu Hamdan). Large Arab tribe of Yemen. They joined in the attack made on Arabia when Muhammad marched against Mecca. Many of them are said to have been in ‘Ali’s army in Siffin.
The Banu Hamdan is a well known clan since the 1st millennium B.C.T., it was mentioned in Sabaic inscriptions as qayls of Hashid, who later acquired control over a part of Bakil and finally gave their clan name to a tribal confederation including Hashid and Bakil.
Banu Hamdan see Hamdan
Hamdan (Banu Hamdan). Large Arab tribe of Yemen. They joined in the attack made on Arabia when Muhammad marched against Mecca. Many of them are said to have been in ‘Ali’s army in Siffin.
The Banu Hamdan is a well known clan since the 1st millennium B.C.T., it was mentioned in Sabaic inscriptions as qayls of Hashid, who later acquired control over a part of Bakil and finally gave their clan name to a tribal confederation including Hashid and Bakil.
Banu Hamdan see Hamdan
Hamdani
Hamdani (Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani) (Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Hamdānī) (Ibn al-Ha’ik) (893-945). South Arabian scholar, most famous as an antiquarian, genealogist, geographer and poet. His magnum opus is the encyclopaedic The Crown.
Abū Muḥammad al-Hamdānī was an Arab Muslim geographer, poet, grammarian, historian, and astronomer, from the tribe of Hamdan, western 'Amran/Yemen. He was one of the best representatives of Islamic culture during the last effective years of the Abbasid caliphate.
The biographic data of al-Hamdani is hardly well-known, despite his extensive scientific work. He was held in repute as a grammarian, wrote much poetry, compiled astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison in San‘a’, Yemen in 945.
His Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab) is by far the most important work on the subject. Much has been written on this work in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other great work of Hamdani is the Iklil (The Crown) concerning the genealogies of the Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten volumes.
The works of al-Hamdani include:
* Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab (Geography of the Arabian Peninsula)
* Iklil (The Crown)
* Alaklel al-Hamdani
* History of Saba
* Language of Himyar and Najran
Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani see Hamdani
Ibn al-Ha’ik see Hamdani
Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Hamdānī see Hamdani
Hamdani (Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani) (Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Hamdānī) (Ibn al-Ha’ik) (893-945). South Arabian scholar, most famous as an antiquarian, genealogist, geographer and poet. His magnum opus is the encyclopaedic The Crown.
Abū Muḥammad al-Hamdānī was an Arab Muslim geographer, poet, grammarian, historian, and astronomer, from the tribe of Hamdan, western 'Amran/Yemen. He was one of the best representatives of Islamic culture during the last effective years of the Abbasid caliphate.
The biographic data of al-Hamdani is hardly well-known, despite his extensive scientific work. He was held in repute as a grammarian, wrote much poetry, compiled astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison in San‘a’, Yemen in 945.
His Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab) is by far the most important work on the subject. Much has been written on this work in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other great work of Hamdani is the Iklil (The Crown) concerning the genealogies of the Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten volumes.
The works of al-Hamdani include:
* Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab (Geography of the Arabian Peninsula)
* Iklil (The Crown)
* Alaklel al-Hamdani
* History of Saba
* Language of Himyar and Najran
Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani see Hamdani
Ibn al-Ha’ik see Hamdani
Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Hamdānī see Hamdani
Hamdanids
Hamdanids. Arab dynasty in Mesopotamia (904-1003) and Syria (929-1003). Their main capitals were Mosul and Aleppo. Belonging to the Taghlib tribe, their ascent began with the founder of the dynasty, Hamdan ibn Hamdun, who became Abbasid governor in the area of Mardin in 890. His son, Abdallah (904-929), became governor of Mosul in 906 and ruled Baghdad from 914. As governors of Mosul and Aleppo with honorary caliphal titles, his sons, Hasan and Ali, became rulers of the Syria-Mesopotamia region. The brutal Hasan Nasir al-Dawla (929-968) gained increasing independence from the Buyids as ruler of Mosul and Diyarbakr. He founded the Mosul branch of the dynasty, which ruled until 991. As ruler of Aleppo, his brother, Ali Saif al-Dawla (945-967), was an important conbatant against Byzantium and patron of the arts. He established the Aleppo branch, which converted to Shi‘ism in 969 and became subordinate to the Fatimids. These ousted the Hamdanids in 1003.
The Hamdanid dynasty was a Shi'a Muslim Arab dynasty of northern Iraq (Al-Jazirah) and Syria (890-1004). They claimed to have been descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib Christian tribe of Mesopotamia Anizzah northern Arabia.
The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun (after whom it is named), when he was appointed governor of Mardin in southeast Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliphs in 890.
His son Abdallah (904-929) was in turn appointed governor of Mosul in northern Iraq (906) and even governed Baghdad (914). His sons were installed as governors in Mosul and Aleppo.
The rule of Hassan Nasir ad-Daula (929-968), governor of Mosul and Diyarbakır, was sufficiently tyrannical to cause him to be deposed by his own family. However, his lineage still ruled in Mosul, a heavy defeat by the Buyids in 979 notwithstanding, until 990. After this, their area of control in northern Iraq was divided between the Uqailids and the Marwanids.
Ali Saif al-Daula ('Sword of the State') ruled (945-967) Northern Syria from Aleppo, and became the most important opponent of the Byzantine Empire's (Christian) expansion. His court was a center of culture, thanks to its nurturing of Arabic literature. However, it lost this status after the Byzantine conquest of Aleppo.
To stop the Byzantine advance the Hamdanids put Aleppo under the suzerainty of the Fatimids in Egypt, but in 1003 the Fatimids deposed the Hamdanids anyway.
A list of the Hamdanid rulers reads as follows:
Hamdanids in Al-Jazira
1. Hamdan ibn Hamdun (868-874)
2. al-Husayn ibn Hamdan (895-916)
3. Abdullah ibn Hamdan (906-929)
4. Nasir ad-Daula (929-967)
5. Adid ad-Daula (967-980)
6. Abul Tahir Ibrahim ibn al-Hasan (989-997)
7. Abu Abdillah al-Husayn ibn al-Hasan (989-997)
Hamdanids in Aleppo
1. Sayf al-Daula (945-967)
2. Saad al-Daula (967-991)
3. Said al-Daula (991-1002)
4. Abul Hasan Ali (1002–1004)
5. Abul Ma'ali Sharif (1004–1004)
Hamdanids. Arab dynasty in Mesopotamia (904-1003) and Syria (929-1003). Their main capitals were Mosul and Aleppo. Belonging to the Taghlib tribe, their ascent began with the founder of the dynasty, Hamdan ibn Hamdun, who became Abbasid governor in the area of Mardin in 890. His son, Abdallah (904-929), became governor of Mosul in 906 and ruled Baghdad from 914. As governors of Mosul and Aleppo with honorary caliphal titles, his sons, Hasan and Ali, became rulers of the Syria-Mesopotamia region. The brutal Hasan Nasir al-Dawla (929-968) gained increasing independence from the Buyids as ruler of Mosul and Diyarbakr. He founded the Mosul branch of the dynasty, which ruled until 991. As ruler of Aleppo, his brother, Ali Saif al-Dawla (945-967), was an important conbatant against Byzantium and patron of the arts. He established the Aleppo branch, which converted to Shi‘ism in 969 and became subordinate to the Fatimids. These ousted the Hamdanids in 1003.
The Hamdanid dynasty was a Shi'a Muslim Arab dynasty of northern Iraq (Al-Jazirah) and Syria (890-1004). They claimed to have been descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib Christian tribe of Mesopotamia Anizzah northern Arabia.
The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun (after whom it is named), when he was appointed governor of Mardin in southeast Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliphs in 890.
His son Abdallah (904-929) was in turn appointed governor of Mosul in northern Iraq (906) and even governed Baghdad (914). His sons were installed as governors in Mosul and Aleppo.
The rule of Hassan Nasir ad-Daula (929-968), governor of Mosul and Diyarbakır, was sufficiently tyrannical to cause him to be deposed by his own family. However, his lineage still ruled in Mosul, a heavy defeat by the Buyids in 979 notwithstanding, until 990. After this, their area of control in northern Iraq was divided between the Uqailids and the Marwanids.
Ali Saif al-Daula ('Sword of the State') ruled (945-967) Northern Syria from Aleppo, and became the most important opponent of the Byzantine Empire's (Christian) expansion. His court was a center of culture, thanks to its nurturing of Arabic literature. However, it lost this status after the Byzantine conquest of Aleppo.
To stop the Byzantine advance the Hamdanids put Aleppo under the suzerainty of the Fatimids in Egypt, but in 1003 the Fatimids deposed the Hamdanids anyway.
A list of the Hamdanid rulers reads as follows:
Hamdanids in Al-Jazira
1. Hamdan ibn Hamdun (868-874)
2. al-Husayn ibn Hamdan (895-916)
3. Abdullah ibn Hamdan (906-929)
4. Nasir ad-Daula (929-967)
5. Adid ad-Daula (967-980)
6. Abul Tahir Ibrahim ibn al-Hasan (989-997)
7. Abu Abdillah al-Husayn ibn al-Hasan (989-997)
Hamdanids in Aleppo
1. Sayf al-Daula (945-967)
2. Saad al-Daula (967-991)
3. Said al-Daula (991-1002)
4. Abul Hasan Ali (1002–1004)
5. Abul Ma'ali Sharif (1004–1004)
Hamdanids
Hamdanids. Name of three families of the Banu Hamdan who ruled over San‘a’ and its dependencies from 1088 to 1175.
Banu Hamdan see Hamdanids.
Hamdanids. Name of three families of the Banu Hamdan who ruled over San‘a’ and its dependencies from 1088 to 1175.
Banu Hamdan see Hamdanids.
Hamdan Qarmat
Hamdan Qarmat. Leader of the Carmathian movement in Kufa during the ninth century.
Qarmat, Hamdan see Hamdan Qarmat.
Hamdan Qarmat. Leader of the Carmathian movement in Kufa during the ninth century.
Qarmat, Hamdan see Hamdan Qarmat.
Hamdi
Hamdi (Hamd Allah Hamdi) (Hamdi Hamdi Abdullah) (1449-1503). Turkish poet. Among other works he wrote a mathnawi on the story of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife, treated in a mystical manner. It became immensely popular.
Hamdi was a Turkish poet. He wrote several treatises that were primarily religious, and a diwan of poetry. Other works include a mystical biography on the life of Muhammad and a book on physiognomy.
Hamd Allah Hamdi see Hamdi
Hamdi Hamdi Abdullah see Hamdi
Abdullah, Hamdi Hamdi see Hamdi
Hamdi (Hamd Allah Hamdi) (Hamdi Hamdi Abdullah) (1449-1503). Turkish poet. Among other works he wrote a mathnawi on the story of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife, treated in a mystical manner. It became immensely popular.
Hamdi was a Turkish poet. He wrote several treatises that were primarily religious, and a diwan of poetry. Other works include a mystical biography on the life of Muhammad and a book on physiognomy.
Hamd Allah Hamdi see Hamdi
Hamdi Hamdi Abdullah see Hamdi
Abdullah, Hamdi Hamdi see Hamdi
Hamdullah Mustawfi
Hamdullah Mustawfi (c.1281-1350). Persian geographer and historian. Hamdullah Mustawfi came from a family of Arab origin, long settled at Qazwin, which had produced a succession of high-ranking civil servants. Hamdullah Mustawfi was promoted to the position of Superintendent of Finances (mustawfi) by the vizier and historian, Rashid al-Din around 1311.
The three greatest works of Hamdullah Mustawfi are Ta’rikh-i Guzida (“The Select History”), a universal history covering the time period from Creation to the year 1329; Zafar-nama (“The Book of Victory”), an heroic poem of 75,000 couplets intended as a continuation of the Shah-nama of Firdawsi, which relates the history of the Muslim world up to the year 1335; and Nuzhat al-Qulub (“The Delight of Hearts”), a geographical and cosmographical treatise completed in 1340.
Hamdullah Mustawfi (c.1281-1350). Persian geographer and historian. Hamdullah Mustawfi came from a family of Arab origin, long settled at Qazwin, which had produced a succession of high-ranking civil servants. Hamdullah Mustawfi was promoted to the position of Superintendent of Finances (mustawfi) by the vizier and historian, Rashid al-Din around 1311.
The three greatest works of Hamdullah Mustawfi are Ta’rikh-i Guzida (“The Select History”), a universal history covering the time period from Creation to the year 1329; Zafar-nama (“The Book of Victory”), an heroic poem of 75,000 couplets intended as a continuation of the Shah-nama of Firdawsi, which relates the history of the Muslim world up to the year 1335; and Nuzhat al-Qulub (“The Delight of Hearts”), a geographical and cosmographical treatise completed in 1340.
Hamdun ibn al-Hajj
Hamdun ibn al-Hajj or in full Abu al-Fayd Hamdun ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Hamdun ibn Abd al-Rahman Mohammed ibn al-Hajj al-Fasi al-Sulami al-Mirdasi (1760–1817) was one of the most outstanding scholars of the reign of Mulay Suleiman of Morocco. He was a committed Tijani Sufi but also an outspoken critic of some of the practices of Sufism in that time. Hamdun ibn al-Hajj was also one of the best known poets of the period and the author of a diwan (Silsilat Dhakhair al-turath al-adabi bi-al-Maghrib). He also wrote a commentary on Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's Muqaddimah, a gloss on Taftazani's treatise on the Mukhtasar and a series of Diwans including a controversial poem dedicated to Amir Sau'ud ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz.
Hamengkubuwana
Hamengkubuwana (Hamengkubuwono). Name of all sultans of Yogyakarta (Java) since Mangkubumi (Hamengkubuwana I [r.1749-1792]) assumed it in 1755. His son Hamengkubuwana II (r. 1792-1810, 1811-1812, 1826-1828) contributed to the fall of Yogyakarta to British forces in 1812 by his arbitrary rule, intrigues, and mishandling of relations with Britain. Among his successors the most noteworthy are Hamengkubuwana V (r. 1822-1826, 1828-1855), a noted patron of literature, and Hamengkubuwana IX, who assumed the throne in 1939 and introduced progressive reforms in Yogyakarta from 1945 onward. He played a leading role in the revolution (1945-1949) and in national affairs thereafter, eventually serving as vice president of Indonesia (1973-1978).
Hamengkubuwono I, born Raden Mas Sujana (d. 1792), was the first sultan of Yogyakarta.
Sujana, the Crown Prince, was known as Prince Mangkubumi prior to becoming sultan of Yogyakarta Sultanate. As a son of Sultan Sunan Prabu of Mataram, and brother to Prince Heir Apparent Pakubuwono II of Surakarta, a dispute arose concerning succession to the Mataram throne. Prince Mangkubumi challenged Pakubuwono II who was aided by the Dutch East India Company seeking a more pliant VOC puppet as Central Javanese king. The war that eventuated was known as the Third Succession War in Mataram.
During the war, Prince Mangkubumi was aided by the brilliant and legendary army commander-in-chief Raden Mas Said who fought in a highly effective strategic manner. Mangkubumi won decisive battles at Grobogan, Demak and Bogowonto River. During the War in 1749, Pakubuwono II died and the Crown Prince Mangkubumi became Sultan. At the Battle of Bogowonto River in 1751, the Dutch Army under De Clerck was destroyed by Mangkubumi's forces. Raden Mas Said revolted in dispute with Prince Mangkubumi. The Succession War and revolt of Raden Mas Said ended when the Gyanti Treaty of 1755 was signed in Giyanti- an area east of Surakarta (capital of Matarm Empire). Raden Mas Said was granted Royal Appenages and the title Mangkunegara.
According to the Giyanti Treaty, Mataram was divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta with Pakubuwono III as ruler, and Yogyakarta Sultanate with Prince Mangkubumi as sultan with the title Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Senopati Ing Ngalaga Sayidin Panatagama Kalifatulah. Yogyakarta became capital and a new palace was built with a magnificent water palace in the west of his grounds Taman Sari.
Sultan Hamengkubuwono died in 1792 and was interred in the royal cemetery of Astana Kasuwargan in Imogiri. He was succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II, his son.
*****
Hamengkubuwono IX or HB IX (April 12, 1912 - October 2, 1988) was the first Governor of the Yogyakarta Special Region, the ninth Sultan of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the second vice president of Indonesia during Suharto's reign.
Born as Raden Mas Dorodjatun in Sompilan, Ngasem, Yogyakarta to Gusti Pangeran Haryo (Prince) Puruboyo and Raden Ajeng Kustillah, when he was three years old he was named Crown Prince to the Yogyakarta Sultanate after his father ascended to the throne and became Sultan Hamengkubuwono VIII.
Hamengkubuwono IX had a Western education. When he was four, he was sent away to live with a Dutch family. After completing his primary and secondary education in 1931, Hamengkubuwono IX left Indonesia to attend the Leiden University in the Netherlands. There Hamengkubuwono IX took Indonesian studies and economics. He returned to Indonesia in 1939.
With the death of Hamengkubuwono VIII in October 1939, Hamengkubuwono ascended to the throne with a coronation ceremony on March 18, 1940.
His full title was Sampeyan Dalem Ingkang Sinuwun Kanjeng Sultan Hamengkubuwono Senopati Ing Alogo Ngabdurrakhman Sayidin Panotogomo Kholifatullah Ingkang Kaping Songo.
During his coronation speech, Hamengkubuwono recognized his Javanese origins and said "Even though I have tasted Western Education, I am still and will always be a Javanese."
The young Sultan negotiated terms and conditions with the governor, Dr. Lucien Adam, for four months from November 1939 to February 1940. The main points of contention were:
1. The Sultan did not agree that his prime minister ("Patih Danureja") would also be the Netherlands' employee.
2. The Sultan did not agree that half of his advisors would be selected by the Netherlands.
3. The Sultan did not agree that his small army would receive direct orders from the Netherlands' army.
Eventually, the Sultan agreed to the proposal by the government of the Netherlands, after he received an insight that the Netherlands would soon leave Indonesia. In May 1940, the Dutch surrendered to the German Army, and in February 1942, the Netherlands surrendered Indonesia to the invading Japanese army.
During Hamengkubuwono IX's reign, the office of the Sultan adopted a more democratic and decentralized approach. An example of this was the granting of more power to local village chiefs and general modernization of the way in which the court was managed. He also changed the ways in which the Sultanate held its traditional ceremonies, doing away with ceremonies which he considered obsolete.
In 1942, the Dutch Colonial Government in Indonesia was defeated by the Japanese Imperial Army. As the Japanese Imperial Army consolidated their hold on Indonesia, many suggested that Hamengkubuwono IX evacuate himself and seek asylum in Australia or the Netherlands. Hamengkubuwono IX refused this offer, insisting that the Sultan has to stay close to his people in times of crisis. In fact, he saved his people from being sent to Burma to become romusha forced-laborers, by asking the Japanese to allow the building of a water canal (the Kali Mataram).
Directly after the declaration of Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945, Hamengkubuwono IX together with Paku Alam VIII, the Prince of Pakualaman decided to support the newly formed Republic. Hamengkubuwono IX's support was immediately recognized by the Central Government with an appointment to the Life-Governorship of Yogyakarta with Paku Alam VIII as Vice Governor. Yogyakarta's status was also upgraded to that of Special Region. In addition, Hamengkubuwono IX served as Yogyakarta's Military Governor and was also Minister of the State from 1945-49.
The Dutch returned to lay claim to their former colony. Hamengkubuwono IX played a vital role in the resistance. In early 1946, the capital of Indonesia was quietly relocated to Yogyakarta. In that time, the Sultan gave the new government some funds. When Indonesia first sought a diplomatic solution with the Dutch Government, Hamengkubuwono IX was part of the Indonesian delegation.
On December 21, 1948, the Dutch successfully occupied Yogyakarta and arrested Sukarno and Hatta, Indonesia's first President and Vice President. Hamengkubuwono IX did not leave Yogyakarta and continued to serve as Governor. The Dutch intended to make Yogyakarta the capital of the new Indonesian federal state of Central Java and to appoint the sultan as head of state, but Hamengkubuwono refused to cooperate. The Dutch viewed him with suspicion and at one stage began to entertain the idea that Hamengkubuwono IX was either planning to make Yogyakarta a completely autonomous region or setting his eyes on the leadership of the Republic.
In early 1949, Hamengkubuwono IX conceived the idea of a major offensive to be launched against Yogyakarta and the Dutch troops occupying it. The purpose of this offensive was to show to the world that Indonesia still existed and that it was not ready to surrender. The idea was suggested to General Sudirman, the Commander of the Indonesian Army and received his approval. In February 1949, Hamengkubuwono IX had a meeting with then Lieutenant Colonel Suharto, the man chosen by Sudirman to be the field commander for the offensive. After this discussion, preparations were made for the offensive. This involved intensified guerilla attacks in villages and towns around Yogyakarta so as to make the Dutch station more troops outside of Yogyakarta and thin the numbers in the city itself.
On March 1, 1949 at 6 am, Suharto and his troops launched the March 1 General Offensive. The Offensive caught the Dutch by surprise. For his part, Hamengkubuwono IX allowed his palace to be used as a hide out for the troops. For six hours, the Indonesian troops had control of Yogyakarta before finally retreating. The Offensive was a great success, inspiring demoralized troops all around Indonesia and most importantly, caused the United Nations to pressure the Netherlands to recognize Indonesia's independence.
On June 30, 1949 ,the retreating Dutch forces handed over authority over Jogyakarta to Hamengkubuwono.
On December 27, immediately after the transfer of sovereignty was signed by Queen Juliana in Dam Palace in Amsterdam, High Commissioner A. H. J. Lovink transferred his powers to Hamengkubuwono during a ceremony in Koningsplein Palace, later renamed Merdeka Palace.
After Indonesia's independence was recognized by the Dutch Government, Hamengkubuwono IX continued to serve the Republic. In addition to continuing his duties as Governor of Yogyakarta, Hamengkubuwono IX continued to serve in the Indonesian Government as Minister.
Hamengkubuwono IX served as Minister of Defense and Homeland Security Coordinator (1949-1951 and 1953), Vice Premier (1951), Chairman of the State Apparatus Supervision (1959), Chairman of the State Audit Board (1960-1966), and Coordinating Minister for Development while concurrently holding the position of Minister of Tourism (1966). In addition to these positions, Hamengkubuwono IX also served as Chairman of the Indonesian National Sports Committee (KONI) and Chairman of the Tourism Patrons Council.
During the G30S Movement, in the course of which six Generals were kidnapped from their homes and killed, Hamengkubuwono IX was present in Jakarta. That morning, with President Sukarno's location still uncertain, Hamengkubuwono was contacted by Suharto, who was now a Major General and the Commander of Kostrad for advice. Suharto suggested that because Sukarno's whereabouts were unknown, Hamengkubuwono IX should form a provisional Government to help counter the movement. Hamengkubuwono IX rejected the offer and contacted one of Sukarno's many wives who confirmed Sukarno's whereabouts.
After Suharto had received Supersemar in March 1966, Hamengkubuwono IX and Adam Malik joined him in a triumvirate to reverse Sukarno's policies. Hamengkubuwono IX was appointed Minister of Economics, Finance, and Industry and charged with rectifying Indonesia's economic problems. He would hold this position until 1973.
Ever since Mohammad Hatta resigned as Vice-President in December 1956, the position had remained vacant for the rest of Sukarno's time as President. When Suharto was formally elected to the Presidency in 1968 by the People's Consultative Assembly, it continued to remain vacant. Finally in March 1973, Hamengkubuwono IX was elected as Vice President alongside Suharto who had also been re-elected to a 2nd term as President.
Hamengkubuwono IX's election was not a surprise as he was a popular figure in Indonesia. He was also a civilian and his election to the Vice Presidency was hoped to complement Suharto's military background. Despite being officially elected in 1973, it can be said that Hamengkubuwono IX had been the de facto Vice President beforehand as he regularly assumed the leadership of the country whenever Suharto was out of the country. As Vice President, Hamengkubuwono IX was put in charge of welfare and was also given the duty of supervising economic development.
It was expected that the Suharto and Hamengkubuwono IX partnership would be retained for another term. However, Hamengkubuwono IX became disillusioned with Suharto's increasing authoritarianism and the increasing corruption.
These two elements were also recognized by protesters who had demanded that Suharto not stand for another term as President. These protests reached its peak in February 1978, when students of Bandung Technological Institute (ITB) published a book giving reasons as to why Suharto should not be elected President. In response, Suharto sent troops to take over the campus and issued a ban on the book. Hamengkubuwono could not accept what Suharto had done. In March 1978, Hamengkubuwono rejected his nomination as Vice President by the MPR. Suharto asked Hamengkubuwono to change his mind, but Hamengkubuwono continued to reject the offer and cited health as his reason for not accepting the nomination.
Suharto took Hamengkubuwono IX's rejection personally and in his 1989 autobiography would claim credit for conceiving the March 1 General Offensive.
Hamengkubuwono IX had been active with Scouts from the days of the Dutch colonial government and continued to look after the movement once Indonesia became independent. In 1968, Hamengkubuwono IX was elected Head of the national Scout movement. In 1973, Hamengkubuwono IX was also awarded the Bronze Wolf, the only award of distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, awarded by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting.
Hamengkubuwono IX died at the George Washington University Medical Center in the United States on October 1, 1988 and was buried at Imogiri. There is a special museum dedicated to him in the sultan's palace (kraton) in Yogyakarta. He was also given the title National Hero of Indonesia, a distinction for Indonesian patriots. He was replaced by his son, Raden Mas Herdjuno Darpito, who took the name Hamengkubuwono X.
Hamengkubuwono IX never had a Queen Consort during his reign; preferring instead to take four concubines from which he had 21 children.
Hamengkubuwono IX was a fan of wuxia movies and novels. He also enjoyed cooking and headed an unofficial cooking club which included Cabinet Ministers as its members.
Hamengkubuwono see Hamengkubuwana
Hamengkubuwana (Hamengkubuwono). Name of all sultans of Yogyakarta (Java) since Mangkubumi (Hamengkubuwana I [r.1749-1792]) assumed it in 1755. His son Hamengkubuwana II (r. 1792-1810, 1811-1812, 1826-1828) contributed to the fall of Yogyakarta to British forces in 1812 by his arbitrary rule, intrigues, and mishandling of relations with Britain. Among his successors the most noteworthy are Hamengkubuwana V (r. 1822-1826, 1828-1855), a noted patron of literature, and Hamengkubuwana IX, who assumed the throne in 1939 and introduced progressive reforms in Yogyakarta from 1945 onward. He played a leading role in the revolution (1945-1949) and in national affairs thereafter, eventually serving as vice president of Indonesia (1973-1978).
Hamengkubuwono I, born Raden Mas Sujana (d. 1792), was the first sultan of Yogyakarta.
Sujana, the Crown Prince, was known as Prince Mangkubumi prior to becoming sultan of Yogyakarta Sultanate. As a son of Sultan Sunan Prabu of Mataram, and brother to Prince Heir Apparent Pakubuwono II of Surakarta, a dispute arose concerning succession to the Mataram throne. Prince Mangkubumi challenged Pakubuwono II who was aided by the Dutch East India Company seeking a more pliant VOC puppet as Central Javanese king. The war that eventuated was known as the Third Succession War in Mataram.
During the war, Prince Mangkubumi was aided by the brilliant and legendary army commander-in-chief Raden Mas Said who fought in a highly effective strategic manner. Mangkubumi won decisive battles at Grobogan, Demak and Bogowonto River. During the War in 1749, Pakubuwono II died and the Crown Prince Mangkubumi became Sultan. At the Battle of Bogowonto River in 1751, the Dutch Army under De Clerck was destroyed by Mangkubumi's forces. Raden Mas Said revolted in dispute with Prince Mangkubumi. The Succession War and revolt of Raden Mas Said ended when the Gyanti Treaty of 1755 was signed in Giyanti- an area east of Surakarta (capital of Matarm Empire). Raden Mas Said was granted Royal Appenages and the title Mangkunegara.
According to the Giyanti Treaty, Mataram was divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta with Pakubuwono III as ruler, and Yogyakarta Sultanate with Prince Mangkubumi as sultan with the title Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Senopati Ing Ngalaga Sayidin Panatagama Kalifatulah. Yogyakarta became capital and a new palace was built with a magnificent water palace in the west of his grounds Taman Sari.
Sultan Hamengkubuwono died in 1792 and was interred in the royal cemetery of Astana Kasuwargan in Imogiri. He was succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II, his son.
*****
Hamengkubuwono IX or HB IX (April 12, 1912 - October 2, 1988) was the first Governor of the Yogyakarta Special Region, the ninth Sultan of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the second vice president of Indonesia during Suharto's reign.
Born as Raden Mas Dorodjatun in Sompilan, Ngasem, Yogyakarta to Gusti Pangeran Haryo (Prince) Puruboyo and Raden Ajeng Kustillah, when he was three years old he was named Crown Prince to the Yogyakarta Sultanate after his father ascended to the throne and became Sultan Hamengkubuwono VIII.
Hamengkubuwono IX had a Western education. When he was four, he was sent away to live with a Dutch family. After completing his primary and secondary education in 1931, Hamengkubuwono IX left Indonesia to attend the Leiden University in the Netherlands. There Hamengkubuwono IX took Indonesian studies and economics. He returned to Indonesia in 1939.
With the death of Hamengkubuwono VIII in October 1939, Hamengkubuwono ascended to the throne with a coronation ceremony on March 18, 1940.
His full title was Sampeyan Dalem Ingkang Sinuwun Kanjeng Sultan Hamengkubuwono Senopati Ing Alogo Ngabdurrakhman Sayidin Panotogomo Kholifatullah Ingkang Kaping Songo.
During his coronation speech, Hamengkubuwono recognized his Javanese origins and said "Even though I have tasted Western Education, I am still and will always be a Javanese."
The young Sultan negotiated terms and conditions with the governor, Dr. Lucien Adam, for four months from November 1939 to February 1940. The main points of contention were:
1. The Sultan did not agree that his prime minister ("Patih Danureja") would also be the Netherlands' employee.
2. The Sultan did not agree that half of his advisors would be selected by the Netherlands.
3. The Sultan did not agree that his small army would receive direct orders from the Netherlands' army.
Eventually, the Sultan agreed to the proposal by the government of the Netherlands, after he received an insight that the Netherlands would soon leave Indonesia. In May 1940, the Dutch surrendered to the German Army, and in February 1942, the Netherlands surrendered Indonesia to the invading Japanese army.
During Hamengkubuwono IX's reign, the office of the Sultan adopted a more democratic and decentralized approach. An example of this was the granting of more power to local village chiefs and general modernization of the way in which the court was managed. He also changed the ways in which the Sultanate held its traditional ceremonies, doing away with ceremonies which he considered obsolete.
In 1942, the Dutch Colonial Government in Indonesia was defeated by the Japanese Imperial Army. As the Japanese Imperial Army consolidated their hold on Indonesia, many suggested that Hamengkubuwono IX evacuate himself and seek asylum in Australia or the Netherlands. Hamengkubuwono IX refused this offer, insisting that the Sultan has to stay close to his people in times of crisis. In fact, he saved his people from being sent to Burma to become romusha forced-laborers, by asking the Japanese to allow the building of a water canal (the Kali Mataram).
Directly after the declaration of Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945, Hamengkubuwono IX together with Paku Alam VIII, the Prince of Pakualaman decided to support the newly formed Republic. Hamengkubuwono IX's support was immediately recognized by the Central Government with an appointment to the Life-Governorship of Yogyakarta with Paku Alam VIII as Vice Governor. Yogyakarta's status was also upgraded to that of Special Region. In addition, Hamengkubuwono IX served as Yogyakarta's Military Governor and was also Minister of the State from 1945-49.
The Dutch returned to lay claim to their former colony. Hamengkubuwono IX played a vital role in the resistance. In early 1946, the capital of Indonesia was quietly relocated to Yogyakarta. In that time, the Sultan gave the new government some funds. When Indonesia first sought a diplomatic solution with the Dutch Government, Hamengkubuwono IX was part of the Indonesian delegation.
On December 21, 1948, the Dutch successfully occupied Yogyakarta and arrested Sukarno and Hatta, Indonesia's first President and Vice President. Hamengkubuwono IX did not leave Yogyakarta and continued to serve as Governor. The Dutch intended to make Yogyakarta the capital of the new Indonesian federal state of Central Java and to appoint the sultan as head of state, but Hamengkubuwono refused to cooperate. The Dutch viewed him with suspicion and at one stage began to entertain the idea that Hamengkubuwono IX was either planning to make Yogyakarta a completely autonomous region or setting his eyes on the leadership of the Republic.
In early 1949, Hamengkubuwono IX conceived the idea of a major offensive to be launched against Yogyakarta and the Dutch troops occupying it. The purpose of this offensive was to show to the world that Indonesia still existed and that it was not ready to surrender. The idea was suggested to General Sudirman, the Commander of the Indonesian Army and received his approval. In February 1949, Hamengkubuwono IX had a meeting with then Lieutenant Colonel Suharto, the man chosen by Sudirman to be the field commander for the offensive. After this discussion, preparations were made for the offensive. This involved intensified guerilla attacks in villages and towns around Yogyakarta so as to make the Dutch station more troops outside of Yogyakarta and thin the numbers in the city itself.
On March 1, 1949 at 6 am, Suharto and his troops launched the March 1 General Offensive. The Offensive caught the Dutch by surprise. For his part, Hamengkubuwono IX allowed his palace to be used as a hide out for the troops. For six hours, the Indonesian troops had control of Yogyakarta before finally retreating. The Offensive was a great success, inspiring demoralized troops all around Indonesia and most importantly, caused the United Nations to pressure the Netherlands to recognize Indonesia's independence.
On June 30, 1949 ,the retreating Dutch forces handed over authority over Jogyakarta to Hamengkubuwono.
On December 27, immediately after the transfer of sovereignty was signed by Queen Juliana in Dam Palace in Amsterdam, High Commissioner A. H. J. Lovink transferred his powers to Hamengkubuwono during a ceremony in Koningsplein Palace, later renamed Merdeka Palace.
After Indonesia's independence was recognized by the Dutch Government, Hamengkubuwono IX continued to serve the Republic. In addition to continuing his duties as Governor of Yogyakarta, Hamengkubuwono IX continued to serve in the Indonesian Government as Minister.
Hamengkubuwono IX served as Minister of Defense and Homeland Security Coordinator (1949-1951 and 1953), Vice Premier (1951), Chairman of the State Apparatus Supervision (1959), Chairman of the State Audit Board (1960-1966), and Coordinating Minister for Development while concurrently holding the position of Minister of Tourism (1966). In addition to these positions, Hamengkubuwono IX also served as Chairman of the Indonesian National Sports Committee (KONI) and Chairman of the Tourism Patrons Council.
During the G30S Movement, in the course of which six Generals were kidnapped from their homes and killed, Hamengkubuwono IX was present in Jakarta. That morning, with President Sukarno's location still uncertain, Hamengkubuwono was contacted by Suharto, who was now a Major General and the Commander of Kostrad for advice. Suharto suggested that because Sukarno's whereabouts were unknown, Hamengkubuwono IX should form a provisional Government to help counter the movement. Hamengkubuwono IX rejected the offer and contacted one of Sukarno's many wives who confirmed Sukarno's whereabouts.
After Suharto had received Supersemar in March 1966, Hamengkubuwono IX and Adam Malik joined him in a triumvirate to reverse Sukarno's policies. Hamengkubuwono IX was appointed Minister of Economics, Finance, and Industry and charged with rectifying Indonesia's economic problems. He would hold this position until 1973.
Ever since Mohammad Hatta resigned as Vice-President in December 1956, the position had remained vacant for the rest of Sukarno's time as President. When Suharto was formally elected to the Presidency in 1968 by the People's Consultative Assembly, it continued to remain vacant. Finally in March 1973, Hamengkubuwono IX was elected as Vice President alongside Suharto who had also been re-elected to a 2nd term as President.
Hamengkubuwono IX's election was not a surprise as he was a popular figure in Indonesia. He was also a civilian and his election to the Vice Presidency was hoped to complement Suharto's military background. Despite being officially elected in 1973, it can be said that Hamengkubuwono IX had been the de facto Vice President beforehand as he regularly assumed the leadership of the country whenever Suharto was out of the country. As Vice President, Hamengkubuwono IX was put in charge of welfare and was also given the duty of supervising economic development.
It was expected that the Suharto and Hamengkubuwono IX partnership would be retained for another term. However, Hamengkubuwono IX became disillusioned with Suharto's increasing authoritarianism and the increasing corruption.
These two elements were also recognized by protesters who had demanded that Suharto not stand for another term as President. These protests reached its peak in February 1978, when students of Bandung Technological Institute (ITB) published a book giving reasons as to why Suharto should not be elected President. In response, Suharto sent troops to take over the campus and issued a ban on the book. Hamengkubuwono could not accept what Suharto had done. In March 1978, Hamengkubuwono rejected his nomination as Vice President by the MPR. Suharto asked Hamengkubuwono to change his mind, but Hamengkubuwono continued to reject the offer and cited health as his reason for not accepting the nomination.
Suharto took Hamengkubuwono IX's rejection personally and in his 1989 autobiography would claim credit for conceiving the March 1 General Offensive.
Hamengkubuwono IX had been active with Scouts from the days of the Dutch colonial government and continued to look after the movement once Indonesia became independent. In 1968, Hamengkubuwono IX was elected Head of the national Scout movement. In 1973, Hamengkubuwono IX was also awarded the Bronze Wolf, the only award of distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, awarded by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting.
Hamengkubuwono IX died at the George Washington University Medical Center in the United States on October 1, 1988 and was buried at Imogiri. There is a special museum dedicated to him in the sultan's palace (kraton) in Yogyakarta. He was also given the title National Hero of Indonesia, a distinction for Indonesian patriots. He was replaced by his son, Raden Mas Herdjuno Darpito, who took the name Hamengkubuwono X.
Hamengkubuwono IX never had a Queen Consort during his reign; preferring instead to take four concubines from which he had 21 children.
Hamengkubuwono IX was a fan of wuxia movies and novels. He also enjoyed cooking and headed an unofficial cooking club which included Cabinet Ministers as its members.
Hamengkubuwono see Hamengkubuwana
Hamidi
Hamidi (Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi) (d.1162). Second head of the Tayyibi Isma‘ilis in Yemen. He was succeeded by his son Hatim (d. 1199) and his grandson ‘Ali (d. 1209).
Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi see Hamidi
Hamidi (Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi) (d.1162). Second head of the Tayyibi Isma‘ilis in Yemen. He was succeeded by his son Hatim (d. 1199) and his grandson ‘Ali (d. 1209).
Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi see Hamidi
Hamka
Hamka (Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah) (b. in Kampung Molek Sungai Batang Maninjau, West Sumatra, February 17, 1908 - d. in Jakarta, July 24, 1981). Indonesian author, ulema, and politician. "Hamka" is an acronym of Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah. Hamka was an Indonesian religious scholar and the most prolific of modern Indonesian Islamic writers. Hamka was born in the small village of Sungai Batang in the Minangkabau region of West Sumatra on February 17, 1908. His mother came from the adat aristocracy, and his father, Syekh Dr. Abdulkarim Amrullah, a member of a long-established ‘ulama’ family, was a pioneer in the modernist reform movement. Although his father was the leading teacher of a traditional religious school that soon became a radical reformist school, the famous Sumatra Thawalib, the young Malik was enrolled in the Diniyah School, the first religious school to use the modern system of education, established by Zainuddin Labay el-Junusyah. Malik was not successful there and transferred in 1922 to Parabek (Bukittinggi), a school run by another modernist ‘alim, Syekh Ibrahim Musa. Instead of studying the kitabs (Islamic commentaries), he preferred Minangkabau traditional literature. It was only after he suffered a serious case of smallpox in 1923 that he began in earnest the career of a talented autodidact (self-taught person).
In 1924, Malik went to Java to visit his older sister, whose husband A. R. Sutan Mansyur was the chairman of the local branch of the Muhammadiyah. The visit gave him a chance to attend public courses presented by important Muslim leaders. At the end of 1925, he entered the world of journalism by sending articles to the daily Hindia Baru (The New Indies), edited by Haji Agus Salim, an Islamic political leader. On his return to Padang Panjang, Malik established the first Muhammadiyah journal, Chatibul ummah. He soon traveled to Medan and to Mecca in 1927. The short but intense exposure to the Arab world not only immensely improved his linguistic ability but also introduced him to the treasures of Arabic literature.
On his return to Padang Panjang, he began his career as a writer and adopted the nom de plume of Hamka. His first book, a Minangkabau novel titled Si Sabariah (A Girl Named Sabariah), was published in 1925. He regularly sent articles to local journals and published booklets on Minangkabau adapt and Islamic history. His activities in the Muhammadiyah organization brought him to Makasar (1932-1934), where he published two journals, novels, and a book on Islamic history. In 1936, he received an offer to become the editor in chief of a new Islamic journal in Medan, Pedoman Masyarakat (Social Compass). Under his editorship, the journal became one of the most successful in the history of Islamic journalism in Indonesia. The sojourn in Medan (1936-1945) constituted the most productive years of Hamka’s life. During this period, he published most of his novels, notably Dibawah lindungan Ka’bah (Under the Shadow of the Ka‘bah, 1936) and Tenggelamnya kapal van der Wijck (The Sinking of the van der Wijck, 1937), as well as his noted books on Islamic ethics and mysticism, including Tasauf Modern (Modern Mysticism, 1939), Lembaga budi (The Realm of Morality, 1939), and Falsafah hidup (The Philosophy of Life, 1940).
At the same time, Hamka was a leading figure in the revolutionary struggle for national independence in West Sumatra from 1945 to 1949. In 1950, he moved to Jakarta. Appointed as a high official of the Department of Religious Affairs, Hamka spent most of his time teaching, writing, and editing and publishing the journal Panji Masyarakat (The Banner of the Society). In 1950, he published a widely acclaimed biography of his father, Ayahku (My Father), which also gives a historical account of Islamic movements in Sumatra, in addition to his four volume memoir Kenang-kenangan hidup and the first volume of the projected four-volume Sedjarah umat Islam (History of the Islamic World). In 1955, Hamka was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly, representing the Islamic modernist political party, the Masjumi. His political career ended with the dissolution of the Assembly by President Sukarno. In 1960, he was elected as “great imam” of al-Azhar Mosque. Falsely accused of involvement in the attempted murder of the president, he was detained in 1964. He spent twenty months in the hospital, where he completed the drafts of his thirty-volume Tafsir al-Azhar.
After the fall of Sukarno, Hamka was released and resumed his position as the great imam of al-Azhar Mosque with its prestigious elementary and secondary school. As the most sought after mubaligh (public speaker) and a popular broadcast personality with books published in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, he was undoubtedly the most famous religious scholar in the Malay-speaking world. In 1975, he accepted the post of chairman of the new government sponsored Indonesian Council of Ulama and was re-elected in 1980 but resigned owing to a political conflict with the minister of religion. His position, however, had popular support, and congratulatory letters flooded his house. A few months after the last volume of Tafsir al-Azhar was published, Hamka died on July 21, 1981, leaving ten children.
Hamka wrote more than one hundred books, including fiction, politics, Minangkabau adapt, history and biography, Islamic doctrine, ethics, mysticism, and tafsir. About twenty of these have enjoyed several reprintings and are still in print. Several collections of his writings have also been published posthumously. He received honorary degrees from al-Azhar University in Cairo (1958) and the University Kebangsaan in Kuala Lumpur (1974). The daily Berita Buana’ named him “Man of the Year” in 1980. He was also the “spiritual father” of most newly converted Chinese.
A keen student of history, Hamka not only made the long-forgotten past alive but also never failed to find the moral messages that history held for the present. His literary works show his concern for the little people and the human sufferings in his transitional society. His writings on Minangkabau reflect the attitude of a modernist ‘alim toward his beloved matrilineal society. He offered an influential interpretation of the Indonesian national ideology, the Pancasila, by making its first principle the recognition of the oneness of God (tawhid). Since his major concern was the maintenance of iman (faith) and ‘aqidah (creed) in changing times, it is understandable that in his Tafsir he often deviates from the traditional Asyhariate school of theology, which is still the foundation of Islamic orthodoxy in Indonesia.
Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah see Hamka
Amrullah, Haji Abdul Malik Karim see Hamka
Hamka (Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah) (b. in Kampung Molek Sungai Batang Maninjau, West Sumatra, February 17, 1908 - d. in Jakarta, July 24, 1981). Indonesian author, ulema, and politician. "Hamka" is an acronym of Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah. Hamka was an Indonesian religious scholar and the most prolific of modern Indonesian Islamic writers. Hamka was born in the small village of Sungai Batang in the Minangkabau region of West Sumatra on February 17, 1908. His mother came from the adat aristocracy, and his father, Syekh Dr. Abdulkarim Amrullah, a member of a long-established ‘ulama’ family, was a pioneer in the modernist reform movement. Although his father was the leading teacher of a traditional religious school that soon became a radical reformist school, the famous Sumatra Thawalib, the young Malik was enrolled in the Diniyah School, the first religious school to use the modern system of education, established by Zainuddin Labay el-Junusyah. Malik was not successful there and transferred in 1922 to Parabek (Bukittinggi), a school run by another modernist ‘alim, Syekh Ibrahim Musa. Instead of studying the kitabs (Islamic commentaries), he preferred Minangkabau traditional literature. It was only after he suffered a serious case of smallpox in 1923 that he began in earnest the career of a talented autodidact (self-taught person).
In 1924, Malik went to Java to visit his older sister, whose husband A. R. Sutan Mansyur was the chairman of the local branch of the Muhammadiyah. The visit gave him a chance to attend public courses presented by important Muslim leaders. At the end of 1925, he entered the world of journalism by sending articles to the daily Hindia Baru (The New Indies), edited by Haji Agus Salim, an Islamic political leader. On his return to Padang Panjang, Malik established the first Muhammadiyah journal, Chatibul ummah. He soon traveled to Medan and to Mecca in 1927. The short but intense exposure to the Arab world not only immensely improved his linguistic ability but also introduced him to the treasures of Arabic literature.
On his return to Padang Panjang, he began his career as a writer and adopted the nom de plume of Hamka. His first book, a Minangkabau novel titled Si Sabariah (A Girl Named Sabariah), was published in 1925. He regularly sent articles to local journals and published booklets on Minangkabau adapt and Islamic history. His activities in the Muhammadiyah organization brought him to Makasar (1932-1934), where he published two journals, novels, and a book on Islamic history. In 1936, he received an offer to become the editor in chief of a new Islamic journal in Medan, Pedoman Masyarakat (Social Compass). Under his editorship, the journal became one of the most successful in the history of Islamic journalism in Indonesia. The sojourn in Medan (1936-1945) constituted the most productive years of Hamka’s life. During this period, he published most of his novels, notably Dibawah lindungan Ka’bah (Under the Shadow of the Ka‘bah, 1936) and Tenggelamnya kapal van der Wijck (The Sinking of the van der Wijck, 1937), as well as his noted books on Islamic ethics and mysticism, including Tasauf Modern (Modern Mysticism, 1939), Lembaga budi (The Realm of Morality, 1939), and Falsafah hidup (The Philosophy of Life, 1940).
At the same time, Hamka was a leading figure in the revolutionary struggle for national independence in West Sumatra from 1945 to 1949. In 1950, he moved to Jakarta. Appointed as a high official of the Department of Religious Affairs, Hamka spent most of his time teaching, writing, and editing and publishing the journal Panji Masyarakat (The Banner of the Society). In 1950, he published a widely acclaimed biography of his father, Ayahku (My Father), which also gives a historical account of Islamic movements in Sumatra, in addition to his four volume memoir Kenang-kenangan hidup and the first volume of the projected four-volume Sedjarah umat Islam (History of the Islamic World). In 1955, Hamka was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly, representing the Islamic modernist political party, the Masjumi. His political career ended with the dissolution of the Assembly by President Sukarno. In 1960, he was elected as “great imam” of al-Azhar Mosque. Falsely accused of involvement in the attempted murder of the president, he was detained in 1964. He spent twenty months in the hospital, where he completed the drafts of his thirty-volume Tafsir al-Azhar.
After the fall of Sukarno, Hamka was released and resumed his position as the great imam of al-Azhar Mosque with its prestigious elementary and secondary school. As the most sought after mubaligh (public speaker) and a popular broadcast personality with books published in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, he was undoubtedly the most famous religious scholar in the Malay-speaking world. In 1975, he accepted the post of chairman of the new government sponsored Indonesian Council of Ulama and was re-elected in 1980 but resigned owing to a political conflict with the minister of religion. His position, however, had popular support, and congratulatory letters flooded his house. A few months after the last volume of Tafsir al-Azhar was published, Hamka died on July 21, 1981, leaving ten children.
Hamka wrote more than one hundred books, including fiction, politics, Minangkabau adapt, history and biography, Islamic doctrine, ethics, mysticism, and tafsir. About twenty of these have enjoyed several reprintings and are still in print. Several collections of his writings have also been published posthumously. He received honorary degrees from al-Azhar University in Cairo (1958) and the University Kebangsaan in Kuala Lumpur (1974). The daily Berita Buana’ named him “Man of the Year” in 1980. He was also the “spiritual father” of most newly converted Chinese.
A keen student of history, Hamka not only made the long-forgotten past alive but also never failed to find the moral messages that history held for the present. His literary works show his concern for the little people and the human sufferings in his transitional society. His writings on Minangkabau reflect the attitude of a modernist ‘alim toward his beloved matrilineal society. He offered an influential interpretation of the Indonesian national ideology, the Pancasila, by making its first principle the recognition of the oneness of God (tawhid). Since his major concern was the maintenance of iman (faith) and ‘aqidah (creed) in changing times, it is understandable that in his Tafsir he often deviates from the traditional Asyhariate school of theology, which is still the foundation of Islamic orthodoxy in Indonesia.
Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah see Hamka
Amrullah, Haji Abdul Malik Karim see Hamka
Hammadids
Hammadids (Banu Hammad). Dynasty in the Central Maghrib (1008-1152) collateral with the Zirids in Ifriqiya and eastern Algeria. The founder, Hammad ibn Buluggin I ibn Ziri (r. 1008-1028), severed his relations with the Fatimids of Cairo and transferred his allegiance to the ‘Abbasids of Baghdad. The Hammadids were a Berber dynasty in Algeria (1008/1015-1152). Their main capitals were al-Qala (Qalaat Beni Hammad) and, from 1090, Bougie (Bejaia). The Banu Hammad, branch of the Zirids of North Africa. Their founder, Hammad ibn Buluggin (1008/1015-1028), was given the town of Ashir near Algiers by his nephew, the controlling Zirid in al-Mansuriya. In 1008, he founded the main capital of al-Qala and gained independence in 1015 by accepting the authority of the caliphs of Baghdad. Following various battles, his son, al-Qaid (1028-1045), gained from the Zirids acknowledgment as the independent ruler of Algeria. Under Buluggin (1046-1062), the Hammadids extended their empire to Morocco (temporary occupation of Fez), under al-Nasir (1062-1088) to Tunisia (as far as Tunis) and from the Bedouins after 1104, the last ruler, Yahya (1121-1152), had to limit his territory to the Algerian coast and in 1152 Bougie passed to the Almohads.
The Hammadids, an offshoot of the Zirids, were a Berber dynasty who ruled an area roughly corresponding to modern Algeria for about a century and a half (1008-1152), until they were destroyed by the Almohads. Soon after coming to power, they rejected the Ismaili doctrine of the Fatimids, and returned to Maliki Sunnism, acknowledging the Abbasids as rightful Caliphs.
A list of the Hammadid rulers reads as follows:
* Hammad ibn Buluggin, 1008-1028
* al-Qaid ibn Hammad, 1028-1045
* Muhsin ibn Qaid, 1045-1046
* Buluggin ibn Muhammad ibn Hammad, 1046-1062
* an-Nasir ibn Alnas ibn Hammad, 1062-1088
* al-Mansur ibn Nasir, 1088-1104
* Badis ibn Mansur, 1104
* Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur, 1104-1121
* Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz, 1121-1152
Banu Hammad see Hammadids
Hammadids (Banu Hammad). Dynasty in the Central Maghrib (1008-1152) collateral with the Zirids in Ifriqiya and eastern Algeria. The founder, Hammad ibn Buluggin I ibn Ziri (r. 1008-1028), severed his relations with the Fatimids of Cairo and transferred his allegiance to the ‘Abbasids of Baghdad. The Hammadids were a Berber dynasty in Algeria (1008/1015-1152). Their main capitals were al-Qala (Qalaat Beni Hammad) and, from 1090, Bougie (Bejaia). The Banu Hammad, branch of the Zirids of North Africa. Their founder, Hammad ibn Buluggin (1008/1015-1028), was given the town of Ashir near Algiers by his nephew, the controlling Zirid in al-Mansuriya. In 1008, he founded the main capital of al-Qala and gained independence in 1015 by accepting the authority of the caliphs of Baghdad. Following various battles, his son, al-Qaid (1028-1045), gained from the Zirids acknowledgment as the independent ruler of Algeria. Under Buluggin (1046-1062), the Hammadids extended their empire to Morocco (temporary occupation of Fez), under al-Nasir (1062-1088) to Tunisia (as far as Tunis) and from the Bedouins after 1104, the last ruler, Yahya (1121-1152), had to limit his territory to the Algerian coast and in 1152 Bougie passed to the Almohads.
The Hammadids, an offshoot of the Zirids, were a Berber dynasty who ruled an area roughly corresponding to modern Algeria for about a century and a half (1008-1152), until they were destroyed by the Almohads. Soon after coming to power, they rejected the Ismaili doctrine of the Fatimids, and returned to Maliki Sunnism, acknowledging the Abbasids as rightful Caliphs.
A list of the Hammadid rulers reads as follows:
* Hammad ibn Buluggin, 1008-1028
* al-Qaid ibn Hammad, 1028-1045
* Muhsin ibn Qaid, 1045-1046
* Buluggin ibn Muhammad ibn Hammad, 1046-1062
* an-Nasir ibn Alnas ibn Hammad, 1062-1088
* al-Mansur ibn Nasir, 1088-1104
* Badis ibn Mansur, 1104
* Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur, 1104-1121
* Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz, 1121-1152
Banu Hammad see Hammadids
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