Acar, Kayahan
Kayahan Açar, stage name Kayahan, (March 29, 1949 – April 3, 2015) was a Turkish pop music singer and songwriter. He was an accomplished composer, consistently ranking among the best-selling Turkish musicians of all time. Kayahan composed all of his own material and released more than eight best-selling albums during a career spanning three decades.
Kayahan was born in Izmir, Turkey, on March 29, 1949. He spent his childhood and young adulthood years in Ankara before moving to Istanbul.
Kayahan, whose full name was Kayahan Acar, released his first album in 1975 and went on to release nearly two dozen more. Best known for his love songs, he built his musical legacy on his use of idiomatic Turkish to describe emotions. Many of his songs are considered pop classics.
He first won global recognition at the 1986 International Mediterranean Music Contest in Antalya, a Turkish Mediterranean town, and in 1990 he represented Turkey in the Eurovision Song Contest with his composition "Gozlerinin Hapsindeyim" (“I Am Entrapped by Your Eyes”). The song did not win, but it became a hit in Turkey.
Açar was married three times. He made his first marriage to Nur in 1973. From this marriage, which lasted 24 years long, he became father of a daughter Beste (Turkish for music composition), born in 1975. Beste was runner-up for Miss Turkey in 1995. Kayahan remarried to Lale Yılmaz in 1990. The couple divorced in 1996. In 1999, at age fifty, he remarried to his third wife,1976-born İpek Tüter. In August 2000, İpek gave birth to their daughter Aslı Gönül.
Adam
Adam (Aadam). The name of the first human creature in the creation narratives found in the Hebrew scriptures -- the Old Testament. The word "adam" may refer to the fact that this being was an “earthling” formed from the red-hued clay of the earth. Indeed, in Hebrew, "adom" means “red” and "adamah" means “earth.”
Adam is the first prophet of Islam and is mentioned in the Qur'an as the husband of Eve (Hawwa).
Adam is mentioned in the Qur'an as the first man created by Allah. A verse in Sura al-Imran states: "The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam: He created him from dust, then said to him: 'Be' ... and he was." (3:59)
Eve is not mentioned by name in the Qur'an, but is referred to as Adam's spouse. Islamic tradition refers to her as "Hawwa," an etymologically similar name. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari recounts the tale of her creation, stating that she was named because she was created from a living thing (since the Arabic word meaning "living" is "hayy").
The early Islamic commentator Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari adds a number of details to the Torah, based on claimed hadith as well as specific Jewish traditions (so-called isra'iliyat). Tabari records that when it came time to create Adam, God sent Gabriel (Jibril), then Michael (Mika'il), to fetch clay from the earth. However, the earth complained, saying "I take refuge in God from you, if you have come to diminish or deform me." So the angels returned empty-handed. Tabari goes on to state that God responded by sending the Angel of Death, who took clay from all regions, hence providing an explanation for the variety of appearances of the different races of mankind.
According to Tabari's account, after receiving the breath of God, Adam remained a dry body for 40 days, then gradually came to life from the head downwards, sneezing when he had finished coming to life, saying "All praise be to God, the Lord of all beings." Having been created, Adam, the first man, is described as having been given dominion over all the lower creatures, which he proceeds to name. As one of the people to whom God is said to have spoken to directly, Adam is sent as a prophet in Islam.
At this point, Adam takes a prominent role in Islamic traditions concerning the fall of Shaytan (Satan), which is not recorded in the Torah, but in the Book of Enoch which is used in Oriental Orthodox churches. In these, when God announces his intention of creating Adam, some of the angels express dismay, asking why he would create a being that would do evil. Teaching Adam the names reassures the angels as to Adam's abilities, though commentators dispute which particular names were involved; various theories say they were the names of all things animate and inanimate, the names of the angels, the names of his own descendants, or the names of God.
When God orders the angels to bow to Adam one of those present, Shaytan Iblis in Islam, a Djinn who said, "why should I bow to Adam one of those present, Shaytan Iblis in Islam, a Djinn who said "why should I bow to man, I am made of pure fire"), refuses due to his pride, and is summarily banished from the Heavens. Liberal movements within Islam have viewed God's commanding the angels to bow before Adam as an exaltation of humanity, and as a means of supporting human rights, others view it as an act of showing Adam that the biggest enemy of humans on earth will be their ego.
More extended versions of the fall of Shaytan also exist in works such as that of Tabari, and the Shi'a commentator al-Qummi. In these explanations, Iblis is sent against the jinn, who had angered God by sin and fighting. In such versions where Satan leads the battle on God's behalf, rather than his own, it is the pride and conceit resulting from his victory which results in his expulsion, since pride is seen as a sin. Islamic traditions further record that, in vengeful anger, Iblis promises God that he will lead as many humans astray as he can, to which God replies that it is the choice of humans -- those who so desire will follow Satan, while those who so desire will follow God.
Eve is referred to in the Qur'an as Adam's spouse, and Islamic tradition refers to her by an etymologically similar name Hawwa. In fact, although her creation is not recounted in the Qur'an, Tabari recounts the biblical tale of her creation, stating that she was named because she was created from a living thing (her name means living). The Torah gives an etymology for woman since she was taken out of man (ish in Hebrew). The etymology is regarded as implausible by most semitic linguists. The Qur'an blames both Adam and Eve for eating the forbidden fruit and as a punishment they were both banished from Heaven to the Earth. Muslims therefore interpret that this event does not pose a problem of women inferiority to men intrinsically. The concept of original sin does not exist in Islam. Adam and Eve were forgiven after they repented on Earth.
Al-Qummi records the opinion that Eden was not entirely earthly, and so, having been sent to earth, Adam and Eve first arrived at mountain peaks outside Mecca, Adam on Safa, and Eve on Marwa. In this Islamic tradition, Adam remained weeping for forty (40) days, until he repented, at which point God rewarded him by sending down the Kaaba, and teaching him the hajj.
The Qur'an also describes the two sons oof Adam (named Qabil and Habil in Islamic tradition) that correspond to Cain and Abel.
Eve is said in local folklore to be buried in "Eve Grave" in Jeddah, KSA.
According to some Islamic traditions, Adam is buried beneath the site of the Kaaba in Mecca. Shi'a Muslims on the other hand, believe that Adam is buried next to Ali, within Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq.
In the Qur’an, Adam appears in a number of passages. Those passages are:
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 3:30-35
Sura 3:50-60
Sura 7:10-30
Sura 19:55-60
worshipped by the angels
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 7:10-15
Sura 15:25-45
Sura 17:60-65
Sura 18:45-55
Sura 20:115-120
Sura 38:70-80
expelled from Paradise
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 7:20-30
Sura 20:120-125
children of Adam
Sura 7:25-35
Sura 7:170-175
Sura 17:70-75
Sura 36:60-65
Aadam see Adam
When God orders the angels to bow to Adam one of those present, Shaytan Iblis in Islam, a Djinn who said, "why should I bow to Adam one of those present, Shaytan Iblis in Islam, a Djinn who said "why should I bow to man, I am made of pure fire"), refuses due to his pride, and is summarily banished from the Heavens. Liberal movements within Islam have viewed God's commanding the angels to bow before Adam as an exaltation of humanity, and as a means of supporting human rights, others view it as an act of showing Adam that the biggest enemy of humans on earth will be their ego.
More extended versions of the fall of Shaytan also exist in works such as that of Tabari, and the Shi'a commentator al-Qummi. In these explanations, Iblis is sent against the jinn, who had angered God by sin and fighting. In such versions where Satan leads the battle on God's behalf, rather than his own, it is the pride and conceit resulting from his victory which results in his expulsion, since pride is seen as a sin. Islamic traditions further record that, in vengeful anger, Iblis promises God that he will lead as many humans astray as he can, to which God replies that it is the choice of humans -- those who so desire will follow Satan, while those who so desire will follow God.
Eve is referred to in the Qur'an as Adam's spouse, and Islamic tradition refers to her by an etymologically similar name Hawwa. In fact, although her creation is not recounted in the Qur'an, Tabari recounts the biblical tale of her creation, stating that she was named because she was created from a living thing (her name means living). The Torah gives an etymology for woman since she was taken out of man (ish in Hebrew). The etymology is regarded as implausible by most semitic linguists. The Qur'an blames both Adam and Eve for eating the forbidden fruit and as a punishment they were both banished from Heaven to the Earth. Muslims therefore interpret that this event does not pose a problem of women inferiority to men intrinsically. The concept of original sin does not exist in Islam. Adam and Eve were forgiven after they repented on Earth.
Al-Qummi records the opinion that Eden was not entirely earthly, and so, having been sent to earth, Adam and Eve first arrived at mountain peaks outside Mecca, Adam on Safa, and Eve on Marwa. In this Islamic tradition, Adam remained weeping for forty (40) days, until he repented, at which point God rewarded him by sending down the Kaaba, and teaching him the hajj.
The Qur'an also describes the two sons oof Adam (named Qabil and Habil in Islamic tradition) that correspond to Cain and Abel.
Eve is said in local folklore to be buried in "Eve Grave" in Jeddah, KSA.
According to some Islamic traditions, Adam is buried beneath the site of the Kaaba in Mecca. Shi'a Muslims on the other hand, believe that Adam is buried next to Ali, within Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq.
In the Qur’an, Adam appears in a number of passages. Those passages are:
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 3:30-35
Sura 3:50-60
Sura 7:10-30
Sura 19:55-60
worshipped by the angels
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 7:10-15
Sura 15:25-45
Sura 17:60-65
Sura 18:45-55
Sura 20:115-120
Sura 38:70-80
expelled from Paradise
Sura 2:25-35
Sura 7:20-30
Sura 20:120-125
children of Adam
Sura 7:25-35
Sura 7:170-175
Sura 17:70-75
Sura 36:60-65
Aadam see Adam
Adama
Adama (1771-1848). Founder and first ruler of the Fula emirate of Adamawa (Nigeria) (r.1806 to1848). The large emirate of Adamawa was the southeasternmost district of the empire of Fula revolutionary ‘Uthman dan Fodio. Adama was the son of a Fula noble who had been killed in battle with his Bata landowners around 1803, before ‘Uthman’s call to arms. Adama had studied in Bornu and in Sokoto, ‘Uthman’s homeland, where he had earned the title of modibo (learned one). When ‘Uthman declared the jihad (holy war), Adama and leaders from his home went to him to receive the green flag indicating that they were his official representatives in the campaign. Adama at first permitted another leader to take command, but on learning of this man’s dishonesty in dealing with ‘Uthman, he went back and received a flag himself. He returned home in 1806 accompanied by a band of Fula followers and Hausa mercenaries, and spent the next forty-two years extending the emirate and putting down revolts. As with many of the other leaders of the Fula jihad, he is said to have preferred the role of scholar to warrior. He died at age seventy-seven and was succeeded by four of his sons in turn.
modibo see Adama
learned one see Adama
Adama (1771-1848). Founder and first ruler of the Fula emirate of Adamawa (Nigeria) (r.1806 to1848). The large emirate of Adamawa was the southeasternmost district of the empire of Fula revolutionary ‘Uthman dan Fodio. Adama was the son of a Fula noble who had been killed in battle with his Bata landowners around 1803, before ‘Uthman’s call to arms. Adama had studied in Bornu and in Sokoto, ‘Uthman’s homeland, where he had earned the title of modibo (learned one). When ‘Uthman declared the jihad (holy war), Adama and leaders from his home went to him to receive the green flag indicating that they were his official representatives in the campaign. Adama at first permitted another leader to take command, but on learning of this man’s dishonesty in dealing with ‘Uthman, he went back and received a flag himself. He returned home in 1806 accompanied by a band of Fula followers and Hausa mercenaries, and spent the next forty-two years extending the emirate and putting down revolts. As with many of the other leaders of the Fula jihad, he is said to have preferred the role of scholar to warrior. He died at age seventy-seven and was succeeded by four of his sons in turn.
modibo see Adama
learned one see Adama
‘Adid li-Din Allah, al-
‘Adid li-Din Allah, al- (1151-1171). The last Fatimid caliph of Egypt (r.1160-1171). He died a few days after Saladin had the Sunni Caliph of Baghdad, al-Mustadi, proclaimed in Cairo.
‘Adid li-Din Allah, al- (1151-1171). The last Fatimid caliph of Egypt (r.1160-1171). He died a few days after Saladin had the Sunni Caliph of Baghdad, al-Mustadi, proclaimed in Cairo.
Adivar, Halide Edib
Adivar, Halide Edib (Halide Edib Adivar) (Halide Edip Adivar) (1883-1964). Turkish novelist. Halide Edib Adivar was educated at the American Girls’ College, Uskudar. She was thus one of the few prominent figures of her generation to be educated in an Anglo-Saxon rather than in a French environment.
Halide Edip Adivar was a Turkish novelist and feminist political leader. Best known for her novels criticizing the low social status of Turkish women and what she saw as the disinterest of most women in changing their situation, she also served as a soldier in the Turkish military during the Turkish War of Independence. As follower of Young Turkish politics, she participated in the re-education of Armenian Genocide orphans in 1916 in Lebanon.
Halide Edip was born in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, as a girl, she studied Arabic and mathematics, and graduated from the American College for Girls in 1901. The college was an influential force for reformist social change at the time. Halide Edip Adivar was only 15 years old in 1897 and translated Mother by Jacob Abbott and was awarded by Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II with The Order of Charity (Nishan-i-Shafakat/Sefkat Nisani).
With her first husban, Salih Zeki, she had two children before they divorced.
Halide Edip's first novel, Seviye Talip, was published in 1909. She remarried, to Adnan Adivar, in 1917, and the next year took a job as a lecturer in literature at Istanbul's Faculty of Letters. It was during this time that she became increasingly active in Turkey's nationalist movement.
As Young Turkish headmaster she re-educated Armenian orphans in 1916. After the end of World War I, she and her husband travelled to Anatolia to fight in the War for Independence. She served first as a corporal and then as a sergeant in the nationalist military.
After the fighting ended, she and her husband moved to Western Europe. The would live in the French Third Republic and the United Kingdom from 1926 to 1939. She travelled widely, teaching and lecturing repeatedly in the United States and in British Raj India. After returning to Turkey in 1939, she became a professor in English literature at the Faculty of Letters in Istanbul. In 1950, she was elected to Parliament, resigning in 1954; this was the only formal political position she ever held.
Common themes in Halide Edip's novels were strong, independent female characters who succeeded in reaching their goals against strong opposition. She was also a strong Turkish nationalist, and several stories highlighted the central role of women in the fight for Turkish Independence.
Adivar became known as an ardent patriot and feminist because of her impetuous political novels, Yeni Turan and Khandan. Yeni Turan and Khandan were both published in 1912. After World War I, Adivar and her husband, the scholar Adnan Adivar, joined Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia and worked devotedly for the nationalist cause. Adivar’s experiences at this time produced the novel Atesten Gomlek (The Daughter of Smyrna) which was published in 1922.
After Turkey became a republic, Adivar and her husband lived abroad. They lived in France, England, the United States and even India.
In 1938, Adivar and her husband returned to Turkey and Adivar became Professor of English Literature at the University of Istanbul.
During her years away from Turkey, Adivar wrote two books of reminiscences, Memoirs of Halide Edib and The Turkish Ordeal. Memoirs of Halide Edib was published in 1926 and covered Adivar’s life through 1918. The Turkish Edib was published in 1928 and dealt with Adivar’s experiences during the Turkish War of Independence. Both Memoirs of Halide Edib and The Turkish Ordeal provide invaluable glimpses into the Turkey of those years as seen through the eyes of a Western educated Turkish patriot who was also a woman.
One other notable work by Adivar was The Clown and his Daughter. The Clown and his Daughter was published in 1935 and examined Istanbul life at the turn of the century and the tension between the Western and Islamic outlooks.
Halide Edib Adivar see Adivar, Halide Edib
Halide Edip Adivar see Adivar, Halide Edib
Adivar, Halide Edib (Halide Edib Adivar) (Halide Edip Adivar) (1883-1964). Turkish novelist. Halide Edib Adivar was educated at the American Girls’ College, Uskudar. She was thus one of the few prominent figures of her generation to be educated in an Anglo-Saxon rather than in a French environment.
Halide Edip Adivar was a Turkish novelist and feminist political leader. Best known for her novels criticizing the low social status of Turkish women and what she saw as the disinterest of most women in changing their situation, she also served as a soldier in the Turkish military during the Turkish War of Independence. As follower of Young Turkish politics, she participated in the re-education of Armenian Genocide orphans in 1916 in Lebanon.
Halide Edip was born in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, as a girl, she studied Arabic and mathematics, and graduated from the American College for Girls in 1901. The college was an influential force for reformist social change at the time. Halide Edip Adivar was only 15 years old in 1897 and translated Mother by Jacob Abbott and was awarded by Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II with The Order of Charity (Nishan-i-Shafakat/Sefkat Nisani).
With her first husban, Salih Zeki, she had two children before they divorced.
Halide Edip's first novel, Seviye Talip, was published in 1909. She remarried, to Adnan Adivar, in 1917, and the next year took a job as a lecturer in literature at Istanbul's Faculty of Letters. It was during this time that she became increasingly active in Turkey's nationalist movement.
As Young Turkish headmaster she re-educated Armenian orphans in 1916. After the end of World War I, she and her husband travelled to Anatolia to fight in the War for Independence. She served first as a corporal and then as a sergeant in the nationalist military.
After the fighting ended, she and her husband moved to Western Europe. The would live in the French Third Republic and the United Kingdom from 1926 to 1939. She travelled widely, teaching and lecturing repeatedly in the United States and in British Raj India. After returning to Turkey in 1939, she became a professor in English literature at the Faculty of Letters in Istanbul. In 1950, she was elected to Parliament, resigning in 1954; this was the only formal political position she ever held.
Common themes in Halide Edip's novels were strong, independent female characters who succeeded in reaching their goals against strong opposition. She was also a strong Turkish nationalist, and several stories highlighted the central role of women in the fight for Turkish Independence.
Adivar became known as an ardent patriot and feminist because of her impetuous political novels, Yeni Turan and Khandan. Yeni Turan and Khandan were both published in 1912. After World War I, Adivar and her husband, the scholar Adnan Adivar, joined Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia and worked devotedly for the nationalist cause. Adivar’s experiences at this time produced the novel Atesten Gomlek (The Daughter of Smyrna) which was published in 1922.
After Turkey became a republic, Adivar and her husband lived abroad. They lived in France, England, the United States and even India.
In 1938, Adivar and her husband returned to Turkey and Adivar became Professor of English Literature at the University of Istanbul.
During her years away from Turkey, Adivar wrote two books of reminiscences, Memoirs of Halide Edib and The Turkish Ordeal. Memoirs of Halide Edib was published in 1926 and covered Adivar’s life through 1918. The Turkish Edib was published in 1928 and dealt with Adivar’s experiences during the Turkish War of Independence. Both Memoirs of Halide Edib and The Turkish Ordeal provide invaluable glimpses into the Turkey of those years as seen through the eyes of a Western educated Turkish patriot who was also a woman.
One other notable work by Adivar was The Clown and his Daughter. The Clown and his Daughter was published in 1935 and examined Istanbul life at the turn of the century and the tension between the Western and Islamic outlooks.
Halide Edib Adivar see Adivar, Halide Edib
Halide Edip Adivar see Adivar, Halide Edib
Adli Yakan
Adli Yakan (Adli Yakan Pasha) (Adly Pasha) (January 18, 1864 - October 22, 1933). The great grandnephew of Muhammad Ali Pasha, Adli Yakan was Egypt’s Prime Minister in 1921. He served as Prime Minister of Egypt between 1921 and 1922, again between 1926 and 1927, and finally in 1929. He held several prominent political posts including Foreign Minister, Interior Minister and Speaker of the Senate. He died in Paris, France.
Yakan, Adli see Adli Yakan
Adli Yakan Pasha see Adli Yakan
Adly Pasha see Adli Yakan
Adli Yakan (Adli Yakan Pasha) (Adly Pasha) (January 18, 1864 - October 22, 1933). The great grandnephew of Muhammad Ali Pasha, Adli Yakan was Egypt’s Prime Minister in 1921. He served as Prime Minister of Egypt between 1921 and 1922, again between 1926 and 1927, and finally in 1929. He held several prominent political posts including Foreign Minister, Interior Minister and Speaker of the Senate. He died in Paris, France.
Yakan, Adli see Adli Yakan
Adli Yakan Pasha see Adli Yakan
Adly Pasha see Adli Yakan
‘Adnan
‘Adnan. The name of the ancestor of the Northern Arabs, the Adnani (Neo-Arabs), as opposed to the Qahtani of Southern Arabia who descend from Qahtan. Adnan is said to be a descendant of Ishmael through his son Nebaioth. His descendants are said to have included Muhammad.
‘Adnan. The name of the ancestor of the Northern Arabs, the Adnani (Neo-Arabs), as opposed to the Qahtani of Southern Arabia who descend from Qahtan. Adnan is said to be a descendant of Ishmael through his son Nebaioth. His descendants are said to have included Muhammad.
Adonis
Adonis (Adunis) ('Ali Ahmad Sa'id Asbar) (b. 1930). Syrian poet.
Adonis was born in Kassabin (Al Qassabin), near Latakia, Syria, into an Alawite family. From an early age, he worked in the fields, but his father regularly had him memorize poetry, and he began to compose poems of his own. In 1947, he had the opportunity to recite a poem for Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli, that led to a series of scholarships, first to a school in Latakia and then to the Syrian University in Damascus, where he received a degree in Philosophy in 1954.
'Ali Ahmad picked the name Adonis for himself after being rejected by a number of magazines under his real name. In 1955, he was imprisoned for six months for being a member of the radical pan-Syrian Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Following his release from prison in 1956, he settled in Beirut, Lebanon, where in 1957 he and Syro-Lebanese poet Yusuf al-Khal founded the magazine Shi'r (Shiar) ("Poetry"). At this time, he abandoned Syrian nationalism in favor of pan-Arabism. He also became a less political writer.
Adonis received a scholarship to study in Paris from 1960 to 1961. From 1970 to 1975, he was professor of Arabic literature at the University of Lebanon. In 1976, he was a visiting professor at the University of Damascus. In 1980, he emigrated to Paris to escape the Lebanese Civil War. In 1980-1981, he was professor of Arabic at the Sorbonne in Paris.
From 1957 to 1963, Adonis co-edited the literary magazine, Shiar. In 1967, following the Six Day War, which shaked the entire Arab world, much interest was given to Adonis and his poems, which depicted a hope in the future.
From 1968 to 1978, Adonis published the magazine Mawaqif.
Adonis is considered to be among the most important modern Arab poets. Using the basis of traditional poetic styles, he developed a new manner of expressing modern sentiments. Adonis was influenced by classical Shi‘a poets, but started at a relatively early age (his twenties) to experiment with the prose poem, giving it density, tension, metaphors and rhythm. He also broke with the diction and style of traditional poems, and introduced a new and powerful syntax. He used myths from older religions, where the resurrecting gods of Tammuz, Adonis and Phoenix were central symbols.
Similar to most other poets using the Arabic language, Adonis employs the technique of tarab. Tarab aims at a sort of ecstasy reached when the musicality of the verse corresponds with the visions and thoughts expressed in the poem.
Adonis has written over twenty books in his native Arabic. The works of Adonis include Songs of Mihyar, the Damascene (1961); Introduction of Arab Poetry (1971); The Shock of Modernity (1978); and Manifesto of Modernity (1980). Several of his poetry collections have been translated into English.
Adonis is today considered to be a pioneer of modern Arabic poetry. He is often seen as a rebel, an iconoclast who follows his own rules. He was considered to be a candidate for the 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature. However, the awards went to British playwright Harold Pinter, Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk, British novelist Doris Lessing and French novelist J. M. G. Le Clezio.
In 2007, Adonis was awarded the Bjornson Prize.
'Ali Ahmad Sa'id Asbar see Adonis
Asbar, 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id see Adonis
Adunis see Adonis
Adonis (Adunis) ('Ali Ahmad Sa'id Asbar) (b. 1930). Syrian poet.
Adonis was born in Kassabin (Al Qassabin), near Latakia, Syria, into an Alawite family. From an early age, he worked in the fields, but his father regularly had him memorize poetry, and he began to compose poems of his own. In 1947, he had the opportunity to recite a poem for Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli, that led to a series of scholarships, first to a school in Latakia and then to the Syrian University in Damascus, where he received a degree in Philosophy in 1954.
'Ali Ahmad picked the name Adonis for himself after being rejected by a number of magazines under his real name. In 1955, he was imprisoned for six months for being a member of the radical pan-Syrian Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Following his release from prison in 1956, he settled in Beirut, Lebanon, where in 1957 he and Syro-Lebanese poet Yusuf al-Khal founded the magazine Shi'r (Shiar) ("Poetry"). At this time, he abandoned Syrian nationalism in favor of pan-Arabism. He also became a less political writer.
Adonis received a scholarship to study in Paris from 1960 to 1961. From 1970 to 1975, he was professor of Arabic literature at the University of Lebanon. In 1976, he was a visiting professor at the University of Damascus. In 1980, he emigrated to Paris to escape the Lebanese Civil War. In 1980-1981, he was professor of Arabic at the Sorbonne in Paris.
From 1957 to 1963, Adonis co-edited the literary magazine, Shiar. In 1967, following the Six Day War, which shaked the entire Arab world, much interest was given to Adonis and his poems, which depicted a hope in the future.
From 1968 to 1978, Adonis published the magazine Mawaqif.
Adonis is considered to be among the most important modern Arab poets. Using the basis of traditional poetic styles, he developed a new manner of expressing modern sentiments. Adonis was influenced by classical Shi‘a poets, but started at a relatively early age (his twenties) to experiment with the prose poem, giving it density, tension, metaphors and rhythm. He also broke with the diction and style of traditional poems, and introduced a new and powerful syntax. He used myths from older religions, where the resurrecting gods of Tammuz, Adonis and Phoenix were central symbols.
Similar to most other poets using the Arabic language, Adonis employs the technique of tarab. Tarab aims at a sort of ecstasy reached when the musicality of the verse corresponds with the visions and thoughts expressed in the poem.
Adonis has written over twenty books in his native Arabic. The works of Adonis include Songs of Mihyar, the Damascene (1961); Introduction of Arab Poetry (1971); The Shock of Modernity (1978); and Manifesto of Modernity (1980). Several of his poetry collections have been translated into English.
Adonis is today considered to be a pioneer of modern Arabic poetry. He is often seen as a rebel, an iconoclast who follows his own rules. He was considered to be a candidate for the 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature. However, the awards went to British playwright Harold Pinter, Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk, British novelist Doris Lessing and French novelist J. M. G. Le Clezio.
In 2007, Adonis was awarded the Bjornson Prize.
'Ali Ahmad Sa'id Asbar see Adonis
Asbar, 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id see Adonis
Adunis see Adonis
‘Adud al-Dawla
‘Adud al-Dawla ('Adud al-Daula) (Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw) (September 24, 936 - March 26, 983). The greatest emir of the Buyid dynasty (r. 949-983). He ruled in Iraq and Iran, and was a builder and patron of the learned, and of poets.
The son of Rukn al-Dawla, Fana Khusrau was given the title of 'Adud al-Dawla by the 'Abbasid caliph in 948 when he was made emir of Fars after the death of his childless uncle 'Imad al-Dawla, after which Rukn al-Dawla became the senior emir of the Buwayhids. In 974, 'Adud al-Dawla was sent by his father to crush a rebellion by his cousin 'Izz al-Dawla. After defeating his cousin's forces, he claimed the emirate of Iraq for himself, angering his father, though he would become the senior emir after the death of his father.
'Adud al-Dawla became emir of Iraq while the capital of Baghdad was suffering from violence and instability owing to sectarian conflict. In order to bring peace and stability to the city, he ordered the banning of public demonstrations and polemics. At the same time, he patronized a number of Shi'a scholars such as al-Mufid, and he sponsored the renovation of a number of important Shi'a shrines.
In addition, 'Adud al-Dawla is credited with sponsoring and patronizing other scientific projects during his time. An observatory was built on his orders in Isfahan where Azophi worked. Al-Muqaddasi also reports of a great dam be built under his orders between Shiraz, Iran and Istakhr in 960. The dam irrigated some 300 villages in Fars province and became known as Band-i Amir.
'Adud al-Dawla also founded the Bimaristan-i Adhudi (Al-Adudi Hospital) which is where the great Rhazes spent his last days practicing medicine.
'Adud al-Dawla died in 983 and is buried in Najaf.
Dawla, 'Adud al- see ‘Adud al-Dawla
Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw see ‘Adud al-Dawla
'Adud al-Daula see ‘Adud al-Dawla
‘Adud al-Dawla ('Adud al-Daula) (Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw) (September 24, 936 - March 26, 983). The greatest emir of the Buyid dynasty (r. 949-983). He ruled in Iraq and Iran, and was a builder and patron of the learned, and of poets.
The son of Rukn al-Dawla, Fana Khusrau was given the title of 'Adud al-Dawla by the 'Abbasid caliph in 948 when he was made emir of Fars after the death of his childless uncle 'Imad al-Dawla, after which Rukn al-Dawla became the senior emir of the Buwayhids. In 974, 'Adud al-Dawla was sent by his father to crush a rebellion by his cousin 'Izz al-Dawla. After defeating his cousin's forces, he claimed the emirate of Iraq for himself, angering his father, though he would become the senior emir after the death of his father.
'Adud al-Dawla became emir of Iraq while the capital of Baghdad was suffering from violence and instability owing to sectarian conflict. In order to bring peace and stability to the city, he ordered the banning of public demonstrations and polemics. At the same time, he patronized a number of Shi'a scholars such as al-Mufid, and he sponsored the renovation of a number of important Shi'a shrines.
In addition, 'Adud al-Dawla is credited with sponsoring and patronizing other scientific projects during his time. An observatory was built on his orders in Isfahan where Azophi worked. Al-Muqaddasi also reports of a great dam be built under his orders between Shiraz, Iran and Istakhr in 960. The dam irrigated some 300 villages in Fars province and became known as Band-i Amir.
'Adud al-Dawla also founded the Bimaristan-i Adhudi (Al-Adudi Hospital) which is where the great Rhazes spent his last days practicing medicine.
'Adud al-Dawla died in 983 and is buried in Najaf.
Dawla, 'Adud al- see ‘Adud al-Dawla
Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw see ‘Adud al-Dawla
'Adud al-Daula see ‘Adud al-Dawla
Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al- (al-Malik al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali Shahanshah) (al-Afdal Shahanshan) (1066 - December 11, 1121). The Fatimid vizier in Egypt for twenty-seven years. During his office, the country enjoyed internal tranquility, although in 1103 Acre fell to the Crusaders.
Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali was born in Acre, the son of Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian Mameluke. Badr was vizier for the Fatimids in Cairo from 1074 until his deth in 1094, when al-Afda succeeded him. Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah died soon afterwards, and al-Afdal appointed as caliph al-Musta'li, a child, instead of al-Mustali's much older brother Nizar. Nizar revolted and was defeated in 1095. His supporters, led by Hassan-i-Sabah, fled west, where Hassan established the Ismai'li community, sometimes erroneously called the Hashashin, or Assassins.
At this time, Fatimid power in Palestine had been reduced by the arrival of the Seljuk Turks. In 1097, he captured Tyre from the Seljuks, and in 1098 he took Jerusalem, expelling its Ortoqid governor Ilghazi in place of a Fatimid. Al-Afdal restored most of Palestine to Fatimid control, at least temporarily.
Al-Afdal misunderstood the Crusaders as Byzantine mercenaries. This misperception caused al-Afdal to conclude that the crusaders would make for natural allies, as each were enemies of the Seljuk Turks. Fatimid overtures for an alliance with the Crusaders were rebuffed, and the crusaders continued southward from Antioch to capture Jerusalem from Fatimid control in 1099.
When it became apparent that the Crusaders would not rest until they had control of the city, al-Afdal marched out from Cairo, but was too late to rescue Jerusalem, which fell on July 15, 1099. On August 12, the Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon surprised al-Afdal at the Battle of Ascalon and completely defeated him. Al-Afdal would reassert Fatimid control of Ascalon, as the Crusaders did not attempt to retain it, and utilize it as a staging ground for later attacks on the crusader states.
Al-Afdal marched out every year to attack the nascent Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1105 attempted to ally with Damascus against them, but was defeated at the Battle of Ramla. Al-Afdal and his army enjoyed success only so long as no European fleet interfered, but they gradually lost control of their coastal strongholds. In 1109, Tripoli was lost, despite the fleet and supplies sent by al-Afdal, and the city became the center of an important Crusader county. In 1110, the governor of Ascalon, Shams al-Khalifa, rebelled against al-Afdal with the intent of handing over the city to Jerusalem (for a large price). Al-Khalifa's Berber troops assassinated him and sent his head to al-Afdal. The Crusaders later took Tyre and Acre as well, and remained in Jerusalem until the arrival of Saladin decades later.
Al-Afdal also introduced tax (iqta) reform in Egypt, which remained in place until Saladin took over Egypt. Al-Afdal was nicknamed Jalal al-Islam) ("Glory of Islam") and Nasir al-Din ("Protector of the Faith"). Ibn al-Qalanisi describes him as "a firm believer in the doctrines of Sunnah, upright in conduct, a lover of justice towards both troops and civil population, judicious in counsel and plan, ambitious and resolute, of penetrating knowledge and exquisite tact, of generous nature, accurate in his intuitions, and possessing a sense of justice which preserved him from wrongdoing and led him to shun all tyrannical methods."
Al-Afdal was murdered during Eid ul-Adha in 1121. According to Ibn al-Qalanisi, "it was asserted that the Batinis (Hashshashin) were responsible for this assassination, but this statement is not true. On the contrary it is an empty pretence and an insubstantial calumny." The real cause was the growing boldness of the caliph al-Amir Bi-Ahkamillah, who had succeeded al-Musta'li in 1101, and his resentment of al-Afdal's control. Ibn al-Qalanisi states that "all eyes wept and all hearts sorrowed for him; time did not produce his like after him, and after his loss the government fell into disrepute." He was succeeded as vizier by al-Ma'mun.
In Latin, his name was rendered as "Lavendalius" or "Elafdalio."
Malik al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali Shahanshah, al- see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Afdal Shahanshan, al- see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Jalal al-Islam see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Glory of Islam see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Nasir al-Din see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Protector of the Faith see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al- (al-Malik al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali Shahanshah) (al-Afdal Shahanshan) (1066 - December 11, 1121). The Fatimid vizier in Egypt for twenty-seven years. During his office, the country enjoyed internal tranquility, although in 1103 Acre fell to the Crusaders.
Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali was born in Acre, the son of Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian Mameluke. Badr was vizier for the Fatimids in Cairo from 1074 until his deth in 1094, when al-Afda succeeded him. Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah died soon afterwards, and al-Afdal appointed as caliph al-Musta'li, a child, instead of al-Mustali's much older brother Nizar. Nizar revolted and was defeated in 1095. His supporters, led by Hassan-i-Sabah, fled west, where Hassan established the Ismai'li community, sometimes erroneously called the Hashashin, or Assassins.
At this time, Fatimid power in Palestine had been reduced by the arrival of the Seljuk Turks. In 1097, he captured Tyre from the Seljuks, and in 1098 he took Jerusalem, expelling its Ortoqid governor Ilghazi in place of a Fatimid. Al-Afdal restored most of Palestine to Fatimid control, at least temporarily.
Al-Afdal misunderstood the Crusaders as Byzantine mercenaries. This misperception caused al-Afdal to conclude that the crusaders would make for natural allies, as each were enemies of the Seljuk Turks. Fatimid overtures for an alliance with the Crusaders were rebuffed, and the crusaders continued southward from Antioch to capture Jerusalem from Fatimid control in 1099.
When it became apparent that the Crusaders would not rest until they had control of the city, al-Afdal marched out from Cairo, but was too late to rescue Jerusalem, which fell on July 15, 1099. On August 12, the Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon surprised al-Afdal at the Battle of Ascalon and completely defeated him. Al-Afdal would reassert Fatimid control of Ascalon, as the Crusaders did not attempt to retain it, and utilize it as a staging ground for later attacks on the crusader states.
Al-Afdal marched out every year to attack the nascent Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1105 attempted to ally with Damascus against them, but was defeated at the Battle of Ramla. Al-Afdal and his army enjoyed success only so long as no European fleet interfered, but they gradually lost control of their coastal strongholds. In 1109, Tripoli was lost, despite the fleet and supplies sent by al-Afdal, and the city became the center of an important Crusader county. In 1110, the governor of Ascalon, Shams al-Khalifa, rebelled against al-Afdal with the intent of handing over the city to Jerusalem (for a large price). Al-Khalifa's Berber troops assassinated him and sent his head to al-Afdal. The Crusaders later took Tyre and Acre as well, and remained in Jerusalem until the arrival of Saladin decades later.
Al-Afdal also introduced tax (iqta) reform in Egypt, which remained in place until Saladin took over Egypt. Al-Afdal was nicknamed Jalal al-Islam) ("Glory of Islam") and Nasir al-Din ("Protector of the Faith"). Ibn al-Qalanisi describes him as "a firm believer in the doctrines of Sunnah, upright in conduct, a lover of justice towards both troops and civil population, judicious in counsel and plan, ambitious and resolute, of penetrating knowledge and exquisite tact, of generous nature, accurate in his intuitions, and possessing a sense of justice which preserved him from wrongdoing and led him to shun all tyrannical methods."
Al-Afdal was murdered during Eid ul-Adha in 1121. According to Ibn al-Qalanisi, "it was asserted that the Batinis (Hashshashin) were responsible for this assassination, but this statement is not true. On the contrary it is an empty pretence and an insubstantial calumny." The real cause was the growing boldness of the caliph al-Amir Bi-Ahkamillah, who had succeeded al-Musta'li in 1101, and his resentment of al-Afdal's control. Ibn al-Qalanisi states that "all eyes wept and all hearts sorrowed for him; time did not produce his like after him, and after his loss the government fell into disrepute." He was succeeded as vizier by al-Ma'mun.
In Latin, his name was rendered as "Lavendalius" or "Elafdalio."
Malik al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali Shahanshah, al- see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Afdal Shahanshan, al- see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Jalal al-Islam see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Glory of Islam see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Nasir al-Din see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Protector of the Faith see Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali, al-
Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Afghani, Jamal al-Din al- (Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani) (Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn) (Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi) (1838 - March 9, 1897). Muslim reformer, apologist, and anti-colonialist who is known as the “Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement.”
Afghani was born near Hamadan and educated in Iran and the Shi‘ite shrine cities of Ottoman Iraq. Educated in rationalist philosophy, taught more in Iran than elsewhere in the Muslim world, Afghani was also influenced by the philosophically oriented and innovative Shaikhi school of Shi‘ism. Around 1857, he went to India, where he seems to have acquired his lifelong hatred of British imperialism. After a trip, probably via Mecca and Iraq, he went to Afghanistan and entered the counsels of the Afghan emir, advising him to fight the British. When his patron was defeated by Amir Shir Ali, the latter expelled Afghani.
Afghani went briefly to India and Cairo, and then to Istanbul, where he became a friend of the head of the Dar al-Fonun, a new university. In 1870, Afghani gave a lecture at the university. He compared philosophy to prophecy and implied that prophecy was a craft, thus giving the Ottoman ulama (religious scholars), already hostile to the secular university, an excuse to attack the university and bring on Afghani’s expulsion.
Afghani stayed then in Cairo from 1871 to 1879. There he did his most fruitful work. He was given a stipend by the Egyptian government to teach young Egyptians. Among his disciples was the later great Muslim reformer Muhammad Abduh. From 1875 onwards, Afghani entered politics by (1) leading an Arab Masonic lodge, which he tried to use to achieve the abdication of Isma‘il in favor of his son Tawfiq, (2) promoting the formation of political newspapers by his disciples, and (3) giving effective mass orations, directed especially against Westerners in Egypt. When Tawfiq took power with Franco-British aid in 1879 and Afghani continued to attack the British, he was exiled to India in August 1879.
In India, Afghani went to the Muslim principality of Hyderabad, where he published several Persian articles and his one treatise, known as the Refutation of the Materialists, which was aimed mainly at the pro-British Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his school. After detention by the British in Calcutta, Afghani left for Paris, stopping in London. In London and Paris, Afghani wrote articles against the British occupation of Egypt, and also wrote the irreligious French “Answer to Renan,”a notable defense of Islam against Ernest Renan. He got Abduh to join him in Paris, where they published the reformist and anti-British paper, Al-urwa al-wuthqa, in 1884. It was at this time that Afghani first expressed the pan-Islamic views most often associated with him. Until then, he had spoken rather in terms of regional nationalisms.
In 1886, Afghani sailed to the Iranian port of Bushehr, where his books and papers had been sent from Egypt. He planned to go to Russia, where the Slavophile editor Mikhail Katkov had invited him, but the Iranian minister of press invited him to Tehran. Jamal al-Din stayed with the wealthy Amin al-Zarb. His anti-foreign talk evidently disturbed the shah, who asked Amin al-Zarb to take Afghani with him to Russia, which he did. There he made futile attempts to convince Russia to fight Britain. Afghani overtook the shah’s party in Munich in 1889, and after a brief return to Russia he came back to Iran, where the prime minister refused to see him. Afghani then began to encourage secret organization and leaflets against the government, and forestalled expulsion by taking sanctuary at a shrine. In January 1891, he was expelled from Iran after a leaflet attacked the government for its concessions (especially the tobacco concession) to foreigners. When the Qajar Shah (Nasir al-Din) had Afghani forcibly removed from a place near Tehran which had been regarded as an inviolable sanctuary (in Persian, bast) Afghani developed feelings of hatred and a desire for vengeance towards the shah.
Afghani went to Iraq, and when the Tobacco Rebellion broke out in Iran, a mujtahid expelled from Shiraz visited Afghani, who wrote a letter against the shah and the tobacco concession to the leading mujtahid, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, who was important in the concession’s cancellation.
Frequently opposed by the ulama (the Muslim clergy) and suspected as dissident by the temporal powers, Afghani was often on the run. In 1891 and 1892, Afghani spent months speaking and writing in England with Malkom Khan. In 1892, Afghani was invited to be the guest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid in Istanbul. In Istanbul, Afghani was employed by Sultan Abdulhamid (‘Abd al-Hamid II) to promulgate pan-Islamic ideals. There he worked with a group of Iranians and Shi‘ites to get Shi‘ites to recognize Abdulhamid’s claim to be caliph of all Muslims.
In 1896, Afghani’s disciple, Mirza Riza Kirmani, visited Afghani. Afghani inspired Mirza to kill Nasir al-Din Shah on May 1, 1896. The friendship between Afghani and the Sultan subsequently cooled, essentially because of Afghani’s complicity in the assassination of the Persian ruler. Indeed, Afghani was placed under house arrest by the Sultan. Iran’s futile efforts to extradite Afghani ended with Afghani’s death in 1897.
Afghani died on March 9, 1897 in Istanbul and was buried there. However, in late 1944, at the request of the Afghan government, his remains were taken to Afghanistan and laid to rest in Kabul inside the Kabul University where a mausoleum was erected for him.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was most effective as a pamphleteer, journalist, orator, and revolutionary activist. As a Muslim modernist and political propagandist, he advocated unity of the Islamic world and selective borrowing from the West for the purpose of stemming the tide of Western imperialism. He was the adviser of Muslim rulers in many parts of the Islamic world and a political activist in Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt, and the Ottoman empire. With him, began the reform movement which gave rise to the Salafiyya and, later on, to the Muslim Brothers.
Afghani, above all else, called for unity amongst all Muslims. However, he did not believe that all Muslims ought to unify under one ruler, or Caliph. Instead, cooperation amongst Muslims was his answer to the weakness that had allowed Muslims to be colonized by the Europeans (namely Britain, Russia, and France). He believed that, in fact, Islam (and its revealed law) was compatible with rationality and thus, Muslims could become politically unified whilst still maintaining their faith based on a religious social morality. These beliefs had a profound effect on Muhammad 'Abduh, who went on to expand on the notion of using rationality in the human relations aspect of Islam (mu'amalat).
Afghani’s development of the philosophical bases for Islamic modernism was left to his most illustrious pupil from the Cairo period, Muhammad ‘Abduh. However, in Afghanistan, Afghans revere his memory and believe him to be a descendant of a family of Sayyids from Asadabad in Kunar Province of Afghanistan, even though most Western scholars agree on Afghani’s Iranian origin.
As a believer in reform and as a pioneer in various forms of political activisim and agitation in many countries, Afghani had an important influence that continues in the Muslim world today.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
“Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement” see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Afghani, Jamal al-Din al- (Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani) (Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn) (Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi) (1838 - March 9, 1897). Muslim reformer, apologist, and anti-colonialist who is known as the “Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement.”
Afghani was born near Hamadan and educated in Iran and the Shi‘ite shrine cities of Ottoman Iraq. Educated in rationalist philosophy, taught more in Iran than elsewhere in the Muslim world, Afghani was also influenced by the philosophically oriented and innovative Shaikhi school of Shi‘ism. Around 1857, he went to India, where he seems to have acquired his lifelong hatred of British imperialism. After a trip, probably via Mecca and Iraq, he went to Afghanistan and entered the counsels of the Afghan emir, advising him to fight the British. When his patron was defeated by Amir Shir Ali, the latter expelled Afghani.
Afghani went briefly to India and Cairo, and then to Istanbul, where he became a friend of the head of the Dar al-Fonun, a new university. In 1870, Afghani gave a lecture at the university. He compared philosophy to prophecy and implied that prophecy was a craft, thus giving the Ottoman ulama (religious scholars), already hostile to the secular university, an excuse to attack the university and bring on Afghani’s expulsion.
Afghani stayed then in Cairo from 1871 to 1879. There he did his most fruitful work. He was given a stipend by the Egyptian government to teach young Egyptians. Among his disciples was the later great Muslim reformer Muhammad Abduh. From 1875 onwards, Afghani entered politics by (1) leading an Arab Masonic lodge, which he tried to use to achieve the abdication of Isma‘il in favor of his son Tawfiq, (2) promoting the formation of political newspapers by his disciples, and (3) giving effective mass orations, directed especially against Westerners in Egypt. When Tawfiq took power with Franco-British aid in 1879 and Afghani continued to attack the British, he was exiled to India in August 1879.
In India, Afghani went to the Muslim principality of Hyderabad, where he published several Persian articles and his one treatise, known as the Refutation of the Materialists, which was aimed mainly at the pro-British Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his school. After detention by the British in Calcutta, Afghani left for Paris, stopping in London. In London and Paris, Afghani wrote articles against the British occupation of Egypt, and also wrote the irreligious French “Answer to Renan,”a notable defense of Islam against Ernest Renan. He got Abduh to join him in Paris, where they published the reformist and anti-British paper, Al-urwa al-wuthqa, in 1884. It was at this time that Afghani first expressed the pan-Islamic views most often associated with him. Until then, he had spoken rather in terms of regional nationalisms.
In 1886, Afghani sailed to the Iranian port of Bushehr, where his books and papers had been sent from Egypt. He planned to go to Russia, where the Slavophile editor Mikhail Katkov had invited him, but the Iranian minister of press invited him to Tehran. Jamal al-Din stayed with the wealthy Amin al-Zarb. His anti-foreign talk evidently disturbed the shah, who asked Amin al-Zarb to take Afghani with him to Russia, which he did. There he made futile attempts to convince Russia to fight Britain. Afghani overtook the shah’s party in Munich in 1889, and after a brief return to Russia he came back to Iran, where the prime minister refused to see him. Afghani then began to encourage secret organization and leaflets against the government, and forestalled expulsion by taking sanctuary at a shrine. In January 1891, he was expelled from Iran after a leaflet attacked the government for its concessions (especially the tobacco concession) to foreigners. When the Qajar Shah (Nasir al-Din) had Afghani forcibly removed from a place near Tehran which had been regarded as an inviolable sanctuary (in Persian, bast) Afghani developed feelings of hatred and a desire for vengeance towards the shah.
Afghani went to Iraq, and when the Tobacco Rebellion broke out in Iran, a mujtahid expelled from Shiraz visited Afghani, who wrote a letter against the shah and the tobacco concession to the leading mujtahid, Mirza Hasan Shirazi, who was important in the concession’s cancellation.
Frequently opposed by the ulama (the Muslim clergy) and suspected as dissident by the temporal powers, Afghani was often on the run. In 1891 and 1892, Afghani spent months speaking and writing in England with Malkom Khan. In 1892, Afghani was invited to be the guest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid in Istanbul. In Istanbul, Afghani was employed by Sultan Abdulhamid (‘Abd al-Hamid II) to promulgate pan-Islamic ideals. There he worked with a group of Iranians and Shi‘ites to get Shi‘ites to recognize Abdulhamid’s claim to be caliph of all Muslims.
In 1896, Afghani’s disciple, Mirza Riza Kirmani, visited Afghani. Afghani inspired Mirza to kill Nasir al-Din Shah on May 1, 1896. The friendship between Afghani and the Sultan subsequently cooled, essentially because of Afghani’s complicity in the assassination of the Persian ruler. Indeed, Afghani was placed under house arrest by the Sultan. Iran’s futile efforts to extradite Afghani ended with Afghani’s death in 1897.
Afghani died on March 9, 1897 in Istanbul and was buried there. However, in late 1944, at the request of the Afghan government, his remains were taken to Afghanistan and laid to rest in Kabul inside the Kabul University where a mausoleum was erected for him.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was most effective as a pamphleteer, journalist, orator, and revolutionary activist. As a Muslim modernist and political propagandist, he advocated unity of the Islamic world and selective borrowing from the West for the purpose of stemming the tide of Western imperialism. He was the adviser of Muslim rulers in many parts of the Islamic world and a political activist in Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt, and the Ottoman empire. With him, began the reform movement which gave rise to the Salafiyya and, later on, to the Muslim Brothers.
Afghani, above all else, called for unity amongst all Muslims. However, he did not believe that all Muslims ought to unify under one ruler, or Caliph. Instead, cooperation amongst Muslims was his answer to the weakness that had allowed Muslims to be colonized by the Europeans (namely Britain, Russia, and France). He believed that, in fact, Islam (and its revealed law) was compatible with rationality and thus, Muslims could become politically unified whilst still maintaining their faith based on a religious social morality. These beliefs had a profound effect on Muhammad 'Abduh, who went on to expand on the notion of using rationality in the human relations aspect of Islam (mu'amalat).
Afghani’s development of the philosophical bases for Islamic modernism was left to his most illustrious pupil from the Cairo period, Muhammad ‘Abduh. However, in Afghanistan, Afghans revere his memory and believe him to be a descendant of a family of Sayyids from Asadabad in Kunar Province of Afghanistan, even though most Western scholars agree on Afghani’s Iranian origin.
As a believer in reform and as a pioneer in various forms of political activisim and agitation in many countries, Afghani had an important influence that continues in the Muslim world today.
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamaluddin Afghani see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
“Father of the Pan-Islamic Movement” see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Muhammad ibn Safdar al-Husayn see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Sayyid Jamal-al-din Asadabadi see Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-
Afrasiyab
Afrasiyab. The legendary king of the Turanians according to Iranian tradition. It is also the name of the founder of a line of governors of Basra (r. 1612-1668).
Afrasiyab. The legendary king of the Turanians according to Iranian tradition. It is also the name of the founder of a line of governors of Basra (r. 1612-1668).
Afshar, Haleh
Haleh Afshar (b. May 21, 1944, Tehran, Pahlavi Iran – d. May 12, 2022, Heslington, England) was a British life peer in the House of Lords.
Haleh Afshar was born as the eldest of the four children born to Hassan Afshar and Pouran Khabir on May 21, 1944 in Tehran. Afshar was a professor of politics and women's studies at the University of York, England, and a visiting professor of Islamic law at the Faculté internationale de droit comparé (international faculty of comparative law) at Robert Schuman University in Strasbourg, France. Afshar served on several bodies, notably the British Council and the United Nations Association, of which she was honorary president of international services. She was appointed to the board of the Women's National Commission in September 2008. She served as the chair for the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies. Afshar was a founding member of the Muslim Women's Network. She served on the Home Office's working groups, on "engaging with women" and "preventing extremism together".
Afshar was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 2005 Birthday Honours for services to equal opportunities. On October 18, 2007, it was announced that she would be made a baroness and join the House of Lords as a cross-bench life peer. She was formally introduced into the House of Lords on December 11, 2007, as Baroness Afshar, of Heslington in the County of North Yorkshire.
In March 2009, Afshar was named as one of the twenty most successful Muslim women in the United Kingdom on the Muslim Women Power List 2009. The list was a collaboration between the Equality and Human Rights Commission, Emel Magazine, and The Times, to celebrate the achievements of Muslim women in the United Kingdom.
In April 2009, she was appointed an academician of the Academy of Social Sciences.
Afshar died from kidney failure at her home in Heslington on May 12, 2022 at the age of 77.
In 2011, Afshar received an honorary doctorate from the University of Essex.
In January 2013, Afshar was nominated for the Services to Education award at the British Muslim Awards.
In 2017, Afshar received an honorary doctorate from the University of Bradford.
Afsharids
Afsharids. Afghan dynasty in Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan (r.1736-1796). Their main capital was Mashhad. The dynasty was founded by General Nadir Shah Afshar from the Afghan Qizilbash tribe, part of the Afshars. Nadir advanced as the military leader of a Safavid shadow shah, expelled the Afghans (Ghalzai) from Persia in 1730 with the conquest of Isfahan, and finally rose to the throne himself as Nadir Shah (1736-1747).
Nadir’s empire, at its zenith, included the whole of Iran and Afghanistan, with vassals in Iraq, Central Asia (Khiva), and northern India. After his death, the rule of his successors was soon confined to the city of Mashhad and the metropolitan province of Khurasan.
Nadir’s last years were punctuated by rebellions throughout his empire. His nephew Ali Quli Khan, sent to quell a revolt in Sistan, joined the rebels and was already marching on Mashhad when Nadir was assassinated in June of 1747. Ali Quli Khan was proclaimed king under the regnal name Adil Shah (“the just king”). Having secured Nadir’s fortress of Kalat, he massacred all his uncle’s male issue, preserving only Shahrukh, a teenage grandson by a daughter of the last Safavid monarch, as a hedge against a pro-Safavid coup. Adil sent his younger brother Ibrahim to govern western Iran from the old Safavid capital of Isfahan. He himself remained in Mashhad. Most of Nadir’s tribal levies, however, were returned home, especially to the hinterland of Isfahan. Ibrahim used these reinforcements in a bid for power and defeated Adil Shah’s forces near Zanjan in June 1748.
Ibrahim was proclaimed shah at Tabriz in December, but meanwhile Shahrukh, the grandson of Nadir, had been raised to the throne in Mashhad by a junta of Kurd and other tribal chiefs. In the spring of 1749, Ibrahim’s army evaporated on the advance of Shahrukh’s forces. Ibrahim was taken to Mashhad (together with his brother, Adil, whom Ibrahim had already blinded) and executed.
Mir Sayyid Muhammad -- like Shahrukh a grandson of the last Safavid shah and an influential figure as warden of the shrine mosque at Mashhad -- became the figurehead of a popular insurrection orchestrated by yet another military faction. Shahrukh Shah was deposed (and later blinded), and in January 1750 the sayyid was crowned Shah Sulayman II of the Safavid dynasty. He soon alienated his patrons by disbursing Nadir’s waning treasury to parasitical relatives. Within three months, Shah Sulayman had been deposed and blinded. Shahrukh was reinstalled and ruled nominally for a further forty-five years.
By 1750, Iran’s political center of gravity had shifted to Isfahan and Shiraz, under Karim Khan Zand. Afghanistan and Mughal India were ruled by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who had escaped with his Afghan contingent from the debacle of Nadir’s assassination to be elected first shah of Afghanistan. Afsharid Khurasan remained an impoverished buffer zone between these states, ravaged by continuing power struggles between tribal chieftains and Shahrukh’s sons Nasr Allah Mirza and Nadir Mirza, and invaded three times by Ahmad Shah. The booty Nadir had brought from India was long dissipated, and Shahrukh’s sons resorted to stripping the shrine of ornaments to pay their fickle forces. Although Mashhad retained its prestige as a Shi‘ite shrine, chronic anarchy reduced commercial and pilgrim traffic and plunged Khurasan into an economic depression that lasted well into the nineteenth century. In 1796, Aqa Muhammad Qajar, having secured western Iran, stormed Mashhad and tortured Shahrukh to death to reveal the remnants of the fabled Afsharid jewels.
Afsharids. Afghan dynasty in Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan (r.1736-1796). Their main capital was Mashhad. The dynasty was founded by General Nadir Shah Afshar from the Afghan Qizilbash tribe, part of the Afshars. Nadir advanced as the military leader of a Safavid shadow shah, expelled the Afghans (Ghalzai) from Persia in 1730 with the conquest of Isfahan, and finally rose to the throne himself as Nadir Shah (1736-1747).
Nadir’s empire, at its zenith, included the whole of Iran and Afghanistan, with vassals in Iraq, Central Asia (Khiva), and northern India. After his death, the rule of his successors was soon confined to the city of Mashhad and the metropolitan province of Khurasan.
Nadir’s last years were punctuated by rebellions throughout his empire. His nephew Ali Quli Khan, sent to quell a revolt in Sistan, joined the rebels and was already marching on Mashhad when Nadir was assassinated in June of 1747. Ali Quli Khan was proclaimed king under the regnal name Adil Shah (“the just king”). Having secured Nadir’s fortress of Kalat, he massacred all his uncle’s male issue, preserving only Shahrukh, a teenage grandson by a daughter of the last Safavid monarch, as a hedge against a pro-Safavid coup. Adil sent his younger brother Ibrahim to govern western Iran from the old Safavid capital of Isfahan. He himself remained in Mashhad. Most of Nadir’s tribal levies, however, were returned home, especially to the hinterland of Isfahan. Ibrahim used these reinforcements in a bid for power and defeated Adil Shah’s forces near Zanjan in June 1748.
Ibrahim was proclaimed shah at Tabriz in December, but meanwhile Shahrukh, the grandson of Nadir, had been raised to the throne in Mashhad by a junta of Kurd and other tribal chiefs. In the spring of 1749, Ibrahim’s army evaporated on the advance of Shahrukh’s forces. Ibrahim was taken to Mashhad (together with his brother, Adil, whom Ibrahim had already blinded) and executed.
Mir Sayyid Muhammad -- like Shahrukh a grandson of the last Safavid shah and an influential figure as warden of the shrine mosque at Mashhad -- became the figurehead of a popular insurrection orchestrated by yet another military faction. Shahrukh Shah was deposed (and later blinded), and in January 1750 the sayyid was crowned Shah Sulayman II of the Safavid dynasty. He soon alienated his patrons by disbursing Nadir’s waning treasury to parasitical relatives. Within three months, Shah Sulayman had been deposed and blinded. Shahrukh was reinstalled and ruled nominally for a further forty-five years.
By 1750, Iran’s political center of gravity had shifted to Isfahan and Shiraz, under Karim Khan Zand. Afghanistan and Mughal India were ruled by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who had escaped with his Afghan contingent from the debacle of Nadir’s assassination to be elected first shah of Afghanistan. Afsharid Khurasan remained an impoverished buffer zone between these states, ravaged by continuing power struggles between tribal chieftains and Shahrukh’s sons Nasr Allah Mirza and Nadir Mirza, and invaded three times by Ahmad Shah. The booty Nadir had brought from India was long dissipated, and Shahrukh’s sons resorted to stripping the shrine of ornaments to pay their fickle forces. Although Mashhad retained its prestige as a Shi‘ite shrine, chronic anarchy reduced commercial and pilgrim traffic and plunged Khurasan into an economic depression that lasted well into the nineteenth century. In 1796, Aqa Muhammad Qajar, having secured western Iran, stormed Mashhad and tortured Shahrukh to death to reveal the remnants of the fabled Afsharid jewels.
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