Musta‘in I bi-‘llah, al-
Musta‘in I bi-‘llah, al-. ‘Abbasid caliph (r.862-866). He was made caliph by the Turkish commanders at Samarra after the death of his cousin al-Muntasir.
Musta‘in I bi-‘llah, al-. ‘Abbasid caliph (r.862-866). He was made caliph by the Turkish commanders at Samarra after the death of his cousin al-Muntasir.
Musta‘in II bi-‘llah, al-
Musta‘in II bi-‘llah, al- (d. 1430). ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph in Egypt (r.1406-1414). He abdicated as sultan and was deposed as caliph.
Musta‘in II bi-‘llah, al- (d. 1430). ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph in Egypt (r.1406-1414). He abdicated as sultan and was deposed as caliph.
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al-
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al- (Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustakfi bi-‘llah) (b. 1074). Fatimid caliph (r.1094-1101). Throughout his reign, the actual power was entirely in the hands of the vizier al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali. His name is connected with the Musta‘li Isma‘ilis in western India, also known as Bohoras. In 1099, Jerusalem was lost to the Crusaders.
Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustakfi bi-‘llah see Mustakfi bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al-
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al- (Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustakfi bi-‘llah) (b. 1074). Fatimid caliph (r.1094-1101). Throughout his reign, the actual power was entirely in the hands of the vizier al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali. His name is connected with the Musta‘li Isma‘ilis in western India, also known as Bohoras. In 1099, Jerusalem was lost to the Crusaders.
Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustakfi bi-‘llah see Mustakfi bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al-
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, al-
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, al- (903-949). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 944-946). He was forced to recognize the Buyid leader Mu‘izz al-Dawla Ahmad as in effect ruler of Iraq, and then was deposed and imprisoned.
Mustakfi bi-‘llah, al- (903-949). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 944-946). He was forced to recognize the Buyid leader Mu‘izz al-Dawla Ahmad as in effect ruler of Iraq, and then was deposed and imprisoned.
Mustanjid I bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Muzaffar al-
Mustanjid I bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Muzaffar al- (Abu’l-Muzaffar al-Mustanjid I bi-‘llah) (1116-1170). ‘Abbasid caliph in Baghdad (r. 1160-1170). His reign was dominated by powerful viziers and court officials. Policies aimed at the exclusion of the Saljuqs from Iraq, and al-Mustanjid’s reign witnessed the continuing flowering of Hanbalism. The caliph was famous as a poet and had a first-hand knowledge of astronomy.
Al-Mustanjid was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 1160 to 1170. He was the son of previous Caliph al-Muqtafi. One of al-Muqtafi's wives wanted her own son to succeed. She gained over many Amirs to her side, and had their slave-girls armed with daggers to kill the new Caliph. Al-Mustanjid discovered the plot and placed the rebel son and mother in prison.
Around this time, the Fatimid dynasty was at last extinguished, having lasted for 260 years. Their conqueror, Saladin, though himself an orthodox Muslim, initially did not proclaim the Sunni faith in the midst of a people still devoted to the tenets and practice of the Shi'a sect. But he soon found himself able to do so; and thus the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasids again prevailed, not only in Syria, but throughout Egypt and all its dependencies.
Mustanjid I bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Muzaffar al- (Abu’l-Muzaffar al-Mustanjid I bi-‘llah) (1116-1170). ‘Abbasid caliph in Baghdad (r. 1160-1170). His reign was dominated by powerful viziers and court officials. Policies aimed at the exclusion of the Saljuqs from Iraq, and al-Mustanjid’s reign witnessed the continuing flowering of Hanbalism. The caliph was famous as a poet and had a first-hand knowledge of astronomy.
Al-Mustanjid was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 1160 to 1170. He was the son of previous Caliph al-Muqtafi. One of al-Muqtafi's wives wanted her own son to succeed. She gained over many Amirs to her side, and had their slave-girls armed with daggers to kill the new Caliph. Al-Mustanjid discovered the plot and placed the rebel son and mother in prison.
Around this time, the Fatimid dynasty was at last extinguished, having lasted for 260 years. Their conqueror, Saladin, though himself an orthodox Muslim, initially did not proclaim the Sunni faith in the midst of a people still devoted to the tenets and practice of the Shi'a sect. But he soon found himself able to do so; and thus the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasids again prevailed, not only in Syria, but throughout Egypt and all its dependencies.
Mustanjid II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Mahasin al-
Mustanjid II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Mahasin al- (Abu’l-Mahasin al-Mustanjid II bi-‘llah) (b. c. 1396). ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Egypt (r.1455-1479). Khushqadam, one of the six successive Mameluke sultans who dominated him, kept him in the Citadel of Cairo until his death.
Mustanjid II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Mahasin al- (Abu’l-Mahasin al-Mustanjid II bi-‘llah) (b. c. 1396). ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Egypt (r.1455-1479). Khushqadam, one of the six successive Mameluke sultans who dominated him, kept him in the Citadel of Cairo until his death.
Mustansir II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al-
Mustansir II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al- (Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustansir II bi-‘llah). First ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Egypt who ruled in 1261. When the Mongols captured Baghdad in 1258, he was brought to Cairo, where he was given a ceremonious welcom by the Mameluke sultan Baybars I. The caliph invested Baybars with the black livery of the ‘Abbasids and conferred on him the universal sultanate with plenary powers. Baybars sent the caliph to Iraq, to regain his ancestral dominions from the Mongols. He joined forces with a kinsman and rival, who had been proclaimed as the caliph al-Hakim by Aqqush al-Barli, the Mameluke warlord of Aleppo. Al-Mustansir was killed in a Mongol ambush, while al-Hakim made his way to Cairo, where he was installed as caliph in 1262. His descendants continued the titular caliphate until it lapsed after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
Mustansir II bi-‘llah, Abu’l-Qasim al- (Abu’l-Qasim al-Mustansir II bi-‘llah). First ‘Abbasid “shadow” caliph of Egypt who ruled in 1261. When the Mongols captured Baghdad in 1258, he was brought to Cairo, where he was given a ceremonious welcom by the Mameluke sultan Baybars I. The caliph invested Baybars with the black livery of the ‘Abbasids and conferred on him the universal sultanate with plenary powers. Baybars sent the caliph to Iraq, to regain his ancestral dominions from the Mongols. He joined forces with a kinsman and rival, who had been proclaimed as the caliph al-Hakim by Aqqush al-Barli, the Mameluke warlord of Aleppo. Al-Mustansir was killed in a Mongol ambush, while al-Hakim made his way to Cairo, where he was installed as caliph in 1262. His descendants continued the titular caliphate until it lapsed after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
Mustansir I bi-‘llah, Abu Ja’far al-
Mustansir I bi-‘llah, Abu Ja’far al- (Abu Ja‘far al-Mustansir I bi-‘llah) (b. 1192). ‘Abbasid caliph. At least two major figures at the court were Shi‘is. Al-Mustansir’s caliphate spans an uneasy lull between Mongol onslaughts. He stands out as a great patron of architecture, among other works through the Mustansiriyya madrasa in Baghdad. He was also a great bibliophile.
Mustansir I bi-‘llah, Abu Ja’far al- (Abu Ja‘far al-Mustansir I bi-‘llah) (b. 1192). ‘Abbasid caliph. At least two major figures at the court were Shi‘is. Al-Mustansir’s caliphate spans an uneasy lull between Mongol onslaughts. He stands out as a great patron of architecture, among other works through the Mustansiriyya madrasa in Baghdad. He was also a great bibliophile.
Mustansir bi-‘llah
Mustansir bi-‘llah (Abu Tamim al-Mustansir bi-‘llah) (Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh) (July 5, 1029 – January 10, 1094). Fatimid caliph (r.1036-1094). He had the longest recorded reign of any Muslim ruler. The breakdown of the civil administration, the subsequent exhaustion of the treasury and the fightings between the Turkish and Berber troops and the many Sudani slaves led to the neglect of agriculture. The result was a famine, which lasted from 1067 to 1072. In 1073, the caliph invited the Armenian Badr al-Jamali, who saved the Fatimid caliphate but at the cost of abandoning its temporal authority to a series of military commanders. The success of the Saljuqs affected the position of the Fatimids in the Holy Cities, where the ‘Abbasid caliph was acknowledged, in the Hejaz and in Yemen, as well as in the West, where Ifriqiya was lost. Diplomatic relations were entertained with the Georgians, the Daylamis, the khaqan of Turkestan and with Delhi, all hostile to the Saljuqs and the Ghaznavids. It came however to a breach with Constantinople. The state religion of the Fatimids, Isma‘ili Shi‘ism, was disseminated in Persia and in Yemen, where it was supported by the Sulayhids.
Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh was born in Cairo and eight months afterwards was declared to succeed his father. His name was Ma'd Abu Tamim, surnamed al-Mustansir bil-Lah "The Victorious By God". He ascended on June 13, 1036 at the age of 6. During the early years, the state affairs were administered by his mother. His period of Caliphate lasted for 60 years, the longest of all the caliphs, either in Egypt or elsewhere in the Islamic states.
Ali bin Ahmad Jarjarai, an able vizir, whose period was one of prosperity in Egypt, died in 1044. He was followed by Ibn al-Anbari and Abu Mansur Sadaqa, but neither of them were competent. In 1050, there came forward a capable vizir Abu Muhammad Hasan bin Abdur Rehman Yazuri, who held the office for 8 years, and was an earnest reformer. He was followed by about 40 vizirs one after another during 15 years (1058-1073), but none equaled him, because they squandered the royal treasury.
Between 1065 and 1072, the famine made the condition of Egypt from bad to worse. Meanwhile, in 1062 and again in 1067, the struggle between the Turkish and Sudanese soldiery deteriorated into open warfare, ending in a victory for the Turks and their Berber allies.
The Berbers in lower Egypt deliberately aggravated the distress by ravaging the country, destroying the embankments and canals, and seeking every way to reduce the capital and the neighboring districts by sheer starvation. Makrizi sees in this incident the beginning of the crisis in Egypt, which he refers by the appellations, disorder (fitna), civil war (al-shidda al-mashhura), corruption of state (fasad ad-dawla) and days of calamity and dearth (ayyam al-shidda wal ghala).
In al-Mustansir's stable where there had been ten thousand animals there were now only three thin horses, and his escort once fainted from hunger as it accompanied him through the streets. As long as the calamity lasted, al-Mustansir alone possessed a horse, and, when he rode out, the courtiers followed on foot, having no beast to carry them. The condition of the country deteriorated with the protracted famine that followed by plague, and whole districts were absolutely denuded of population and house after house lay empty.
Meanwhile, the Turkish mercenaries had drained the treasury, the works of art and valuables of all sorts in the palace were sold to satisfy their demands. Often they themselves were the purchasers at merely nominal prices and sold the articles again at a profit. Emeralds valued at 300,000 dinars were bought by one Turkish general for 500 dinars, and in one fortnight of the year 1068 articles to the value of 30,000,000 dinars were sold off to provide pay for the Turks. The precious library which had been rendered available to the public and was one of the objects for which many visited Cairo was scattered, the books were torn up, thrown away, or used to light fires. At length, the Turks began fighting amongst themselves. Nasir ad-Dawla, the Turkish general of the Fatimid army, had attacked the city which was defended by the rival faction of the Turkish guard and, after burning part of Fustat and defeating the defenders, he entered as conqueror. When he reached the palace, he found al-Mustansir lodged in rooms which had been stripped bare, waited on by only three slaves, and subsisting on two loaves which were sent him daily by the daughters of Ibn Babshand, the grammarian.
The victorious Turks dominated Cairo, held the successive vizirs in subjection, treated al-Mustansir with contempt, and used their power to deplete the treasury by enhancing their pay to nearly twenty times its former figure. Nasir ad-Dawla became so overbearing and tyrannical in his conduct that he provoked even his own followers, and so at length he was assassinated in 1074. Unfortunately, this left the city in a worse condition than ever, for it was now at the mercy of the various Turkish factions which behaved no better than troops of brigands. In sum, the condition of Egypt continued to rage with unabated violence.
Abu Tamim al-Mustansir bi-‘llah see Mustansir bi-‘llah
Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh see Mustansir bi-‘llah
Mustansir bi-‘llah (Abu Tamim al-Mustansir bi-‘llah) (Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh) (July 5, 1029 – January 10, 1094). Fatimid caliph (r.1036-1094). He had the longest recorded reign of any Muslim ruler. The breakdown of the civil administration, the subsequent exhaustion of the treasury and the fightings between the Turkish and Berber troops and the many Sudani slaves led to the neglect of agriculture. The result was a famine, which lasted from 1067 to 1072. In 1073, the caliph invited the Armenian Badr al-Jamali, who saved the Fatimid caliphate but at the cost of abandoning its temporal authority to a series of military commanders. The success of the Saljuqs affected the position of the Fatimids in the Holy Cities, where the ‘Abbasid caliph was acknowledged, in the Hejaz and in Yemen, as well as in the West, where Ifriqiya was lost. Diplomatic relations were entertained with the Georgians, the Daylamis, the khaqan of Turkestan and with Delhi, all hostile to the Saljuqs and the Ghaznavids. It came however to a breach with Constantinople. The state religion of the Fatimids, Isma‘ili Shi‘ism, was disseminated in Persia and in Yemen, where it was supported by the Sulayhids.
Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh was born in Cairo and eight months afterwards was declared to succeed his father. His name was Ma'd Abu Tamim, surnamed al-Mustansir bil-Lah "The Victorious By God". He ascended on June 13, 1036 at the age of 6. During the early years, the state affairs were administered by his mother. His period of Caliphate lasted for 60 years, the longest of all the caliphs, either in Egypt or elsewhere in the Islamic states.
Ali bin Ahmad Jarjarai, an able vizir, whose period was one of prosperity in Egypt, died in 1044. He was followed by Ibn al-Anbari and Abu Mansur Sadaqa, but neither of them were competent. In 1050, there came forward a capable vizir Abu Muhammad Hasan bin Abdur Rehman Yazuri, who held the office for 8 years, and was an earnest reformer. He was followed by about 40 vizirs one after another during 15 years (1058-1073), but none equaled him, because they squandered the royal treasury.
Between 1065 and 1072, the famine made the condition of Egypt from bad to worse. Meanwhile, in 1062 and again in 1067, the struggle between the Turkish and Sudanese soldiery deteriorated into open warfare, ending in a victory for the Turks and their Berber allies.
The Berbers in lower Egypt deliberately aggravated the distress by ravaging the country, destroying the embankments and canals, and seeking every way to reduce the capital and the neighboring districts by sheer starvation. Makrizi sees in this incident the beginning of the crisis in Egypt, which he refers by the appellations, disorder (fitna), civil war (al-shidda al-mashhura), corruption of state (fasad ad-dawla) and days of calamity and dearth (ayyam al-shidda wal ghala).
In al-Mustansir's stable where there had been ten thousand animals there were now only three thin horses, and his escort once fainted from hunger as it accompanied him through the streets. As long as the calamity lasted, al-Mustansir alone possessed a horse, and, when he rode out, the courtiers followed on foot, having no beast to carry them. The condition of the country deteriorated with the protracted famine that followed by plague, and whole districts were absolutely denuded of population and house after house lay empty.
Meanwhile, the Turkish mercenaries had drained the treasury, the works of art and valuables of all sorts in the palace were sold to satisfy their demands. Often they themselves were the purchasers at merely nominal prices and sold the articles again at a profit. Emeralds valued at 300,000 dinars were bought by one Turkish general for 500 dinars, and in one fortnight of the year 1068 articles to the value of 30,000,000 dinars were sold off to provide pay for the Turks. The precious library which had been rendered available to the public and was one of the objects for which many visited Cairo was scattered, the books were torn up, thrown away, or used to light fires. At length, the Turks began fighting amongst themselves. Nasir ad-Dawla, the Turkish general of the Fatimid army, had attacked the city which was defended by the rival faction of the Turkish guard and, after burning part of Fustat and defeating the defenders, he entered as conqueror. When he reached the palace, he found al-Mustansir lodged in rooms which had been stripped bare, waited on by only three slaves, and subsisting on two loaves which were sent him daily by the daughters of Ibn Babshand, the grammarian.
The victorious Turks dominated Cairo, held the successive vizirs in subjection, treated al-Mustansir with contempt, and used their power to deplete the treasury by enhancing their pay to nearly twenty times its former figure. Nasir ad-Dawla became so overbearing and tyrannical in his conduct that he provoked even his own followers, and so at length he was assassinated in 1074. Unfortunately, this left the city in a worse condition than ever, for it was now at the mercy of the various Turkish factions which behaved no better than troops of brigands. In sum, the condition of Egypt continued to rage with unabated violence.
Abu Tamim al-Mustansir bi-‘llah see Mustansir bi-‘llah
Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh see Mustansir bi-‘llah
Mustaqim-zade, Sa‘d al-Din
Mustaqim-zade, Sa‘d al-Din (Sa‘d al-Din Mustaqim-zade) (1719-1788). Ottoman scholar and calligrapher. He composed around 150 books, most of them in Turkish but some also in Arabic and Persian, dealing with religious sciences, belles-lettres and Sufism.
Sa‘d al-Din Mustaqim-zade see Mustaqim-zade, Sa‘d al-Din
Mustaqim-zade, Sa‘d al-Din (Sa‘d al-Din Mustaqim-zade) (1719-1788). Ottoman scholar and calligrapher. He composed around 150 books, most of them in Turkish but some also in Arabic and Persian, dealing with religious sciences, belles-lettres and Sufism.
Sa‘d al-Din Mustaqim-zade see Mustaqim-zade, Sa‘d al-Din
Mustarshid bi-‘llah, al-
Mustarshid bi-‘llah, al- (b. 1093). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 1118-1135). He initially juggled with the various factions among the Saljuqs of Iraq and western Persia, depending on one group or another for military support. He finally was defeated by the Saljuq Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik Shah in 1135 and murdered, allegedly by Assassins. He was a fine calligrapher and an accomplished poet.
Mustarshid bi-‘llah, al- (b. 1093). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 1118-1135). He initially juggled with the various factions among the Saljuqs of Iraq and western Persia, depending on one group or another for military support. He finally was defeated by the Saljuq Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik Shah in 1135 and murdered, allegedly by Assassins. He was a fine calligrapher and an accomplished poet.
Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al-
Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al- (al-Musta'sim Billah) (al-Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah) (1212/1213 – February 20, 1258). Last ‘Abbasid caliph of Baghdad (r.1247-1258). Having refused to meet the demands of the Mongol Il-Khan Hulegu, the caliph was captured and put to death.
Al-Musta'sim Billah was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad; he ruled from 1242 until his death.
In 1258, the Abbasid domain, comprising of a little more than what is now Iraq and Syria, was invaded by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. In an advance on Baghdad, Hulagu Khan had several columns advance simultaneously on the city, and laid siege to it. The Caliph had been deluded by promises from his Vizier that the Mongols could be driven off literally by the women of the city throwing stones at them, and did the worst of all things: nothing. He neither raised an army to defend Baghdad from the largest Mongol army ever assembled – one Mongol in ten had been conscripted into the forces advancing on the Caliphate – nor did he attempt to negotiate with Hulagu. Instead he sent weak threats to the Mongol warlord.
Baghdad was sacked on February 10, and the caliph was massacred by Hulagu Khan soon afterwards. It is reckoned that the Mongols did not want to shed "royal blood," so they wrapped him in a rug and trampled him to death with their horses. Some of his sons were massacred as well; one of the surviving sons was sent as a prisoner to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter.
The Travels of Marco Polo reports that upon finding the caliph's great stores of treasure which could have been spent on the defense of his realm, Hulagu Khan locked him in his treasure room without food or water, telling him "eat of thy treasure as much as thou wilt, since thou art so fond of it."
The Mameluke sultans and Syria later appointed an Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, but they were even more symbolic than by now marginalized Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. They were ignored by the rest of the Muslim world. Even though they kept the title for about 250 years more, other than installing the Sultan in ceremonies, these Caliphs had little importance.
After the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the Abbasid Caliph of Egypt, Al-Mutawakkil III was transported to Constantinople, and Sultan Selim I announced himself to be a Caliph.
Musta'sim Billah, al- see Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al-
Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah, al- see Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al-
Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al- (al-Musta'sim Billah) (al-Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah) (1212/1213 – February 20, 1258). Last ‘Abbasid caliph of Baghdad (r.1247-1258). Having refused to meet the demands of the Mongol Il-Khan Hulegu, the caliph was captured and put to death.
Al-Musta'sim Billah was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad; he ruled from 1242 until his death.
In 1258, the Abbasid domain, comprising of a little more than what is now Iraq and Syria, was invaded by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. In an advance on Baghdad, Hulagu Khan had several columns advance simultaneously on the city, and laid siege to it. The Caliph had been deluded by promises from his Vizier that the Mongols could be driven off literally by the women of the city throwing stones at them, and did the worst of all things: nothing. He neither raised an army to defend Baghdad from the largest Mongol army ever assembled – one Mongol in ten had been conscripted into the forces advancing on the Caliphate – nor did he attempt to negotiate with Hulagu. Instead he sent weak threats to the Mongol warlord.
Baghdad was sacked on February 10, and the caliph was massacred by Hulagu Khan soon afterwards. It is reckoned that the Mongols did not want to shed "royal blood," so they wrapped him in a rug and trampled him to death with their horses. Some of his sons were massacred as well; one of the surviving sons was sent as a prisoner to Mongolia, where Mongolian historians report he married and fathered children, but played no role in Islam thereafter.
The Travels of Marco Polo reports that upon finding the caliph's great stores of treasure which could have been spent on the defense of his realm, Hulagu Khan locked him in his treasure room without food or water, telling him "eat of thy treasure as much as thou wilt, since thou art so fond of it."
The Mameluke sultans and Syria later appointed an Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, but they were even more symbolic than by now marginalized Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. They were ignored by the rest of the Muslim world. Even though they kept the title for about 250 years more, other than installing the Sultan in ceremonies, these Caliphs had little importance.
After the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the Abbasid Caliph of Egypt, Al-Mutawakkil III was transported to Constantinople, and Sultan Selim I announced himself to be a Caliph.
Musta'sim Billah, al- see Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al-
Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah, al- see Musta‘sim bi-‘llah, al-
Mustazhir bi-‘llah, al-
Mustazhir bi-‘llah, al- (al-Mustadhir) (1078-1118). ‘Abbasid caliph who ruled from 1094 to 1118. He was never able to turn the debilitating disputes between the Saljuq sultans Berkyaruq, Tutush and Muhammad Tapar to his own advantage. The Nizari schism had further weakened the Fatimid caliphate and unleashed the Assassins’ campaigns within Saljuq territory.
Al-Mustadhir was the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad from 1094 to 1118. He succeeded his father al-Muqtadi. During his twenty-four year incumbency he was politically irrelevant, despite the civil strife at home and the appearance of the First Crusade in Syria. An attempt was even made by crusader Raymond IV of Toulouse to attack Baghdad, but he was defeated near Tokat. The global Muslim population had climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100.
In the year 1099, Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders and its inhabitants were massacred. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover from infidel hands the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the scene of the Prophet's heavenly flight. But whatever the success elsewhere, the mission failed in the eastern provinces, which were occupied with their own troubles, and moreover cared little for the Holy Land, dominated as it then was by the Fatimid faith. Crowds of exiles, seeking refuge in Baghdad, joined there with the populace in crying out for war against the Franks (the name used by Muslims for the crusaders). For two Fridays in 1111 the insurgents, incited by Ibn al-Khashshab, the qadi of Aleppo, stormed the Great Mosque, broke the pulpit and throne of the Caliph in pieces, and shouted down the service, but neither the Sultan nor the Caliph were interested in sending an army west.
Mustadhir, al- see Mustazhir bi-‘llah, al-
Mustazhir bi-‘llah, al- (al-Mustadhir) (1078-1118). ‘Abbasid caliph who ruled from 1094 to 1118. He was never able to turn the debilitating disputes between the Saljuq sultans Berkyaruq, Tutush and Muhammad Tapar to his own advantage. The Nizari schism had further weakened the Fatimid caliphate and unleashed the Assassins’ campaigns within Saljuq territory.
Al-Mustadhir was the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad from 1094 to 1118. He succeeded his father al-Muqtadi. During his twenty-four year incumbency he was politically irrelevant, despite the civil strife at home and the appearance of the First Crusade in Syria. An attempt was even made by crusader Raymond IV of Toulouse to attack Baghdad, but he was defeated near Tokat. The global Muslim population had climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100.
In the year 1099, Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders and its inhabitants were massacred. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover from infidel hands the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the scene of the Prophet's heavenly flight. But whatever the success elsewhere, the mission failed in the eastern provinces, which were occupied with their own troubles, and moreover cared little for the Holy Land, dominated as it then was by the Fatimid faith. Crowds of exiles, seeking refuge in Baghdad, joined there with the populace in crying out for war against the Franks (the name used by Muslims for the crusaders). For two Fridays in 1111 the insurgents, incited by Ibn al-Khashshab, the qadi of Aleppo, stormed the Great Mosque, broke the pulpit and throne of the Caliph in pieces, and shouted down the service, but neither the Sultan nor the Caliph were interested in sending an army west.
Mustadhir, al- see Mustazhir bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al- (b. c. 860). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 892-902). His strength was the close relations with the army. While forced to acknowledge that Khurasan, Syria and Egypt were lost to the ‘Abbasids, at least for the time being, he strove to re-establish control over the core territories, Iraq, al-Jazira, and western Persia. His reign saw the final return of the ‘Abbasid capital from Samarra to Baghdad.
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al- (b. c. 860). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 892-902). His strength was the close relations with the army. While forced to acknowledge that Khurasan, Syria and Egypt were lost to the ‘Abbasids, at least for the time being, he strove to re-establish control over the core territories, Iraq, al-Jazira, and western Persia. His reign saw the final return of the ‘Abbasid capital from Samarra to Baghdad.
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al- ('Abbad al-Mutadid) (Abu Amri al-Mutadid). Most important and most powerful sovereign of the ‘Abbadid dynasty in Seville (r.1042-1069). He very considerably increased his territory by making himself the champion of the Spanish Arabs against the Berbers in Spain.
'Abbad al-Mutadid see Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Abu Amri al-Mutadid see Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al- ('Abbad al-Mutadid) (Abu Amri al-Mutadid). Most important and most powerful sovereign of the ‘Abbadid dynasty in Seville (r.1042-1069). He very considerably increased his territory by making himself the champion of the Spanish Arabs against the Berbers in Spain.
'Abbad al-Mutadid see Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Abu Amri al-Mutadid see Mu‘tadid bi-‘llah, al-
Mutahhari, Murtaza
Mutahhari, Murtaza (Murtaza Mutahhari) (Murtada Mutahhari) (1920-1979). Iranian religious scholar and writer, one of the closest associates of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Born in a village in northeastern Iran to a scholar who was also his first teacher, Mutahhari began his formal schooling at the age of twelve in the great shrine city of Mashhad, where he discovered the great love for philosophy, mysticism, and theology that was to remain constant throughout his life. The core of the religious curriculum, however, consisted of fiqh (jurisprudence). To study this subject under the principal authorities of the day, Mutahhari moved to Qom in 1937. In Qom, he made the acquaintance of Khomeini, renowned at the time mainly for his mystically tinged lectures on ethics. Significant, too, were the links Mutahhari developed with ‘Allamah Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i (d. 1981), the well-known exegete and philosopher. In 1952, Mutahhari left Qom for Tehran, where he began teaching at the Madrasah-yi Marvi and, two years later, at the Faculty of Theology at Tehran University. The scope of his actitivity expanded still further when he began collaborating with Islamic organizations founded by religiously inclined laymen, the most important of these being the Husayniyah-yi Irshad, founded in 1965. Many of the lectures he gave under the auspices of these organizations were later published in book form.
Mutahhari was imprisoned for forty-three days in the aftermath of the uprising led by Khomeini in June 1963. After his release, he participated actively in organizations that sought to maintain the momentum the uprising had created, most significantly the Jami‘ah-yi Ruhaniyat-i Mubariz (Society of Militant Clergy). He remained in touch with Khomeini during the ayatollah’s fourteen year exile, visiting him repeatedly in Najaf and, during the revolution of 1978-1979, at Neauphle-le-Chateau near Paris. A sign of the trust in which Khomeini held Mutahhari was his appointment to the Shura-yi Inqilab-i Islami (Council of the Islamic Revolution), which functioned as interim legislature after the victory of the revolution in February 1979. A few months later, on May 1, 1979, Mutahhari was assassinated in Tehran by adherents of Furqan, a group preaching a radically modernistic and anti-clerical re-interpretation of Shi‘a doctrine, which regarded Mutahhari as its most formidable intellectual opponent. Mutahhari was eulogized as “a part of my flesh” by an atypically weeping Khomeini and buried in Qom.
Although the Iranian Revolution gave Mutahhari visibility as a political figure, it was his writings, vigorously promoted by the revolutionary authorities, that constitute his chief legacy. The most substantial of his works is, perhaps, his philosophical critique of materialism, Usul-i falsafah va ravish-i ri’alism (The Principles of Philosophy of the Method of Realism), based largely on discussions held in the circle of ‘Allamah Tabataba’i. A more polemical approach to the same subject, paying particular attention to the cultural disorientation of Iranian society, was ‘Ilal-i gir-ayis ba maddigari (Reasons for the Turn toward Materialism). Other works were also conceived in a spirit of addressing urgent contemporary concerns, most notably Nizam-i huquq-i zan dar Islam (The System of Women’s Rights in Islam). Taken as a whole, the works of Mutahhari demonstrate how leading figures among the Iranian ‘ulama’ concerned themselves, against a background of traditional learning, with the problems of the modern age, and thereby contributed to creating the intellectual climate of the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Murtaza Mutahhari see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Murtada Mutahhari see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Mutahhari, Murtaza see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Mutahhari, Murtaza (Murtaza Mutahhari) (Murtada Mutahhari) (1920-1979). Iranian religious scholar and writer, one of the closest associates of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Born in a village in northeastern Iran to a scholar who was also his first teacher, Mutahhari began his formal schooling at the age of twelve in the great shrine city of Mashhad, where he discovered the great love for philosophy, mysticism, and theology that was to remain constant throughout his life. The core of the religious curriculum, however, consisted of fiqh (jurisprudence). To study this subject under the principal authorities of the day, Mutahhari moved to Qom in 1937. In Qom, he made the acquaintance of Khomeini, renowned at the time mainly for his mystically tinged lectures on ethics. Significant, too, were the links Mutahhari developed with ‘Allamah Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i (d. 1981), the well-known exegete and philosopher. In 1952, Mutahhari left Qom for Tehran, where he began teaching at the Madrasah-yi Marvi and, two years later, at the Faculty of Theology at Tehran University. The scope of his actitivity expanded still further when he began collaborating with Islamic organizations founded by religiously inclined laymen, the most important of these being the Husayniyah-yi Irshad, founded in 1965. Many of the lectures he gave under the auspices of these organizations were later published in book form.
Mutahhari was imprisoned for forty-three days in the aftermath of the uprising led by Khomeini in June 1963. After his release, he participated actively in organizations that sought to maintain the momentum the uprising had created, most significantly the Jami‘ah-yi Ruhaniyat-i Mubariz (Society of Militant Clergy). He remained in touch with Khomeini during the ayatollah’s fourteen year exile, visiting him repeatedly in Najaf and, during the revolution of 1978-1979, at Neauphle-le-Chateau near Paris. A sign of the trust in which Khomeini held Mutahhari was his appointment to the Shura-yi Inqilab-i Islami (Council of the Islamic Revolution), which functioned as interim legislature after the victory of the revolution in February 1979. A few months later, on May 1, 1979, Mutahhari was assassinated in Tehran by adherents of Furqan, a group preaching a radically modernistic and anti-clerical re-interpretation of Shi‘a doctrine, which regarded Mutahhari as its most formidable intellectual opponent. Mutahhari was eulogized as “a part of my flesh” by an atypically weeping Khomeini and buried in Qom.
Although the Iranian Revolution gave Mutahhari visibility as a political figure, it was his writings, vigorously promoted by the revolutionary authorities, that constitute his chief legacy. The most substantial of his works is, perhaps, his philosophical critique of materialism, Usul-i falsafah va ravish-i ri’alism (The Principles of Philosophy of the Method of Realism), based largely on discussions held in the circle of ‘Allamah Tabataba’i. A more polemical approach to the same subject, paying particular attention to the cultural disorientation of Iranian society, was ‘Ilal-i gir-ayis ba maddigari (Reasons for the Turn toward Materialism). Other works were also conceived in a spirit of addressing urgent contemporary concerns, most notably Nizam-i huquq-i zan dar Islam (The System of Women’s Rights in Islam). Taken as a whole, the works of Mutahhari demonstrate how leading figures among the Iranian ‘ulama’ concerned themselves, against a background of traditional learning, with the problems of the modern age, and thereby contributed to creating the intellectual climate of the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Murtaza Mutahhari see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Murtada Mutahhari see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Mutahhari, Murtaza see Mutahhari, Murtaza
Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al- ('Abbad al-Mutamid) (Muhammad al-Mutamid) (Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid) (1040-1095). Third and last ruler of the ‘Abbadid dynasty in Seville (r.1069-1091). By the middle of the eleventh century, many Muslim dynasties of Spain were forced to seek, by payment of heavy tribute, the temporary neutrality of their Christian neighbors. Al-Mu‘tamid was defeated by the Almoravid Yusuf ibn Tashfin (Yunus ibn Tashufin). He was an accomplished poet.
Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid was the third and last ruler (r. 1069–1091) of the taifa of Seville in Al-Andalus. He was a member of the Abbadid dynasty.
After the death of his father Abbad II al-Mu'tadid in 1069, he inherited Seville. In 1071, he attempted to seize neighboring Córdoba. He lost Córdoba in 1075 but regained it in 1078.
Al-Mu'tamid supported the Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin against king Alfonso VI of Castile in the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086. In 1091, however, his kingdom was overthrown by the Almoravids and he was deposed.
Al-Mu'tamid was bisexual. He was lover and patron to the Andalusi Arabic poet Ibn Ammar. His father disapproved of relations with a commoner and exiled the poet in order to separate them. On his succession, however, al-Mu'tamid granted Ibn Ammar political and military power. Their relationship was reportedly stormy, and came to an end when Al-Mu'tamid killed the poet with his own hands, only to bury him with great honors. He is also considered, in his own right, one of the greatest of the Andalusi poets. Also the Sicilian Arabic poet Ibn Hamdis was a guest and friend of his.
Al-Mu'tamid was the father-in-law, through his son, Fath al-Mamun (d. 1091), of Zaida, mistress, and possibly wife, of Alfonso VI of Castile.
'Abbad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Muhammad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al- ('Abbad al-Mutamid) (Muhammad al-Mutamid) (Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid) (1040-1095). Third and last ruler of the ‘Abbadid dynasty in Seville (r.1069-1091). By the middle of the eleventh century, many Muslim dynasties of Spain were forced to seek, by payment of heavy tribute, the temporary neutrality of their Christian neighbors. Al-Mu‘tamid was defeated by the Almoravid Yusuf ibn Tashfin (Yunus ibn Tashufin). He was an accomplished poet.
Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid was the third and last ruler (r. 1069–1091) of the taifa of Seville in Al-Andalus. He was a member of the Abbadid dynasty.
After the death of his father Abbad II al-Mu'tadid in 1069, he inherited Seville. In 1071, he attempted to seize neighboring Córdoba. He lost Córdoba in 1075 but regained it in 1078.
Al-Mu'tamid supported the Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin against king Alfonso VI of Castile in the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086. In 1091, however, his kingdom was overthrown by the Almoravids and he was deposed.
Al-Mu'tamid was bisexual. He was lover and patron to the Andalusi Arabic poet Ibn Ammar. His father disapproved of relations with a commoner and exiled the poet in order to separate them. On his succession, however, al-Mu'tamid granted Ibn Ammar political and military power. Their relationship was reportedly stormy, and came to an end when Al-Mu'tamid killed the poet with his own hands, only to bury him with great honors. He is also considered, in his own right, one of the greatest of the Andalusi poets. Also the Sicilian Arabic poet Ibn Hamdis was a guest and friend of his.
Al-Mu'tamid was the father-in-law, through his son, Fath al-Mamun (d. 1091), of Zaida, mistress, and possibly wife, of Alfonso VI of Castile.
'Abbad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Muhammad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Muhammad Ibn Abbad al-Mutamid see Mu‘tamid ibn ‘Abbad, al-
Mutammim ibn Nuwayra
Mutammim ibn Nuwayra (d. after 644). Poet who was a contemporary of the Prophet. He owes his fame to the elegies in which he lamented the tragic death of his brother Malik ibn Nuwayra.
Mutammim ibn Nuwayra (d. after 644). Poet who was a contemporary of the Prophet. He owes his fame to the elegies in which he lamented the tragic death of his brother Malik ibn Nuwayra.
Mutanabbi, al-
Mutanabbi, al- (Abu’l-Tayyib Ahmad al-Ju‘fi) (Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Mutanabbi) (Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi) (915–September 23, 965). One of the greatest Arab poets. Born in Kufa, in 928, he went to Syria and studied at Damascus. His ambition was to be a professional poet, and since the necessary patrons proved slow in coming forward, he set himself up as a prophet and led an unsuccessful political-religious revolt. Without adhering to Carmathian doctrines, he exploited its principles when in 933 he led a revolt in the Samawa, the region between the Kufa and Palmyrene. On this occasion, he received the surname al-Mutanabbi “he who professes to be a prophet.” After having led a wandering life, he stayed nine years with the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla ‘Ali I in Aleppo, but fled to Damascus in 957. In Egypt, he obtained the patronage of the Ikhshidid regent Kafur but, deprived of moral and material independence, he was forced to sing the praises of a patron for whom in his heart he felt only contempt. In 962, he fled to Kufa and then settled in Baghdad. In 965, he went via Ahvaz to Arrajan in Susiana and from there to Shiraz. On his way back to Baghdad, he was killed by marauding Bedouins. The enormous bibliography of al-Mutanabbi’s life and work is a striking proof of the eminent place which he occupies in Arabic literature from the tenth century until the present day.
The Arabs regard al-Mutanabbi as one of their greatest poets. He is the principal figure of the “Modern” school which began to break away from the traditional themes and ways of expression of the Pre-Islamic poets, long regarded as the only ones suitable for poetry. The “Moderns” made considerable use of Badi’ (Innovation) -- their new, and, to conservative poets and critics, shocking images, figures of speech and plays on words. The old type of poetry, in which poets who had scarcely ever seen the desert wept over the deserted camping sites of their loved ones, and described in painstaking detail the points of their camels, continued to be written, side by side with the “Modern” type. Al-Mutanabbi did not abandon the qasida (ode), but transformed it, and made it into an organic whole, with theme leading naturally to theme, instead of a series of almost unconnected lines.
Al-Mutanabbi was educated in Damascus, as well as choosing to live among bedouins in the desert, with the tribe Banu Qalb. It was during his youth that he got his name, which means “the one who wants to become Prophet,” when he participated in revolutionary movements.
During imprisonment he started to compose his poetry. From 948 to 957, al-Mutanabbi worked close to the Syrian prince Sayfu ad-Dawla in Aleppo, and wrote a number of panegyrics for him. But as al-Mutanabbi was still politically active, he was eventually forced to flee to Egypt, but as he wrote satires taht presented the court in a negative way, he had to move again, now back to Iraq,.to Baghdad.
Later on he worked as a court poet in Shiraz. While being without a patron, al-Mutanabbi was in 965 slain by brigands during a trip, near Baghdad.
With a flowery style, use of the ode, and changing way from the traditional Arabic qasida, al-Mutanabbi stands out as the most important representative for the panegyrical poetic style.
Abu’l-Tayyib Ahmad al-Ju‘fi see Mutanabbi, al-
Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Mutanabbi see Mutanabbi, al-
Mutanabbi, Ahmad ibn al-Husain al- see Mutanabbi, al-
Ju'fi, Abu'l-Tayyib Ahmad al- see Mutanabbi, al-
Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi see Mutanabbi, al-
Mutanabbi, al- (Abu’l-Tayyib Ahmad al-Ju‘fi) (Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Mutanabbi) (Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi) (915–September 23, 965). One of the greatest Arab poets. Born in Kufa, in 928, he went to Syria and studied at Damascus. His ambition was to be a professional poet, and since the necessary patrons proved slow in coming forward, he set himself up as a prophet and led an unsuccessful political-religious revolt. Without adhering to Carmathian doctrines, he exploited its principles when in 933 he led a revolt in the Samawa, the region between the Kufa and Palmyrene. On this occasion, he received the surname al-Mutanabbi “he who professes to be a prophet.” After having led a wandering life, he stayed nine years with the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla ‘Ali I in Aleppo, but fled to Damascus in 957. In Egypt, he obtained the patronage of the Ikhshidid regent Kafur but, deprived of moral and material independence, he was forced to sing the praises of a patron for whom in his heart he felt only contempt. In 962, he fled to Kufa and then settled in Baghdad. In 965, he went via Ahvaz to Arrajan in Susiana and from there to Shiraz. On his way back to Baghdad, he was killed by marauding Bedouins. The enormous bibliography of al-Mutanabbi’s life and work is a striking proof of the eminent place which he occupies in Arabic literature from the tenth century until the present day.
The Arabs regard al-Mutanabbi as one of their greatest poets. He is the principal figure of the “Modern” school which began to break away from the traditional themes and ways of expression of the Pre-Islamic poets, long regarded as the only ones suitable for poetry. The “Moderns” made considerable use of Badi’ (Innovation) -- their new, and, to conservative poets and critics, shocking images, figures of speech and plays on words. The old type of poetry, in which poets who had scarcely ever seen the desert wept over the deserted camping sites of their loved ones, and described in painstaking detail the points of their camels, continued to be written, side by side with the “Modern” type. Al-Mutanabbi did not abandon the qasida (ode), but transformed it, and made it into an organic whole, with theme leading naturally to theme, instead of a series of almost unconnected lines.
Al-Mutanabbi was educated in Damascus, as well as choosing to live among bedouins in the desert, with the tribe Banu Qalb. It was during his youth that he got his name, which means “the one who wants to become Prophet,” when he participated in revolutionary movements.
During imprisonment he started to compose his poetry. From 948 to 957, al-Mutanabbi worked close to the Syrian prince Sayfu ad-Dawla in Aleppo, and wrote a number of panegyrics for him. But as al-Mutanabbi was still politically active, he was eventually forced to flee to Egypt, but as he wrote satires taht presented the court in a negative way, he had to move again, now back to Iraq,.to Baghdad.
Later on he worked as a court poet in Shiraz. While being without a patron, al-Mutanabbi was in 965 slain by brigands during a trip, near Baghdad.
With a flowery style, use of the ode, and changing way from the traditional Arabic qasida, al-Mutanabbi stands out as the most important representative for the panegyrical poetic style.
Abu’l-Tayyib Ahmad al-Ju‘fi see Mutanabbi, al-
Ahmad ibn al-Husain al-Mutanabbi see Mutanabbi, al-
Mutanabbi, Ahmad ibn al-Husain al- see Mutanabbi, al-
Ju'fi, Abu'l-Tayyib Ahmad al- see Mutanabbi, al-
Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi see Mutanabbi, al-
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