Ubaydallah
Ubaydallah (Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah). Founder of the Fatimid dynasty. Ubaydallah had his capital at Mahdiyah, near modern Tunis. Ubaydallah was called “the Mahdi” (the rightly guided) by his followers.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909-934) is the founder of the Fatimid dynasty, the only major Shi'ite caliphate in Islam. Ubaydallah established Fatimid rule throughout much of North Africa.
After establishing himself as the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty he made claim to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, through Husayn, Fatimah's son, and Ismail.
He began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and began riding towards north-western Africa, which at the time was under Aghlabid rule, following the propagandist success of his chief dai', Abu 'Abdullah Al-Husayn Al-Shi'i. Al-Shi'i, along with laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental in sowing the seeds of sedition among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe.
It was Al-Shi'i's success which was the signal to Sa'id who set off from Salamyah disguised as a merchant. However, he was captured by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat-Allah and thrown into a dungeon in Sijilmasah. Al-Shi'i was then required to rescue Sa'id in 909 after which the Aghlabid dynasty, the last stronghold of Sunni Islam in North Africa, was expelled from region.
'Ubaydallah Al-Mahdi, as Sa'id was now to be known, established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. Two years after he achieved power, 'Abdullah had his missionary-commander Al-Shi'i executed. After that his power only grew. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, 'Abdullah took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah, which he founded on the Tunisian coast sixteen miles south-east of Al-Qayrawan, and which he named after himself.
After his death, 'Abdullah was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah see Ubaydallah
Ubaydallah (Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah). Founder of the Fatimid dynasty. Ubaydallah had his capital at Mahdiyah, near modern Tunis. Ubaydallah was called “the Mahdi” (the rightly guided) by his followers.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909-934) is the founder of the Fatimid dynasty, the only major Shi'ite caliphate in Islam. Ubaydallah established Fatimid rule throughout much of North Africa.
After establishing himself as the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty he made claim to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, through Husayn, Fatimah's son, and Ismail.
He began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and began riding towards north-western Africa, which at the time was under Aghlabid rule, following the propagandist success of his chief dai', Abu 'Abdullah Al-Husayn Al-Shi'i. Al-Shi'i, along with laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental in sowing the seeds of sedition among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe.
It was Al-Shi'i's success which was the signal to Sa'id who set off from Salamyah disguised as a merchant. However, he was captured by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat-Allah and thrown into a dungeon in Sijilmasah. Al-Shi'i was then required to rescue Sa'id in 909 after which the Aghlabid dynasty, the last stronghold of Sunni Islam in North Africa, was expelled from region.
'Ubaydallah Al-Mahdi, as Sa'id was now to be known, established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. Two years after he achieved power, 'Abdullah had his missionary-commander Al-Shi'i executed. After that his power only grew. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, 'Abdullah took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah, which he founded on the Tunisian coast sixteen miles south-east of Al-Qayrawan, and which he named after himself.
After his death, 'Abdullah was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah see Ubaydallah
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d.686). Umayyad governor. A son of Ziyad ibn Abihi, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and advanced as far as Bukhara. In 675, he became governor of Basra, where he subdued the Kharijites, and in 679 also of Kufa. It was he who sent troops against al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali, who lost his life at the battle of Karbala’ in 683. ‘Ubayd Allah had to flee from Kufa and went to Syria. At the battle of Marj Rahit in 684, he commanded the left wing of the Umayyad Caliph Marwan I ibn al-Hakam and in the following year he was sent to Qarqisiya in order to subdue Iraq. In 686, he suffered near Mosul a disastrous defeat against al-Mukhtar ibn Abi ‘Ubayd al-Thaqafi.
Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad was a son of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan after whose death in 673 he became the Governor of Kufa and Basra and later Khurasan. He also minted coinage, which survives to this day. In 674 he crossed the Amu Darya and defeated the forces of Bukhar Khuda of Bukhara in what would become the first known invasion of the city by Muslim Arabs.
In 680, Yazid I ordered Ubayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to the popularity there of the grandson of the Prophet, Husayn ibn Ali. Ubayd Allah appointed his brother Uthman as deputy and marched to Kufa. Ubayd Allah executed Hussain ibn Ali’s cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel and put out the right eye of Hussain ibn Ali’s supporter Al-Mukhtar. He was also one of the leaders of the army of Yazid I during the battle of Karbala.
Yazid left a vacuum in Iraq upon his death in 683. Ubayd Allah abdicated the governor's mansion in Basra and took up shelter with Mas'ud ibn Amr al-Azdi. The Azd were a Yemenite tribe who then supported the Umayyads against the rebellion of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. But Basra's new governor Abd Allah ibn al-Harith sided with Ibn al-Zubayr, and had Mas'ud killed the following spring. Some traditions add, probably accurately, that Ubayd Allah and Mas'ud had complained about Ibn al-Harith's corruption (again, probably accurately - but the Basrans did not then care) with a view to regaining for Ubayd Allah his command. Ubayd Allah fled the city for Syria - leaving his wife and family behind.
While Ubayd Allah was in Syria, he persuaded Marwan ibn al-Hakam not to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Meanwhile the messianic rebel Al-Mukhtar wrested Kufa from Ibn al-Zubayr in 685. Seeing his chance, or so he thought, Ubayd Allah sent an army against Mukhtar. Mukhtar met [Ubayd Allah] Ibn Ziyad's legions with a militia composed of 13,000 lightly-armed freedmen on foot at the river Khazir near Nineveh. Ubayd Allah died in that battle.
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d.686). Umayyad governor. A son of Ziyad ibn Abihi, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and advanced as far as Bukhara. In 675, he became governor of Basra, where he subdued the Kharijites, and in 679 also of Kufa. It was he who sent troops against al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali, who lost his life at the battle of Karbala’ in 683. ‘Ubayd Allah had to flee from Kufa and went to Syria. At the battle of Marj Rahit in 684, he commanded the left wing of the Umayyad Caliph Marwan I ibn al-Hakam and in the following year he was sent to Qarqisiya in order to subdue Iraq. In 686, he suffered near Mosul a disastrous defeat against al-Mukhtar ibn Abi ‘Ubayd al-Thaqafi.
Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad was a son of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan after whose death in 673 he became the Governor of Kufa and Basra and later Khurasan. He also minted coinage, which survives to this day. In 674 he crossed the Amu Darya and defeated the forces of Bukhar Khuda of Bukhara in what would become the first known invasion of the city by Muslim Arabs.
In 680, Yazid I ordered Ubayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to the popularity there of the grandson of the Prophet, Husayn ibn Ali. Ubayd Allah appointed his brother Uthman as deputy and marched to Kufa. Ubayd Allah executed Hussain ibn Ali’s cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel and put out the right eye of Hussain ibn Ali’s supporter Al-Mukhtar. He was also one of the leaders of the army of Yazid I during the battle of Karbala.
Yazid left a vacuum in Iraq upon his death in 683. Ubayd Allah abdicated the governor's mansion in Basra and took up shelter with Mas'ud ibn Amr al-Azdi. The Azd were a Yemenite tribe who then supported the Umayyads against the rebellion of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. But Basra's new governor Abd Allah ibn al-Harith sided with Ibn al-Zubayr, and had Mas'ud killed the following spring. Some traditions add, probably accurately, that Ubayd Allah and Mas'ud had complained about Ibn al-Harith's corruption (again, probably accurately - but the Basrans did not then care) with a view to regaining for Ubayd Allah his command. Ubayd Allah fled the city for Syria - leaving his wife and family behind.
While Ubayd Allah was in Syria, he persuaded Marwan ibn al-Hakam not to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Meanwhile the messianic rebel Al-Mukhtar wrested Kufa from Ibn al-Zubayr in 685. Seeing his chance, or so he thought, Ubayd Allah sent an army against Mukhtar. Mukhtar met [Ubayd Allah] Ibn Ziyad's legions with a militia composed of 13,000 lightly-armed freedmen on foot at the river Khazir near Nineveh. Ubayd Allah died in that battle.
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din (Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani) (Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni) (Ubayd-i Zākāni) ('Ubayd Zakani) (1300-1370/1371). Persian poet from Qazwin. He was a satirical and erotic poet, who wrote such works as The Morals of Aristocracy and The Book of the Beard, a dialogue between the poet and the beard, regarded as a destroyer of youthful beauty.
'Ubayd Zākāni was a Persian poet and satirist of the 14th century (Timurid Period) from the city of Qazvin. He studied in Shiraz, Iran under the best masters of his day, but eventually moved back to his native town of Qazvin. He however preferred Shiraz to Qazvin, as he was a court poet in Shiraz for Shah Abu Ishaq, where a young Hafez was present as well.
His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. He is one of the most remarkable poets, satirists and social critics of Iran (Persia), whose works have not received proper attention in the past. His books are translated into Russian, Danish, Italian, English, and German.
While pursuing his studies in Shiraz, Ubayd became one of the most accomplished men of letters and learning of his time, acquiring complete proficiency in every art, and compiling books and treatises thereon. He subsequently returned to Qazvin, where he had the honor of being appointed to a judgeship and was chosen as the tutor and teacher of sundry young gentlemen. At that time the Turks in Persia had left no prohibited or vicious act undone, and the character of the Persian people, by reasons of association and intercourse with them, had become so changed and corrupted that 'Ubayd-i-Zakani, disgusted at the contemplation thereof, sought by every means to make known and bring home to them the true conditions of affairs. Therefore, as an example of the corrupt morals of the age and its people, he composed the treatise known as Akhlaq-i-Ashraf (Ethics of the Aristocracy), which was not intended as mere ribaldry, but as a satire containing serious reflections and wise warnings. So, likewise, in order to depict the level of intelligence and degree of knowledge of the leading men of Qazwin each one of whom was a mass of stupidity and ignorance, he included in his Risala-i-Dilqusha (Joyous Treatise) many anecdotes of which each contains a lesson for persons of discernment.
As a measure of his accomplishments, experience, learning and worldly wisdom, his Risala-i-Sad (Tract of a Hundred Counsels) and his Ta'rifat (Definitions) are a sufficient proof. Moreover he composed a treatise 'Ilm-i-Ma'ni u Bayan (Rhetoric) which he desired to present to the King. The courtiers and favorites, however, told him that the King had no need for such rubbish. Then he composed a fine panegyric, which he desired to recite, but they informed him that His Majesty did not like to be mocked with the lies, exaggerations and fulsome flattery of poets. Thereupon 'Ubayd-i-Zakani said, 'In that case I, too, will pursue the path of impudence, so that by these means I may obtain access to the King's most intimate society, and may become one of his courtiers and favorites', which he accordingly did.
Then he began recklessly to utter the most shameless sayings and the most unseemly and extravagant jests, whereby he obtained innumerable gifts and presents, which none dared to pose and contend with him. Thus 'Ubayd-i-Zakani a serious writer, a moralist and a panegyrist was compelled by circumstances to become a ribald satirist.
The most striking feature of the serious poems of 'Ubayd-i-Zakani is the constant references to Fars and its capital Shiraz, which evidently held the affection of the poet far more than his native city of Qazvin.
Ubayd wrote religious poems, praise of God, the Prophet and the Four Rashidun Caliphs; but he neither claimed nor desired to lead a virtuous life.
Poverty and debt were the usual lots of 'Ubayd.
Because of the ribald and often homoerotic quality of his verse, 'Ubayd was widely censored.
Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Ubayd-i Zākāni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
'Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din (Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani) (Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni) (Ubayd-i Zākāni) ('Ubayd Zakani) (1300-1370/1371). Persian poet from Qazwin. He was a satirical and erotic poet, who wrote such works as The Morals of Aristocracy and The Book of the Beard, a dialogue between the poet and the beard, regarded as a destroyer of youthful beauty.
'Ubayd Zākāni was a Persian poet and satirist of the 14th century (Timurid Period) from the city of Qazvin. He studied in Shiraz, Iran under the best masters of his day, but eventually moved back to his native town of Qazvin. He however preferred Shiraz to Qazvin, as he was a court poet in Shiraz for Shah Abu Ishaq, where a young Hafez was present as well.
His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. He is one of the most remarkable poets, satirists and social critics of Iran (Persia), whose works have not received proper attention in the past. His books are translated into Russian, Danish, Italian, English, and German.
While pursuing his studies in Shiraz, Ubayd became one of the most accomplished men of letters and learning of his time, acquiring complete proficiency in every art, and compiling books and treatises thereon. He subsequently returned to Qazvin, where he had the honor of being appointed to a judgeship and was chosen as the tutor and teacher of sundry young gentlemen. At that time the Turks in Persia had left no prohibited or vicious act undone, and the character of the Persian people, by reasons of association and intercourse with them, had become so changed and corrupted that 'Ubayd-i-Zakani, disgusted at the contemplation thereof, sought by every means to make known and bring home to them the true conditions of affairs. Therefore, as an example of the corrupt morals of the age and its people, he composed the treatise known as Akhlaq-i-Ashraf (Ethics of the Aristocracy), which was not intended as mere ribaldry, but as a satire containing serious reflections and wise warnings. So, likewise, in order to depict the level of intelligence and degree of knowledge of the leading men of Qazwin each one of whom was a mass of stupidity and ignorance, he included in his Risala-i-Dilqusha (Joyous Treatise) many anecdotes of which each contains a lesson for persons of discernment.
As a measure of his accomplishments, experience, learning and worldly wisdom, his Risala-i-Sad (Tract of a Hundred Counsels) and his Ta'rifat (Definitions) are a sufficient proof. Moreover he composed a treatise 'Ilm-i-Ma'ni u Bayan (Rhetoric) which he desired to present to the King. The courtiers and favorites, however, told him that the King had no need for such rubbish. Then he composed a fine panegyric, which he desired to recite, but they informed him that His Majesty did not like to be mocked with the lies, exaggerations and fulsome flattery of poets. Thereupon 'Ubayd-i-Zakani said, 'In that case I, too, will pursue the path of impudence, so that by these means I may obtain access to the King's most intimate society, and may become one of his courtiers and favorites', which he accordingly did.
Then he began recklessly to utter the most shameless sayings and the most unseemly and extravagant jests, whereby he obtained innumerable gifts and presents, which none dared to pose and contend with him. Thus 'Ubayd-i-Zakani a serious writer, a moralist and a panegyrist was compelled by circumstances to become a ribald satirist.
The most striking feature of the serious poems of 'Ubayd-i-Zakani is the constant references to Fars and its capital Shiraz, which evidently held the affection of the poet far more than his native city of Qazvin.
Ubayd wrote religious poems, praise of God, the Prophet and the Four Rashidun Caliphs; but he neither claimed nor desired to lead a virtuous life.
Poverty and debt were the usual lots of 'Ubayd.
Because of the ribald and often homoerotic quality of his verse, 'Ubayd was widely censored.
Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Ubayd-i Zākāni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
'Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Udhra, Banu
‘Udhra, Banu (Banu ‘Udhra) is an Arab tribe belonging to the great subdivision of the Quda‘a and established in the north of the Hejaz in the Wadi’l-Qura. They exercised control over the road between the Hejaz and Syria. In 623, the Prophet sent them a letter and in 630 they dispatched an official embassy to Medina. The played no part in politics and did not give any personage of note to the history of Islam. They achieved however a fame without equal for their love of poetry, giving their name to the so-called “Udhri love.”
Banu 'Udhra see ‘Udhra, Banu
‘Udhra, Banu (Banu ‘Udhra) is an Arab tribe belonging to the great subdivision of the Quda‘a and established in the north of the Hejaz in the Wadi’l-Qura. They exercised control over the road between the Hejaz and Syria. In 623, the Prophet sent them a letter and in 630 they dispatched an official embassy to Medina. The played no part in politics and did not give any personage of note to the history of Islam. They achieved however a fame without equal for their love of poetry, giving their name to the so-called “Udhri love.”
Banu 'Udhra see ‘Udhra, Banu
Uighur
Uighur (Uyghur) (Weiwu’er) (Uygur). Turkic people of northwestern China, who ruled a large and sophisticated kingdom in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Uighurs are a Sunni Muslim Turkic-speaking people inhabiting northwestern China in Xinjiang, the largest province in the People’s Republic of China. The Uighurs rate among the four most important Turkic populations in the world. They are the largest non-Chinese nationality existing within China’s borders. The Uighurs have a long tradition of scholarship and high culture that continues to this day. In the past, they have served as a bridge between East and West; in modern times they have been a cultural mediator between the cultures of South Asia and Europe and Russia.
The first mention of Uighurs in written sources occurs in the third century of the Christian calendar, when they were one of the many nomadic tribes to migrate from northern Mongolia to Inner Asia. With the founding of an empire in 744, the Uighurs consolidated their ethnic identity. The second emperor, Moyanchuo, built a capital city and an imperial palace beside the Orkhon River.
Prior to the establishment of their empire, the Uighurs practiced their autochthonous religion. After Sogdian traders became influential at the Uighur court, the official religion of the Uighurs became Manichaeism, although many were Buddhists. In the tenth century, a Uighur prince, Sadiq Burhan al-Din, converted to Islam, but not until the fourteenth century did Islam become the primary Uighur religion.
During their imperial period the Uighurs developed their own language and script by adapting the Sogdian alphabet. At this time the Uighurs abandoned the entirely nomadic existence of their ancestors for a more sedentary urban life in which commerce and agriculture were important. When the Mongol Khans ruled Central Asia, they borrowed the Uighur alphabet and adapted it to Mongolian phonetics. In the eleventh and twelfth centureies the Uighur script was gradually replaced with the Arabic alphabet.
Before the consolidation of their empire, the Uighurs already had a traditional alliance with the Chinese. Uighur emperors sent horsemen and archers to help the Chinese put down several rebellions as well as an invasion by Tibetan nomads. Since the Chinese treated their Uighur allies as barbarians, and since the Uighurs exploited their power over the Chinese by looting and pillaging rebel held Chinese cities after battle, the relationship between the two peoples was full of resentment. The trade of Chinese silk for Uighur horses was the basis of their commercial relationship.
After the empire fell to the Kirghiz in 840, the Uighurs migrated to the southern part of the Tarim Basin and settled in the Turfan Oasis. Here they established the Kocho kingdom, which became a vassal state of the Karakhanids in the twelfth century. The Karakhanids were ousted by Jenghiz Khan and the Mongols in the thirteenth century. In the fifteenth century, Uighuristan made up a part of Mogulistan. In 1566, one of the first in a series of Khoja khans took over the area. These Muslim prelates, who came out of Bukhara and Samarkand, claimed direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad.
In 1760 the Chinese claimed the Uighur state as a part of China and named the area Xinjiang, or New Dominion. As a result of the oppression of their Chinese rulers, Muslim warlords were able to lead several rebellions, yet all were crushed by China’s armies.
Not only the Chinese wanted to control Eastern Turkestan, as it was called by the Europeans. At the end of the nineteenth century Germany, England, Russian, and even the United States were seeking to establish their power in the area. The Russians and the British were the most aggressive, spurred on by the reports of gold in the cities of Yarkand and Khotan as well as the strategic importance of Xinjiang. After the Russian Revolution, the Soviets sought to extend their revolutionary ideals into Central Asia. In the early 1930s, Uighur nationalists, with Soviet backing, founded the independent Eastern Turkestan Republic. This was quickly taken over by Chinese warlords. Since most Western publications available to Uighurs at the time came out of Russia, the Russians also had a great cultural influenc. Mao’s armies defeated the Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops stationed in Xinjiang in 1949, and the Xinjian-Uighur Autonomous Region was formed in 1955.
Today most Uighurs live in the Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. This area is China’s main site for oil and minerla production and as such is a sensitive area.
In Xinjiang, China has greatly imrpved the irrigation systems and created a transportation network of railroad and air travel. As of 1985, Xinjiang operated its own airline. A thriving commerce based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and the extraction and refinement of oil and minerals has increased the standard of living of the average Uighur. In the early 1980s the Chinese opened the area to tourists.
The Chinese government has reformed many of the restrictions on the Uighur people that grew out of the Cultural Revolution. The rich literary and musical heritage of the Uighur people continues today. Uighurs publish books in their own language, from ancient historical epics to modern comedies. Urumqi houses the Uighur National Opera. Traditional Uighur musicians and dancers travel to Europe and the United States.
In late 1985, Uighur students staged demonstrations in Beijing, Shanghai, and Urumqi, calling for an end to nuclear testing in Xinjiang, the relaxation of family planning regulations, and increased minority rights.
The Chinese government has often referred to Uyghur nationalists as "terrorists" and received more global support for what it claims to be the Chinese contribution to the "war on terror". Human Rights Watch alleged that China was taking advantage of a "post-9/11 environment" to suppress peaceful cultural and religious messages in Xinjiang. Rebiya Kadeer, a Uyghur nationalist leader, advocated a separate state for Uyghurs in Xinjiang. The Chinese government accused her of masterminding the July 2009 Ürümqi riots to this end. Nine Uyghur detainees in Guantanamo Bay also feared a backlash from China because of their separatist sympathies, so the United States resettled them in a third country rather than back to China.
Many Uyghurs in the diaspora supported Pan-Turkic groups. Several organizations such as the East Turkestan Party provided support for the Turkic Uyghurs. Some Uyghur political groups supported peaceful Uyghur nationalism and independence. However, the Chinese Government claimed two separatist groups: the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, blamed for 200 attacks between 1990 and 2001, and the recent and still disputed East Turkestan Liberation Organization.
Uyghur see Uighur
Weiwu'er see Uighur
Uygur see Uighur
Uighur (Uyghur) (Weiwu’er) (Uygur). Turkic people of northwestern China, who ruled a large and sophisticated kingdom in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Uighurs are a Sunni Muslim Turkic-speaking people inhabiting northwestern China in Xinjiang, the largest province in the People’s Republic of China. The Uighurs rate among the four most important Turkic populations in the world. They are the largest non-Chinese nationality existing within China’s borders. The Uighurs have a long tradition of scholarship and high culture that continues to this day. In the past, they have served as a bridge between East and West; in modern times they have been a cultural mediator between the cultures of South Asia and Europe and Russia.
The first mention of Uighurs in written sources occurs in the third century of the Christian calendar, when they were one of the many nomadic tribes to migrate from northern Mongolia to Inner Asia. With the founding of an empire in 744, the Uighurs consolidated their ethnic identity. The second emperor, Moyanchuo, built a capital city and an imperial palace beside the Orkhon River.
Prior to the establishment of their empire, the Uighurs practiced their autochthonous religion. After Sogdian traders became influential at the Uighur court, the official religion of the Uighurs became Manichaeism, although many were Buddhists. In the tenth century, a Uighur prince, Sadiq Burhan al-Din, converted to Islam, but not until the fourteenth century did Islam become the primary Uighur religion.
During their imperial period the Uighurs developed their own language and script by adapting the Sogdian alphabet. At this time the Uighurs abandoned the entirely nomadic existence of their ancestors for a more sedentary urban life in which commerce and agriculture were important. When the Mongol Khans ruled Central Asia, they borrowed the Uighur alphabet and adapted it to Mongolian phonetics. In the eleventh and twelfth centureies the Uighur script was gradually replaced with the Arabic alphabet.
Before the consolidation of their empire, the Uighurs already had a traditional alliance with the Chinese. Uighur emperors sent horsemen and archers to help the Chinese put down several rebellions as well as an invasion by Tibetan nomads. Since the Chinese treated their Uighur allies as barbarians, and since the Uighurs exploited their power over the Chinese by looting and pillaging rebel held Chinese cities after battle, the relationship between the two peoples was full of resentment. The trade of Chinese silk for Uighur horses was the basis of their commercial relationship.
After the empire fell to the Kirghiz in 840, the Uighurs migrated to the southern part of the Tarim Basin and settled in the Turfan Oasis. Here they established the Kocho kingdom, which became a vassal state of the Karakhanids in the twelfth century. The Karakhanids were ousted by Jenghiz Khan and the Mongols in the thirteenth century. In the fifteenth century, Uighuristan made up a part of Mogulistan. In 1566, one of the first in a series of Khoja khans took over the area. These Muslim prelates, who came out of Bukhara and Samarkand, claimed direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad.
In 1760 the Chinese claimed the Uighur state as a part of China and named the area Xinjiang, or New Dominion. As a result of the oppression of their Chinese rulers, Muslim warlords were able to lead several rebellions, yet all were crushed by China’s armies.
Not only the Chinese wanted to control Eastern Turkestan, as it was called by the Europeans. At the end of the nineteenth century Germany, England, Russian, and even the United States were seeking to establish their power in the area. The Russians and the British were the most aggressive, spurred on by the reports of gold in the cities of Yarkand and Khotan as well as the strategic importance of Xinjiang. After the Russian Revolution, the Soviets sought to extend their revolutionary ideals into Central Asia. In the early 1930s, Uighur nationalists, with Soviet backing, founded the independent Eastern Turkestan Republic. This was quickly taken over by Chinese warlords. Since most Western publications available to Uighurs at the time came out of Russia, the Russians also had a great cultural influenc. Mao’s armies defeated the Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops stationed in Xinjiang in 1949, and the Xinjian-Uighur Autonomous Region was formed in 1955.
Today most Uighurs live in the Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. This area is China’s main site for oil and minerla production and as such is a sensitive area.
In Xinjiang, China has greatly imrpved the irrigation systems and created a transportation network of railroad and air travel. As of 1985, Xinjiang operated its own airline. A thriving commerce based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and the extraction and refinement of oil and minerals has increased the standard of living of the average Uighur. In the early 1980s the Chinese opened the area to tourists.
The Chinese government has reformed many of the restrictions on the Uighur people that grew out of the Cultural Revolution. The rich literary and musical heritage of the Uighur people continues today. Uighurs publish books in their own language, from ancient historical epics to modern comedies. Urumqi houses the Uighur National Opera. Traditional Uighur musicians and dancers travel to Europe and the United States.
In late 1985, Uighur students staged demonstrations in Beijing, Shanghai, and Urumqi, calling for an end to nuclear testing in Xinjiang, the relaxation of family planning regulations, and increased minority rights.
The Chinese government has often referred to Uyghur nationalists as "terrorists" and received more global support for what it claims to be the Chinese contribution to the "war on terror". Human Rights Watch alleged that China was taking advantage of a "post-9/11 environment" to suppress peaceful cultural and religious messages in Xinjiang. Rebiya Kadeer, a Uyghur nationalist leader, advocated a separate state for Uyghurs in Xinjiang. The Chinese government accused her of masterminding the July 2009 Ürümqi riots to this end. Nine Uyghur detainees in Guantanamo Bay also feared a backlash from China because of their separatist sympathies, so the United States resettled them in a third country rather than back to China.
Many Uyghurs in the diaspora supported Pan-Turkic groups. Several organizations such as the East Turkestan Party provided support for the Turkic Uyghurs. Some Uyghur political groups supported peaceful Uyghur nationalism and independence. However, the Chinese Government claimed two separatist groups: the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, blamed for 200 attacks between 1990 and 2001, and the recent and still disputed East Turkestan Liberation Organization.
Uyghur see Uighur
Weiwu'er see Uighur
Uygur see Uighur
‘ulama’
‘ulama’ (ulema). The learned of Islam, i.e., the religious teachers, canon lawyers, judges, and high state religious officials like the Shaykh al-Islam. They came to have, in a wide and vague fashion, the ultimate decision on all questions of constitution, canon law and theology. They might be government functionaries, either controlled by the government or keeping the government in a certain awe; or they might be private and independent students of canon law and theology.
The Arabic word ‘ulama’ is the plural of the word ‘alim. The word ‘alim means “one who knows, an expert, or a scholar.” The term ‘ulama’ is the collective designation for Muslim religious scholars, “those who possess [right] knowledge (‘ilm)” and thus are authorities for all aspects of Islamic life. Apparently from the beginning of Islam, Muslims looked for direction to those men and women noted for their competence in the quadrivium of Islamic learning. The quadrivium of Islamic learning consists of: (1) Arabic language (grammar and lexicology), (2) Qur’an and Qur’anic studies, (3) hadith and hadith studies, and (4) fiqh (religious law). Often the foci of pious opposition to political authority perceived as unjust, the ‘ulama’ were also those to whom rulers and administrators turned for guidance and for legitimation. What began, however, as the informal and consensual role of the most learned -- as custodians of the sunna and critics of its neglect -- gradually became institutionalized, so that the ‘ulama’ became a recognized professional class. So uniform did their role throughout Islam become that a fourteenth century ‘alim could move from Andalusia to Egypt or even India and be accepted and employed at once. In many areas they formed an aristocratic and sometimes endogamous social class.
There were two major factors in this transformation to a professional role. (1) The crystallization of religious law (fiqh), through which ‘ilm became less a personal quality and more a mastery of particular data and methods. The ‘ulama’ became the arbiters of the now authoritative ijma’ as well as conservators of the tradition of Qur’an and hadith interpretation and perpetuators of taqlid -- the system of binding legal precedent. (2) The increasingly important role of the ‘ulama’ in society. Particularly after the tenth century decline of stable central government, the ‘ulama’ came to be powerful both as representatives of the universally acknowledged sharia and as mediators of lawsuits, administrators of inheritances and endowments, large property holders, teachers, preachers, and judges. The elaboration of the madrasa system of education consolidated their position and standardized their training.
It is not then surprising that the renascent central authorities of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals attempted to control or suppress the ‘ulama’. The Ottomans, for example, organized them into a regimented hierarchy. Those who wanted official position were promoted through standard grades and, in the madrasas, ranked by status. All ‘ulama’ came under direction of the Shaikh al-Islam, the supreme judiciary authority of the empire, who had power to judge the legitimacy of civil law by recourse to the broader and higher standards of the sharia.
Despite governmental efforts to control the, the ‘ulama’ remain today a kind of fulcrum between the people and their rulers. This is most evident in Shi‘ite Iran, where the ‘ulama’ are uniquely powerful. The events there during the 1970s present the classical model of the ‘ulama’ uniting a demoralized people to repudiate an oppressive civil authority in the name of Islamic ideals.
‘Ulama’ is a term in Islam meaning the community of learned men. The direct translation would be “the ones possessing knowledge.” ‘Ulama’ is a plural term, and the singular is ‘alim. The term ‘alim can be translated into “learned, knowing man.”
Normally, ‘ulama’ is used for the group of men with religious education and religiously related professions. ‘Ulama’ is the group of men expressing the true content of Islam towards both the people and the rulers. Men belonging to ulama have education in the Qur’an, the Sunna, and sharia.
The ulama has considerable power in many Muslim countries, but their influence on the society often depends on how strong the secular authorities are. In most cases, the ulama cooperates with the rulers and plays often the role of defending or silently accepting the government’s politics.
The ulama has great influence on most Muslims, but this influence is easily destroyed when the ulama loses its credibility. The credibility of the ulama depends very much on their level of independence. If there is too much cooperation with the rulers, people will turn away from the ulama to find their religious guidance somewhere else, resulting in an ulama without power. An ulama which do not cooperate at all with the governments will face suppression and economic difficulties. There are cases where the ulama has overthrown the governments, as did happen in 1979 in Iran.
The growth of modern state structures in the Muslim world have weakened the ulama. While the ulama under weak rulers practised many activities normally connected to a state. The juridical ones, the modern state have limited the range of activities of the ulama. Because of this, the modern ulama are more than ever spiritual leaders.
Ulama, also spelt ulema, refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law. While the ulama are well versed in legal jurisprudence being Islamic lawyers, some of them also go on to specialize in other fields, such as philosophy, dialectical theology or Quranic hermeneutics or explanation. The fields studied, and the importance given them, will vary from tradition to tradition, or even from seminary to seminary.
In a broader sense, the term ulama is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship. Other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulama.
ulema see ‘ulama’
‘ulama’ (ulema). The learned of Islam, i.e., the religious teachers, canon lawyers, judges, and high state religious officials like the Shaykh al-Islam. They came to have, in a wide and vague fashion, the ultimate decision on all questions of constitution, canon law and theology. They might be government functionaries, either controlled by the government or keeping the government in a certain awe; or they might be private and independent students of canon law and theology.
The Arabic word ‘ulama’ is the plural of the word ‘alim. The word ‘alim means “one who knows, an expert, or a scholar.” The term ‘ulama’ is the collective designation for Muslim religious scholars, “those who possess [right] knowledge (‘ilm)” and thus are authorities for all aspects of Islamic life. Apparently from the beginning of Islam, Muslims looked for direction to those men and women noted for their competence in the quadrivium of Islamic learning. The quadrivium of Islamic learning consists of: (1) Arabic language (grammar and lexicology), (2) Qur’an and Qur’anic studies, (3) hadith and hadith studies, and (4) fiqh (religious law). Often the foci of pious opposition to political authority perceived as unjust, the ‘ulama’ were also those to whom rulers and administrators turned for guidance and for legitimation. What began, however, as the informal and consensual role of the most learned -- as custodians of the sunna and critics of its neglect -- gradually became institutionalized, so that the ‘ulama’ became a recognized professional class. So uniform did their role throughout Islam become that a fourteenth century ‘alim could move from Andalusia to Egypt or even India and be accepted and employed at once. In many areas they formed an aristocratic and sometimes endogamous social class.
There were two major factors in this transformation to a professional role. (1) The crystallization of religious law (fiqh), through which ‘ilm became less a personal quality and more a mastery of particular data and methods. The ‘ulama’ became the arbiters of the now authoritative ijma’ as well as conservators of the tradition of Qur’an and hadith interpretation and perpetuators of taqlid -- the system of binding legal precedent. (2) The increasingly important role of the ‘ulama’ in society. Particularly after the tenth century decline of stable central government, the ‘ulama’ came to be powerful both as representatives of the universally acknowledged sharia and as mediators of lawsuits, administrators of inheritances and endowments, large property holders, teachers, preachers, and judges. The elaboration of the madrasa system of education consolidated their position and standardized their training.
It is not then surprising that the renascent central authorities of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals attempted to control or suppress the ‘ulama’. The Ottomans, for example, organized them into a regimented hierarchy. Those who wanted official position were promoted through standard grades and, in the madrasas, ranked by status. All ‘ulama’ came under direction of the Shaikh al-Islam, the supreme judiciary authority of the empire, who had power to judge the legitimacy of civil law by recourse to the broader and higher standards of the sharia.
Despite governmental efforts to control the, the ‘ulama’ remain today a kind of fulcrum between the people and their rulers. This is most evident in Shi‘ite Iran, where the ‘ulama’ are uniquely powerful. The events there during the 1970s present the classical model of the ‘ulama’ uniting a demoralized people to repudiate an oppressive civil authority in the name of Islamic ideals.
‘Ulama’ is a term in Islam meaning the community of learned men. The direct translation would be “the ones possessing knowledge.” ‘Ulama’ is a plural term, and the singular is ‘alim. The term ‘alim can be translated into “learned, knowing man.”
Normally, ‘ulama’ is used for the group of men with religious education and religiously related professions. ‘Ulama’ is the group of men expressing the true content of Islam towards both the people and the rulers. Men belonging to ulama have education in the Qur’an, the Sunna, and sharia.
The ulama has considerable power in many Muslim countries, but their influence on the society often depends on how strong the secular authorities are. In most cases, the ulama cooperates with the rulers and plays often the role of defending or silently accepting the government’s politics.
The ulama has great influence on most Muslims, but this influence is easily destroyed when the ulama loses its credibility. The credibility of the ulama depends very much on their level of independence. If there is too much cooperation with the rulers, people will turn away from the ulama to find their religious guidance somewhere else, resulting in an ulama without power. An ulama which do not cooperate at all with the governments will face suppression and economic difficulties. There are cases where the ulama has overthrown the governments, as did happen in 1979 in Iran.
The growth of modern state structures in the Muslim world have weakened the ulama. While the ulama under weak rulers practised many activities normally connected to a state. The juridical ones, the modern state have limited the range of activities of the ulama. Because of this, the modern ulama are more than ever spiritual leaders.
Ulama, also spelt ulema, refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law. While the ulama are well versed in legal jurisprudence being Islamic lawyers, some of them also go on to specialize in other fields, such as philosophy, dialectical theology or Quranic hermeneutics or explanation. The fields studied, and the importance given them, will vary from tradition to tradition, or even from seminary to seminary.
In a broader sense, the term ulama is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship. Other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulama.
ulema see ‘ulama’
Ulama
Ulama. In Brazil, a highly respected Islamic teacher among Muslim slaves.
Ulama. In Brazil, a highly respected Islamic teacher among Muslim slaves.
Uleebalang
Uleebalang. Term which refers to an intermediary administrative official in the Malayan Sultanates.
Uleebalang. Term which refers to an intermediary administrative official in the Malayan Sultanates.
Uli
Uli (Uli I) (Ouli) (Ali) (Wali). Thirteenth century ruler of the Mali Empire. He succeeded his father, the famous Sundjata. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described him as one of the greatest kings of Mali and noted that he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was probably during his rule that Mali captured the important trading cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Walata. He was succeeded by a brother, Wati.
Mansa Uli (French: Ouli), also known as Ali or Wali in Arab sources, was the second mansa of the Mali Empire.
Born under the name Yérélinkon, he was the only biological son of the legendary Sundiata Keita. The mansas that followed Uli, Ouati and Khalifa, were the children of Mandinka generals and adopted by the emperor to be raised as members of the Keita clan.
According to oral sources Sundiata's brother, Manding Bory (alias Abubakari I), was supposed to ascend to the throne since Uli was too young to ascend the throne at the time of his father's death. Instead, the ambitious prince seized the throne for himself in 1255 and began a campaign of territorial expansion into West Africa.
Mansa Uli Keita also significantly increased the empire's agricultural production. On an economic and political level, Uli set a precedent by making the Hajj to Mecca during his reign. Unlike his father, Mansa Uli had no blood heirs leaving the throne to be fought over by his adopted brothers. During the ensuing power struggle, Ouati Keita seized the throne sidelining Manding Bory again.
Ouli see Uli
Ali see Uli
Wali see Uli
Uli (Uli I) (Ouli) (Ali) (Wali). Thirteenth century ruler of the Mali Empire. He succeeded his father, the famous Sundjata. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described him as one of the greatest kings of Mali and noted that he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was probably during his rule that Mali captured the important trading cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Walata. He was succeeded by a brother, Wati.
Mansa Uli (French: Ouli), also known as Ali or Wali in Arab sources, was the second mansa of the Mali Empire.
Born under the name Yérélinkon, he was the only biological son of the legendary Sundiata Keita. The mansas that followed Uli, Ouati and Khalifa, were the children of Mandinka generals and adopted by the emperor to be raised as members of the Keita clan.
According to oral sources Sundiata's brother, Manding Bory (alias Abubakari I), was supposed to ascend to the throne since Uli was too young to ascend the throne at the time of his father's death. Instead, the ambitious prince seized the throne for himself in 1255 and began a campaign of territorial expansion into West Africa.
Mansa Uli Keita also significantly increased the empire's agricultural production. On an economic and political level, Uli set a precedent by making the Hajj to Mecca during his reign. Unlike his father, Mansa Uli had no blood heirs leaving the throne to be fought over by his adopted brothers. During the ensuing power struggle, Ouati Keita seized the throne sidelining Manding Bory again.
Ouli see Uli
Ali see Uli
Wali see Uli
Ullah, Mohib
Mohib Ullah (b. Mohammed Mohib Ullah, 1975, Maungdaw Township, Burma - d. September 29, 2021, Kutupalong, Bangladesh) was a Rohingya community leader who believed in the power of data to confront the brutality of ethnic cleansing.
Mohammed Mohib Ullah was born to Fazal Ahmed and Ummel Fazal in a village in Maungdaw Township, a Rohingya-majority sliver of land abutting Bangladesh. His father was a teacher, and Mohib Ullah followed in his footsteps, teaching science. He was part of a generation of middle-class Rohingya who could still take part in Myanmar life. He studied botany at a college in Yangon, the country’s largest city, which is home to a sizable Muslim population.
In Maungdaw, a bustling town of markets and mosques, Mohib Ullah took another job as an administrator. The work earned him the skepticism of some in the Rohingya community, who wondered if he was collaborating with the state oppressors. He countered that progress could come only through some sort of engagement.
Mohib Ullah escaped Myanmar in 2017, when his village, like hundreds of others, was torched by the Myanmar military in a violent campaign that United Nations investigators said bore the hallmarks of genocide. He had barely settled in his tarp shelter before he began trying to document the Myanmar soldiers’ crimes. For years he painstakingly knocked on the doors of refugees, compiling a list of the dead, checking and cross-referencing each life lost. The aim was to provide evidence for international courts to one day prosecute the Myanmar military for genocide and war crimes.
When the Rohingya wanted to mark the anniversary of the August 2017 massacres that catalyzed their largest exodus into Bangladesh, Mr. Mohib Ullah tackled the logistics of organizing rallies that took place against the wishes of Bangladeshi security forces. He started an N.G.O. called the Arakan Rohingya Society for Peace and Human Rights, using another name for Rakhine State, the home of the Rohingya in western Myanmar.
Mohib Ullah traveled to Europe and the United States to raise awareness of the plight of Rohingya Muslims, who have endured decades of state persecution in Myanmar. Many had their citizenship essentially stripped from them after a xenophobic military dictatorship targeted ethnic minorities. By the 2000s, once-vibrant Rohingya communities were depleted, as the authorities limited their worship, education and health care. The Myanmar authorities mandated that Rohingya women control the number of children they bore so that the Muslim population of Rakhine State would not compete with the Buddhist one.
After a civilian government began sharing power with the military in 2015, the pogroms against the Rohingya intensified. Elected leaders and military officers alike maintained that no such group called the Rohingya existed, referring to them instead as Bengalis, to imply that they were interlopers from Bangladesh rather than an ethnic group that called Myanmar home.
In a speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva in 2019, Mohib Ullah tried to describe all the ways in which the Rohingya were denied their humanity, from their citizenship to their very name. He was cut off after two minutes under council rules.
Mohib Ullah visited the White House that same year and met President Donald Trump as part of a gathering of persecuted religious minorities from all over the world. Although he could have tried to claim asylum while in the United States or Europe, Mohib Ullah instead returned to the refugee camp, with its filthy latrines, crowded shelters and deadly landslides and fires.
In August 2017, Rohingya militants from the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) attacked police posts and a military base in Rakhine State, killing about a dozen security forces. The response, girded by a troop surge in Rakhine weeks before, was ferocious. Soldiers, sometimes abetted by civilian mobs, rampaged through Rohingya villages, shooting children and raping women. Entire communities were burned to the ground. A United Nations human rights chief called it a “textbook case of ethnic cleansing.”
More than 750,000 Rohingya fled their homes in a matter of months, deluging Bangladesh. Mohib Ullah, his wife, Naseema Begum, and their nine children were among them. As plan after plan for repatriation fizzled, he continued to call for both Bangladesh and Myanmar, along with the United Nations, to try harder.
In the refugee camps, discontent simmered. Joblessness surged. The Bangladeshi government moved forward with a plan to relocate some Rohingya to a cyclone-prone silt island that some consider unfit for habitation. Security forces unrolled spools of barbed wire to confine the camps. ARSA militants searched for new recruits. Drug cartels canvassed for willing runners. Families worried that their little girls or boys would be kidnapped as child brides or servants.
Mohib Ullah spoke out against ARSA militancy, illicit networks and the dehumanizing treatment by Bangladeshi officialdom. For his safety, he sometimes had to be hidden in safe houses in Cox’s Bazar, the nearest city to the camps.
Mohib Ullah died on September 29, 2021 after being shot by gunmen in a bamboo and tarp shelter in Kutupalong, Bangladesh, the world’s biggest refugee camp. He was 46.
Mohammed Mohib Ullah see Ullah, Mohib
Mohib Ullah see Ullah, Mohib Ullah, Mohammed Mohib see Ullah, Mohib
Ulugh Beg
Ulugh Beg (Muhammad Turghay Ulugh Beg) (Muhammad Targai Ulugh Beg) (Ulug Beg)Ulugh Beg (Mīrzā Muhammad Tāriq bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Beg) (b. 1393/1394, Solṭānīyeh (Sultaniyeh), Timurid Iran (Persia) - d. October 27, 1449, Samarkand, Timurid empire [now in Uzbekistan]). Timurid ruler in Samarkand (r.1447-1449). A son of Shah Rukh Mirza, he became governor of a part of Khurasan and Mazandaran in 1407, and in 1408 of Turkestan. But he was first of all a man of letters, an artist and a poet. Being able to recite the Qur’an by heart according to all seven “readings,” he was also a great bibliophile and a learned mathematician, fond of poetry and history. He enriched Samarkand with superb buildings. Above all he was an astronomer, who built an observatory and invented new and powerful instruments for researches he carried out with other astronomers. He sought to correct Ptolemy’s computations, and compiled an astronomical almanac, known as “the new almanac of the sultan,” which became celebrated in Europe in the seventeenth century. Less happy in war and politics, he had to fight his son ‘Abd al-Latif, who in the end defeated his father and had him executed.
Ulugh Beg was a grandson of Timur (known in the West as Tamerlane), a Tartar prince and ruler of Turkestan. He was an exceptional astronomer and mathematician of the fifteenth century. Ulugh Beg was the son of the Timurid king Shah Rukh and was born in 1393 at Sultaniyya in Central Asia. He was a Hafiz -- someone who can recite the Qur’an by heart.
Ulugh Beg made Samarkand famous as one of the leading cities of Muslim civilization. In 1424, he constructed a madrasa, an institution of higher learning, where astronomy was taught. Later in 1428, Ulugh Beg began the construction of a magnificent three story observatory in Samarkand. It was more than two hundred fifty feet in diameter and one hundred twenty feet high. He appointed Ali-Kudsi, a Muslim astronomer as the director of the Observatory. Several well-known mathematicians and astronomers including al-Kashi and Kadizada worked there.
He equipped it with the best and most accurate astronomical instruments available then. The observatory included a Fakhri sextant (made of marble) which was used for determining the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, the point of the vernal equinox, the length of the tropical year, and other astronomical constants measured from observation of the sun. It also included a quadrant so large that part of the ground was removed to allow it to fit in the Observatory. Other instruments included a triquetram and an armillary sphere.
In 1437, Ulugh Beg published his most famous and enduring work, a new catalogue of stars entitled Zidj-i Djadid Sultani. In it, he revisited the positions and magnitudes of stars observed by Ptolemy. He found many errors in the computations of Ptolemy. It includes a diverse collection of observations and computations, the position of the fixed stars, the course of the stars, and the knowledge of time. An English translation of this work was published in 1917.
Ulugh Beg computed the length of the year as 365 years, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds, a fairly accurate value. In addition, he prepared Tables of Planetary Motions which were very popular and in demand throughout the astronomical community. Ulugh Beg studied the yearly movements of the five bright planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. His data is still considered very accurate. In 1437, Ulugh Beg also compiled a star catalog giving the positions of 992 stars. His compilation of tables of sines and tangents at one degree intervals are accurate to eight decimal places.
Ulugh Beg was a cultivated and scholarly man. His capital, Samarkand, became a great center of Islamic culture under his patronage. He embellished the city with numerous architectural monuments, among them a madrasa bearing his name and an astronomical observatory regarded by contemporaries as one of the wonders of the world. Keenly interested in mathematics and astronomy, he assembled around him the best astronomers of his day and compiled a new set of astronomical tables in which he sought to correct Ptolemy’s computations and which became famous in Europe. His rule, however, saw the growth of religious reaction led by a faction of the Naqshbandi order, as well as the encroachment of the nomadic Uzbeks. His death in 1449, at the hands of his son, Abd al-Latif, ushered in a new period of internecine struggles within the Timurid dynasty.
Ulugh Beg was assassinated in 1449 in Samarkand after a brief reign as ruler of Turkestan for three years. This catastrophe led to the neglect of the observatory and Samarkand slowly phased out as the leading center of astronomy. The observatory was eventually destroyed and its location was confirmed in 1908 by Russian archaeologists. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) named a surface feature of the moon after Ulugh Beg. It is the name of a prominent elliptical ring.
Under the brief rule of Ulugh Beg, the Timurid dynasty of Iran reached its cultural peak. His father, Shāh Rokh, captured the city of Samarkand and gave it to Ulūgh Beg, who made it a center of Muslim culture. There he wrote poetry and history and studied the Qurʾān. His greatest interest was astronomy, and he built an observatory (begun in 1428) at Samarkand. In his observations he discovered a number of errors in the computations of the 2nd-century Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, whose figures were still being used.
Ulūgh Beg was a failure in more mundane affairs. On his father’s death in 1447 he was unable to consolidate his power, though he was Shāh Rokh’s sole surviving son. Other Timurid princes profited from his lack of action, and he was put to death at the instigation of his son, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf.
Muhammad Turghay Ulugh Beg see Ulugh Beg
Muhammad Targai Ulugh Beg see Ulugh Beg
Ulug Beg see Ulugh Beg
Mīrzā Muhammad Tāriq bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Beg see Ulugh Beg
Ulugh Beg (Muhammad Turghay Ulugh Beg) (Muhammad Targai Ulugh Beg) (Ulug Beg)Ulugh Beg (Mīrzā Muhammad Tāriq bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Beg) (b. 1393/1394, Solṭānīyeh (Sultaniyeh), Timurid Iran (Persia) - d. October 27, 1449, Samarkand, Timurid empire [now in Uzbekistan]). Timurid ruler in Samarkand (r.1447-1449). A son of Shah Rukh Mirza, he became governor of a part of Khurasan and Mazandaran in 1407, and in 1408 of Turkestan. But he was first of all a man of letters, an artist and a poet. Being able to recite the Qur’an by heart according to all seven “readings,” he was also a great bibliophile and a learned mathematician, fond of poetry and history. He enriched Samarkand with superb buildings. Above all he was an astronomer, who built an observatory and invented new and powerful instruments for researches he carried out with other astronomers. He sought to correct Ptolemy’s computations, and compiled an astronomical almanac, known as “the new almanac of the sultan,” which became celebrated in Europe in the seventeenth century. Less happy in war and politics, he had to fight his son ‘Abd al-Latif, who in the end defeated his father and had him executed.
Ulugh Beg was a grandson of Timur (known in the West as Tamerlane), a Tartar prince and ruler of Turkestan. He was an exceptional astronomer and mathematician of the fifteenth century. Ulugh Beg was the son of the Timurid king Shah Rukh and was born in 1393 at Sultaniyya in Central Asia. He was a Hafiz -- someone who can recite the Qur’an by heart.
Ulugh Beg made Samarkand famous as one of the leading cities of Muslim civilization. In 1424, he constructed a madrasa, an institution of higher learning, where astronomy was taught. Later in 1428, Ulugh Beg began the construction of a magnificent three story observatory in Samarkand. It was more than two hundred fifty feet in diameter and one hundred twenty feet high. He appointed Ali-Kudsi, a Muslim astronomer as the director of the Observatory. Several well-known mathematicians and astronomers including al-Kashi and Kadizada worked there.
He equipped it with the best and most accurate astronomical instruments available then. The observatory included a Fakhri sextant (made of marble) which was used for determining the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, the point of the vernal equinox, the length of the tropical year, and other astronomical constants measured from observation of the sun. It also included a quadrant so large that part of the ground was removed to allow it to fit in the Observatory. Other instruments included a triquetram and an armillary sphere.
In 1437, Ulugh Beg published his most famous and enduring work, a new catalogue of stars entitled Zidj-i Djadid Sultani. In it, he revisited the positions and magnitudes of stars observed by Ptolemy. He found many errors in the computations of Ptolemy. It includes a diverse collection of observations and computations, the position of the fixed stars, the course of the stars, and the knowledge of time. An English translation of this work was published in 1917.
Ulugh Beg computed the length of the year as 365 years, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds, a fairly accurate value. In addition, he prepared Tables of Planetary Motions which were very popular and in demand throughout the astronomical community. Ulugh Beg studied the yearly movements of the five bright planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. His data is still considered very accurate. In 1437, Ulugh Beg also compiled a star catalog giving the positions of 992 stars. His compilation of tables of sines and tangents at one degree intervals are accurate to eight decimal places.
Ulugh Beg was a cultivated and scholarly man. His capital, Samarkand, became a great center of Islamic culture under his patronage. He embellished the city with numerous architectural monuments, among them a madrasa bearing his name and an astronomical observatory regarded by contemporaries as one of the wonders of the world. Keenly interested in mathematics and astronomy, he assembled around him the best astronomers of his day and compiled a new set of astronomical tables in which he sought to correct Ptolemy’s computations and which became famous in Europe. His rule, however, saw the growth of religious reaction led by a faction of the Naqshbandi order, as well as the encroachment of the nomadic Uzbeks. His death in 1449, at the hands of his son, Abd al-Latif, ushered in a new period of internecine struggles within the Timurid dynasty.
Ulugh Beg was assassinated in 1449 in Samarkand after a brief reign as ruler of Turkestan for three years. This catastrophe led to the neglect of the observatory and Samarkand slowly phased out as the leading center of astronomy. The observatory was eventually destroyed and its location was confirmed in 1908 by Russian archaeologists. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) named a surface feature of the moon after Ulugh Beg. It is the name of a prominent elliptical ring.
Under the brief rule of Ulugh Beg, the Timurid dynasty of Iran reached its cultural peak. His father, Shāh Rokh, captured the city of Samarkand and gave it to Ulūgh Beg, who made it a center of Muslim culture. There he wrote poetry and history and studied the Qurʾān. His greatest interest was astronomy, and he built an observatory (begun in 1428) at Samarkand. In his observations he discovered a number of errors in the computations of the 2nd-century Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, whose figures were still being used.
Ulūgh Beg was a failure in more mundane affairs. On his father’s death in 1447 he was unable to consolidate his power, though he was Shāh Rokh’s sole surviving son. Other Timurid princes profited from his lack of action, and he was put to death at the instigation of his son, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf.
Muhammad Turghay Ulugh Beg see Ulugh Beg
Muhammad Targai Ulugh Beg see Ulugh Beg
Ulug Beg see Ulugh Beg
Mīrzā Muhammad Tāriq bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Beg see Ulugh Beg
Uluj ‘Ali
Uluj ‘Ali (Ochialy) (Uluc Ali Reis) (Uluç Ali Paşa) (Kılıç Ali Paşa) (Occhiali) (Uchali) (Giovanni Dionigi Galeni) (1519 - June 21, 1587). Turkish corsair and admiral. Born in Calabria, he was captured and became a galley slave. Having converted to Islam, he was lieutenant to the Turkish admiral Turghud ‘Ali Pasha (d. 1565) during Charles V’s expedition against the island of Jerba, became Turghud’s successor as viceroy of Tripolis and later of Algiers. He took part in maritime expeditions against the Venetians and the Maltese, and commanded the left wing of the Ottoman fleet at the battle of Lepanto in 1571. He brought a part of the fleet safely back to Istanbul and became Grand Admiral until his death.
Uluj Ali was a Muslim corsair of Italian origin, who converted to Islam and later became an Ottoman admiral (Reis) and Chief Admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya) of the Ottoman Fleet in the 16th century.
He was also known by several other names in the Christian countries of the Mediterranean, and in the literature also appears under various names. He was often, especially in Italy, referred to as Occhiali, and Miguel de Cervantes called him Uchali in chapter XXXIX of his Don Quixote de la Mancha. Elsewhere he was simply called Ali Pasha. John Wolf, in his The Barbary Coast, refers to him as Euldj Ali.
Uluj Ali was born as Giovanni Dionigi Galeni, the son of seaman Birno Galeni and his wife Pippa de Cicco, in the village of Le Castella (near modern Isola Capo Rizzuto) in Calabria, Southern Italy. His father wanted him to receive a religious education, but on April 29, 1536, Giovanni was captured by Ali Ahmed, one of the corsair captains of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, and was forced to serve as a galley slave. After several years, he converted to Islam and joined the corsairs. This was by no means unusual. Many Muslim corsairs in this period were converts from Christian lands.
Uluj Ali was a very able mariner and soon rose in the ranks, gaining sufficient prize booty to buy a share in a corsair brigantine sailing out of Algiers. Further success soon enabled him to become the captain and owner of a galley, and he gained a reputation as one of the boldest corsair reis on the Barbary Coast. He joined Turgut Reis, who was then the most feared corsair in the Mediterranean as well as an Ottoman admiral and Bey of Tripoli. Sailing with Turgut Reis, he also impressed the Ottoman admiral Piyale Pasha, with whom Turgut joined forces on a number of occasions. Due to his success in battles, the administration of the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea was awarded to him in 1550. In 1565 he was promoted to the rank of Beylerbey (Chief Governor) of Alexandria. The same year he joined the Siege of Malta with the Ottoman Egyptian fleet, and when Turgut Reis was killed during the siege, Piyale Pasha appointed Uluj Ali to become Turgut's successor as Bey of Tripoli. Uluj took Turgut's body to Tripoli for burial, assumed control of the province, and was subsequently confirmed as Pasha of Tripoli by Sultan Suleiman I. In the following years, he conducted numerous raids on the coasts of Sicily, Calabria and Naples.
In March 1568, the vice-regency of Algiers fell vacant, and upon the recommendation of Piyale Pasha, Sultan Selim II appointed Uluj Ali to become the Pasha and Beylerbey of Algiers, the most powerful of the increasingly semi-independent corsair states in North Africa. In October 1569 he turned upon the Hafsid Sultan Hamid of Tunis, who had been restored to his throne by Spain. Marching overland with an army of some 5000, he quickly sent Hamid and his forces fleeing and made himself ruler of Tunis. Hamid found refuge in the Spanish fort at La Goulette outside Tunis.
In July 1570, while ostensibly en route to Istanbul to ask the Sultan for more ships and men in order to evict the Spaniards from all of North Africa, Uluj Ali encountered five Maltese galleys, commanded by Francisco de Sant Clement, then the captain-general of the Order's galleys, near Cape Passaro in Sicily and captured four of them. (Sant Clement escaped, but on returning to Malta was condemned, strangled and his body put in a sack and dumped into the harbor.) This victory caused Uluj to change his mind and return to Algiers in order to celebrate. There, in early 1571, he was faced with a mutiny of the janissaries who demanded overdue pay. He decided to put to sea, leaving the mutinous soldiers to take their pay from anyone they could find and rob. Having learned of the presence of a large Turkish fleet at Coron in the Morea, he decided to join it. It was the fleet commanded by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha that was to meet disaster at Lepanto a few months later.
On October 7, 1571, Uluj Ali commanded the left flank of Ali Pasha's fleet in the Battle of Lepanto. He kept his squadron together in the melee, outmaneuvered his direct opponent, Gian Andrea Doria, and captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights with its great banner. When the Turkish defeat became obvious, he succeeded in extricating his ships, and gathered up the scattered remaining ships of the Ottoman fleet (some forty galleys and fustas) and others along the way to Istanbul, where he arrived with 87 vessels. There he presented the great flag of the Maltese Knights to the Sultan who gave him the honorary title of Kılıç (Sword) and on October 29, 1571 appointed him as Kaptan-ı Derya (Chief Admiral) and Beylerbey of the Isles. He was subsequently known as Kilic Ali Pasha (Turkish: Kılıç Ali Paşa).
Piyale Pasha and Kilic Ali Pasha almost immediately began to rebuild the Ottoman fleet. Kilic Ali placed special emphasis on the construction of a number of heavier ships modeled upon the Venetian galleasses, heavier artillery for the galleys, and firearms for the soldiers on board. In June 1572, now Chief Admiral, he set out with 250 galleys and a large number of smaller ships to seek revenge for Lepanto. He found the Christian fleet anchored in an inlet of Morea, but his strategy of trying to lure the enemy out and inflicting damage through repeated quick thrusts meant that a full-fledged battle never materialized, because the Christian fleet was too cautious to be trapped and encircled.
In 1573 Kilic Ali Pasha commanded the naval campaign on the coasts of Italy. In that same year, the regency of Algiers was transferred to Arab Ahmed, and Don Juan of Austria, the victor of Lepanto, recaptured Tunis. In 1574 Kilic Ali sailed to Tunis with a fleet of 250 galleys and a large army under the command of Cigalazade Sinan Pasha, captured the port fortress of La Goleta on August 25 and city of Tunis on September 13. He then proceeded to Morocco and on July 26, 1574 constructed a Turkish castle on the coastline facing Spain. In 1576 he raided Calabria and in 1578 put down another mutiny of the janissaries at Algiers who had assassinated Arab Ahmed. In 1584 he commanded a naval expedition to Crimea. In 1585 he put down revolts in Syria and Lebanon with the Ottoman Egyptian fleet based in Alexandria.
Kilic Ali Pasha died on June 21, 1587 in Istanbul. He is buried at the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque (1580), designed by the architect Mimar Sinan.
Part of the legacy of Ulij Ali (Kilic Ali Pasa) include:
* Construction of the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque (1580) and Baths (1583) in Istanbul.
* Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy being named after him.
* A statue in the center square of Le Castella in Calabria, Italy, where he was born.
Ochialy see Uluj ‘Ali
Uluc Ali Reis see Uluj ‘Ali
Uluc Ali Pasa see Uluj ‘Ali
Kilic Ali Pasa see Uluj ‘Ali
Giovanni Dionigi Galeni see Uluj ‘Ali
Galeni, Giovanni Dionigi see Uluj ‘Ali
Uluj ‘Ali (Ochialy) (Uluc Ali Reis) (Uluç Ali Paşa) (Kılıç Ali Paşa) (Occhiali) (Uchali) (Giovanni Dionigi Galeni) (1519 - June 21, 1587). Turkish corsair and admiral. Born in Calabria, he was captured and became a galley slave. Having converted to Islam, he was lieutenant to the Turkish admiral Turghud ‘Ali Pasha (d. 1565) during Charles V’s expedition against the island of Jerba, became Turghud’s successor as viceroy of Tripolis and later of Algiers. He took part in maritime expeditions against the Venetians and the Maltese, and commanded the left wing of the Ottoman fleet at the battle of Lepanto in 1571. He brought a part of the fleet safely back to Istanbul and became Grand Admiral until his death.
Uluj Ali was a Muslim corsair of Italian origin, who converted to Islam and later became an Ottoman admiral (Reis) and Chief Admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya) of the Ottoman Fleet in the 16th century.
He was also known by several other names in the Christian countries of the Mediterranean, and in the literature also appears under various names. He was often, especially in Italy, referred to as Occhiali, and Miguel de Cervantes called him Uchali in chapter XXXIX of his Don Quixote de la Mancha. Elsewhere he was simply called Ali Pasha. John Wolf, in his The Barbary Coast, refers to him as Euldj Ali.
Uluj Ali was born as Giovanni Dionigi Galeni, the son of seaman Birno Galeni and his wife Pippa de Cicco, in the village of Le Castella (near modern Isola Capo Rizzuto) in Calabria, Southern Italy. His father wanted him to receive a religious education, but on April 29, 1536, Giovanni was captured by Ali Ahmed, one of the corsair captains of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, and was forced to serve as a galley slave. After several years, he converted to Islam and joined the corsairs. This was by no means unusual. Many Muslim corsairs in this period were converts from Christian lands.
Uluj Ali was a very able mariner and soon rose in the ranks, gaining sufficient prize booty to buy a share in a corsair brigantine sailing out of Algiers. Further success soon enabled him to become the captain and owner of a galley, and he gained a reputation as one of the boldest corsair reis on the Barbary Coast. He joined Turgut Reis, who was then the most feared corsair in the Mediterranean as well as an Ottoman admiral and Bey of Tripoli. Sailing with Turgut Reis, he also impressed the Ottoman admiral Piyale Pasha, with whom Turgut joined forces on a number of occasions. Due to his success in battles, the administration of the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea was awarded to him in 1550. In 1565 he was promoted to the rank of Beylerbey (Chief Governor) of Alexandria. The same year he joined the Siege of Malta with the Ottoman Egyptian fleet, and when Turgut Reis was killed during the siege, Piyale Pasha appointed Uluj Ali to become Turgut's successor as Bey of Tripoli. Uluj took Turgut's body to Tripoli for burial, assumed control of the province, and was subsequently confirmed as Pasha of Tripoli by Sultan Suleiman I. In the following years, he conducted numerous raids on the coasts of Sicily, Calabria and Naples.
In March 1568, the vice-regency of Algiers fell vacant, and upon the recommendation of Piyale Pasha, Sultan Selim II appointed Uluj Ali to become the Pasha and Beylerbey of Algiers, the most powerful of the increasingly semi-independent corsair states in North Africa. In October 1569 he turned upon the Hafsid Sultan Hamid of Tunis, who had been restored to his throne by Spain. Marching overland with an army of some 5000, he quickly sent Hamid and his forces fleeing and made himself ruler of Tunis. Hamid found refuge in the Spanish fort at La Goulette outside Tunis.
In July 1570, while ostensibly en route to Istanbul to ask the Sultan for more ships and men in order to evict the Spaniards from all of North Africa, Uluj Ali encountered five Maltese galleys, commanded by Francisco de Sant Clement, then the captain-general of the Order's galleys, near Cape Passaro in Sicily and captured four of them. (Sant Clement escaped, but on returning to Malta was condemned, strangled and his body put in a sack and dumped into the harbor.) This victory caused Uluj to change his mind and return to Algiers in order to celebrate. There, in early 1571, he was faced with a mutiny of the janissaries who demanded overdue pay. He decided to put to sea, leaving the mutinous soldiers to take their pay from anyone they could find and rob. Having learned of the presence of a large Turkish fleet at Coron in the Morea, he decided to join it. It was the fleet commanded by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha that was to meet disaster at Lepanto a few months later.
On October 7, 1571, Uluj Ali commanded the left flank of Ali Pasha's fleet in the Battle of Lepanto. He kept his squadron together in the melee, outmaneuvered his direct opponent, Gian Andrea Doria, and captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights with its great banner. When the Turkish defeat became obvious, he succeeded in extricating his ships, and gathered up the scattered remaining ships of the Ottoman fleet (some forty galleys and fustas) and others along the way to Istanbul, where he arrived with 87 vessels. There he presented the great flag of the Maltese Knights to the Sultan who gave him the honorary title of Kılıç (Sword) and on October 29, 1571 appointed him as Kaptan-ı Derya (Chief Admiral) and Beylerbey of the Isles. He was subsequently known as Kilic Ali Pasha (Turkish: Kılıç Ali Paşa).
Piyale Pasha and Kilic Ali Pasha almost immediately began to rebuild the Ottoman fleet. Kilic Ali placed special emphasis on the construction of a number of heavier ships modeled upon the Venetian galleasses, heavier artillery for the galleys, and firearms for the soldiers on board. In June 1572, now Chief Admiral, he set out with 250 galleys and a large number of smaller ships to seek revenge for Lepanto. He found the Christian fleet anchored in an inlet of Morea, but his strategy of trying to lure the enemy out and inflicting damage through repeated quick thrusts meant that a full-fledged battle never materialized, because the Christian fleet was too cautious to be trapped and encircled.
In 1573 Kilic Ali Pasha commanded the naval campaign on the coasts of Italy. In that same year, the regency of Algiers was transferred to Arab Ahmed, and Don Juan of Austria, the victor of Lepanto, recaptured Tunis. In 1574 Kilic Ali sailed to Tunis with a fleet of 250 galleys and a large army under the command of Cigalazade Sinan Pasha, captured the port fortress of La Goleta on August 25 and city of Tunis on September 13. He then proceeded to Morocco and on July 26, 1574 constructed a Turkish castle on the coastline facing Spain. In 1576 he raided Calabria and in 1578 put down another mutiny of the janissaries at Algiers who had assassinated Arab Ahmed. In 1584 he commanded a naval expedition to Crimea. In 1585 he put down revolts in Syria and Lebanon with the Ottoman Egyptian fleet based in Alexandria.
Kilic Ali Pasha died on June 21, 1587 in Istanbul. He is buried at the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque (1580), designed by the architect Mimar Sinan.
Part of the legacy of Ulij Ali (Kilic Ali Pasa) include:
* Construction of the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque (1580) and Baths (1583) in Istanbul.
* Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy being named after him.
* A statue in the center square of Le Castella in Calabria, Italy, where he was born.
Ochialy see Uluj ‘Ali
Uluc Ali Reis see Uluj ‘Ali
Uluc Ali Pasa see Uluj ‘Ali
Kilic Ali Pasa see Uluj ‘Ali
Giovanni Dionigi Galeni see Uluj ‘Ali
Galeni, Giovanni Dionigi see Uluj ‘Ali
Umara
Umara. Plural of amir (“noble”), a term used for the governing class of the two main political entities of medieval India, the Delhi sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The character and composition of the nobility changed over time, in response either to political pressures or to the personal predilections of rulers. The early Turkish sultans recruited the umara mainly from the Turks, and Iltutmish consolidated them into “forty families.” The Khaljis, however, admitted non-Turks and Muslim converts to the nobility. Under Muhammad bin Tughluq scions of religious families and Alai nobles, converts, Afghans, and Hindus were inducted into the nobility. The land assignments (iqta) held by the nobles during the sultanate period were more in the nature of a bureaucratic institution than a feudal fief.
With the advent of the Mughals, the nobility underwent further changes. Akbar organized the nobles on the basis of mansab (rank), which determined their status, fixed their pay, and laid a concomitant duty of maintaining a certain number of troopers and horses. All mansabdars were directly subordinate to the emperoro. The mansab was represented by two numbers; one indicated zat (personal pay) and the other sawar (cavalry). Toward the end of Akbar’s reign zat was used to designate a mansabdar’s position in the official hierarchy and helped to determine his pay. The sawar rank indicated the number of troopers the mansabdar was required to maintain. During Akbar’s time mansabdars having commands of two hundred or more were entitled to be called umara. Under Shah Jahan, the limit was raised to five hundred.
The Mughal nobility was composed of Turks, Persians, Afghans, Rajputs, and other native born Indians. Under Akbar, Rajputs gained in importance. During the later Mughal period Iranis and Turanis became the two main groupings, and during the eighteenth century the two were in constant conflict.
The Mughal nobility was not hereditary, but the sons of deceased nobles were often taken into service. The law of escheat operated and hence the property of the nobles could be confiscated on death.
Umara. Plural of amir (“noble”), a term used for the governing class of the two main political entities of medieval India, the Delhi sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The character and composition of the nobility changed over time, in response either to political pressures or to the personal predilections of rulers. The early Turkish sultans recruited the umara mainly from the Turks, and Iltutmish consolidated them into “forty families.” The Khaljis, however, admitted non-Turks and Muslim converts to the nobility. Under Muhammad bin Tughluq scions of religious families and Alai nobles, converts, Afghans, and Hindus were inducted into the nobility. The land assignments (iqta) held by the nobles during the sultanate period were more in the nature of a bureaucratic institution than a feudal fief.
With the advent of the Mughals, the nobility underwent further changes. Akbar organized the nobles on the basis of mansab (rank), which determined their status, fixed their pay, and laid a concomitant duty of maintaining a certain number of troopers and horses. All mansabdars were directly subordinate to the emperoro. The mansab was represented by two numbers; one indicated zat (personal pay) and the other sawar (cavalry). Toward the end of Akbar’s reign zat was used to designate a mansabdar’s position in the official hierarchy and helped to determine his pay. The sawar rank indicated the number of troopers the mansabdar was required to maintain. During Akbar’s time mansabdars having commands of two hundred or more were entitled to be called umara. Under Shah Jahan, the limit was raised to five hundred.
The Mughal nobility was composed of Turks, Persians, Afghans, Rajputs, and other native born Indians. Under Akbar, Rajputs gained in importance. During the later Mughal period Iranis and Turanis became the two main groupings, and during the eighteenth century the two were in constant conflict.
The Mughal nobility was not hereditary, but the sons of deceased nobles were often taken into service. The law of escheat operated and hence the property of the nobles could be confiscated on death.
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan (1121-1174). Arab man of letters from Yemen. He studied and taught at Zabid, and was engaged in trade, which brought him in contact with the Najahids. After 1157, he settled in Egypt, where he dedicated his poems to the autocratic viziers Tala’i’ ibn Ruzzik, Ruzzik ibn Tala’i’, Dirgham (d. 1164) and Shirkuh. His sympathies inclined to the Fatimids, for whom he wrote a qasida of lament. He took part in a conspiracy to restore them, and as a result was put to death by Saladin. He wrote a history of the Egyptian viziers, and one of Yemen.
‘Umara ibn Abi’l-Hasan (1121-1174). Arab man of letters from Yemen. He studied and taught at Zabid, and was engaged in trade, which brought him in contact with the Najahids. After 1157, he settled in Egypt, where he dedicated his poems to the autocratic viziers Tala’i’ ibn Ruzzik, Ruzzik ibn Tala’i’, Dirgham (d. 1164) and Shirkuh. His sympathies inclined to the Fatimids, for whom he wrote a qasida of lament. He took part in a conspiracy to restore them, and as a result was put to death by Saladin. He wrote a history of the Egyptian viziers, and one of Yemen.
‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan (Umar ibn Abdul Aziz) (Umar II) (November 2, 682 - February, 720). Umayyad caliph (r. 717-720). In 706, he became governor of the Hejaz and settled at Medina where he formed an advisory council. He became famous for his piety and frugality, feeling no obligation to spread Islam by the sword. He preferred peaceful missionary activity, which method proved successful among the Berbers and in Sind. He adopted a kindly attitude towards the ‘Alids, the Christians, the Jews and the Zoroastrians, and reduced discrimination against non-Arab converts to Islam. His most important measure was the reform of taxation. The ever-increasing conversion to Islam of non-Arabs led to more and more subjects being exempt from taxation. Furthermore, agriculture suffered to a great extent as a result of many converts settling in the cities. Al-Hajjaj therefore had imposed the land-tax (in Arabic, kharaj) also upon Muslim landowners and prohibited immigration to the cities. ‘Umar, however, adhered to the principle that Muslims should pay no tribute and propounded that conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and could not be transformed into immune private property by sale to individual Muslims. In 718, he forbade Muslims to buy land which should pay tribute and permitted immigration of new converts into the cities. In course of time a whole cycle of pious legends gathered round his name. Even the historians of the ‘Abbasid period give him the highest praise, and his tomb at Dayr Sam‘an near Aleppo was left undisturbed after the ‘Abbasid triumph.
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 717 to 720. He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a great-grandson of the companion of the Prophet Muhammad, Umar ibn Al-Khattab.
Umar was born around 682. Some traditions state that he was born in Medina while others claim that he was born in Egypt.
According to a Sunni Muslim tradition, Umar's lineage to Umar ibn al-Khattab stems from a famous event during the second Caliph's rule. During one of his frequent disguised journeys to survey the condition of his people, Umar overheard a milkmaid refusing to obey her mother's orders to sell adulterated milk. He sent an officer to purchase milk from the girl the next day and learned that she had kept her resolve; the milk was unadulterated. Umar summoned the girl and her mother to his court and told them what he had heard. As a reward, he offered to marry the girl to his son Asim. She accepted, and from this union was born a girl named Layla that would in due course become the mother of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.
Umar would grow up in Medina and live there until the death of his father, after which he was summoned to Damascus by Abd al-Malik and married to his daughter Fatima. His father-in-law would die soon after, and he would serve as governor of Medina under his cousin Al-Walid I.
Unlike most rulers of that era, Umar formed a council with which he administered the province. His time in Medina was so notable that official grievances sent to Damascus all but ceased. In addition, many people emigrated to Medina from Iraq seeking refuge from their harsh governor, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. This angered Al-Hajjaj, and he pressed al-Walid to remove Umar. Much to the dismay of the people of Medina, al-Walid bowed to Hajjaj's pressure and dismissed Umar from his post. However, by this time, Umar had developed an impeccable reputation across the Islamic empire.
Umar continued to live in Medina through the remainder of al-Walid's reign and that of Walid's brother Suleiman. Suleiman, who was Umar's cousin and had always admired him, ignored his own brothers and son when it came time to appoint his successor and instead nominated Umar. Umar reluctantly accepted the position after trying unsuccessfully to dissuade Suleiman, and he approached it unlike any other Ummayad caliph before him.
Umar was extremely pious and disdainful of worldly luxuries. He preferred simplicity to the extravagance that had become a hallmark of the Umayyad lifestyle, depositing all assets and finery meant for the caliph into the public treasury. He abandoned the caliphate palace to the family of Suleiman and instead preferred to live in modest dwellings. He wore rough linens instead of royal robes, and often went unrecognized.
According to a Muslim tradition, a female visitor once came to Umar's house seeking charity and saw a raggedly-dressed man patching holes in the building's walls. Assuming that the man was a servant of the caliph, she asked Umar's wife, "Don't you fear God? Why don't you veil in the presence of this man?" The woman was shocked to learn that the "servant" was in fact the caliph himself.
Though he had the people's overwhelming support, he publicly encouraged them to elect someone else if they were not satisfied with him (an offer no one ever took him up on). Umar confiscated the estates seized by Ummayad officials and redistributed them to the people, while making it a personal goal to attend to the needs of every person in his empire. Fearful of being tempted into bribery, he rarely accepted gifts, and when he did; he promptly deposited them in the public treasury. He even encouraged his own wife—who had been daughter, sister and wife to three caliphs in their turn—to donate her jewelry to the public treasury. He is widely known for reinforcing the Zakat and according to Muslim tradition, at the end of his rule, there were scarcely any poor people to receive the charity money.
At one point Umar almost ordered the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus to be stripped of its precious stones and expensive fixtures in favor of the treasury, but he desisted on learning that the Mosque was a source of envy to his Byzantine rivals in Constantinople. These moves made him unpopular with the Umayyad court, but endeared him to the masses, so much so that the court could not move against him in the open.
Umar made a number of important religious reforms. According to both Sunni and Shi'i sources, he abolished the long-standing Umayyad and Khawaarij custom of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, at the end of Friday sermons and ordered the following Qu'ranic verse be recited instead:
- Surely God enjoins justice, doing of good and giving to kinsfolk.
In addition, Umar was keen to enforce the Sharia, pushing to end drinking and bathhouses where men and women would mix freely. He continued the welfare programs of the last few Umayyad caliphs, expanding them and including special programs for orphans and the destitute. He would also abolish the Jizya tax for converts to Islam, who were former dhimmis, who used to be taxed even after they had converted under other Umayyad rulers.
Generally, Umar II is credited with having ordered the first collection of hadith material in an official manner, fearing that some of it might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, are among those who compiled hadiths at `Umar II’s behest.
Though Umar did not place as much of an emphasis on expanding the Empire's borders as his predecessors had, he was not passive. He sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man to repel Turks invading Azerbaijan. He faced a Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople. These were led by his cousin Maslama. This Second Arab siege of Constantinople had failed to take the city and was sustaining heavy losses at the hands of allied Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. Its defeat was a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.
Umar's reforms in favor of the people greatly angered the nobility of the Umayyads, and they would eventually bribe a servant into poisoning his food. Umar learned of this on his death bed and pardoned the culprit, collecting the punitive payments he was entitled to under Islamic Law but depositing them in the public treasury. He died in February, 720, in Aleppo. He was succeeded by his cousin Yazid II.
Although Umar's reign was very short (three years), he is very highly regarded in Muslim memory. He is considered one of the finest rulers in Muslim history, second only to the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. In fact, in some circles, he is affectionately referred to as the Fifth and the last Rightly Guided Caliph.
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
Umar II see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan (Umar ibn Abdul Aziz) (Umar II) (November 2, 682 - February, 720). Umayyad caliph (r. 717-720). In 706, he became governor of the Hejaz and settled at Medina where he formed an advisory council. He became famous for his piety and frugality, feeling no obligation to spread Islam by the sword. He preferred peaceful missionary activity, which method proved successful among the Berbers and in Sind. He adopted a kindly attitude towards the ‘Alids, the Christians, the Jews and the Zoroastrians, and reduced discrimination against non-Arab converts to Islam. His most important measure was the reform of taxation. The ever-increasing conversion to Islam of non-Arabs led to more and more subjects being exempt from taxation. Furthermore, agriculture suffered to a great extent as a result of many converts settling in the cities. Al-Hajjaj therefore had imposed the land-tax (in Arabic, kharaj) also upon Muslim landowners and prohibited immigration to the cities. ‘Umar, however, adhered to the principle that Muslims should pay no tribute and propounded that conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and conquered land was the common property of the Muslim community and could not be transformed into immune private property by sale to individual Muslims. In 718, he forbade Muslims to buy land which should pay tribute and permitted immigration of new converts into the cities. In course of time a whole cycle of pious legends gathered round his name. Even the historians of the ‘Abbasid period give him the highest praise, and his tomb at Dayr Sam‘an near Aleppo was left undisturbed after the ‘Abbasid triumph.
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 717 to 720. He was also a cousin of the former caliph, being the son of Abd al-Malik's younger brother, Abd al-Aziz. He was also a great-grandson of the companion of the Prophet Muhammad, Umar ibn Al-Khattab.
Umar was born around 682. Some traditions state that he was born in Medina while others claim that he was born in Egypt.
According to a Sunni Muslim tradition, Umar's lineage to Umar ibn al-Khattab stems from a famous event during the second Caliph's rule. During one of his frequent disguised journeys to survey the condition of his people, Umar overheard a milkmaid refusing to obey her mother's orders to sell adulterated milk. He sent an officer to purchase milk from the girl the next day and learned that she had kept her resolve; the milk was unadulterated. Umar summoned the girl and her mother to his court and told them what he had heard. As a reward, he offered to marry the girl to his son Asim. She accepted, and from this union was born a girl named Layla that would in due course become the mother of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.
Umar would grow up in Medina and live there until the death of his father, after which he was summoned to Damascus by Abd al-Malik and married to his daughter Fatima. His father-in-law would die soon after, and he would serve as governor of Medina under his cousin Al-Walid I.
Unlike most rulers of that era, Umar formed a council with which he administered the province. His time in Medina was so notable that official grievances sent to Damascus all but ceased. In addition, many people emigrated to Medina from Iraq seeking refuge from their harsh governor, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. This angered Al-Hajjaj, and he pressed al-Walid to remove Umar. Much to the dismay of the people of Medina, al-Walid bowed to Hajjaj's pressure and dismissed Umar from his post. However, by this time, Umar had developed an impeccable reputation across the Islamic empire.
Umar continued to live in Medina through the remainder of al-Walid's reign and that of Walid's brother Suleiman. Suleiman, who was Umar's cousin and had always admired him, ignored his own brothers and son when it came time to appoint his successor and instead nominated Umar. Umar reluctantly accepted the position after trying unsuccessfully to dissuade Suleiman, and he approached it unlike any other Ummayad caliph before him.
Umar was extremely pious and disdainful of worldly luxuries. He preferred simplicity to the extravagance that had become a hallmark of the Umayyad lifestyle, depositing all assets and finery meant for the caliph into the public treasury. He abandoned the caliphate palace to the family of Suleiman and instead preferred to live in modest dwellings. He wore rough linens instead of royal robes, and often went unrecognized.
According to a Muslim tradition, a female visitor once came to Umar's house seeking charity and saw a raggedly-dressed man patching holes in the building's walls. Assuming that the man was a servant of the caliph, she asked Umar's wife, "Don't you fear God? Why don't you veil in the presence of this man?" The woman was shocked to learn that the "servant" was in fact the caliph himself.
Though he had the people's overwhelming support, he publicly encouraged them to elect someone else if they were not satisfied with him (an offer no one ever took him up on). Umar confiscated the estates seized by Ummayad officials and redistributed them to the people, while making it a personal goal to attend to the needs of every person in his empire. Fearful of being tempted into bribery, he rarely accepted gifts, and when he did; he promptly deposited them in the public treasury. He even encouraged his own wife—who had been daughter, sister and wife to three caliphs in their turn—to donate her jewelry to the public treasury. He is widely known for reinforcing the Zakat and according to Muslim tradition, at the end of his rule, there were scarcely any poor people to receive the charity money.
At one point Umar almost ordered the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus to be stripped of its precious stones and expensive fixtures in favor of the treasury, but he desisted on learning that the Mosque was a source of envy to his Byzantine rivals in Constantinople. These moves made him unpopular with the Umayyad court, but endeared him to the masses, so much so that the court could not move against him in the open.
Umar made a number of important religious reforms. According to both Sunni and Shi'i sources, he abolished the long-standing Umayyad and Khawaarij custom of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, at the end of Friday sermons and ordered the following Qu'ranic verse be recited instead:
- Surely God enjoins justice, doing of good and giving to kinsfolk.
In addition, Umar was keen to enforce the Sharia, pushing to end drinking and bathhouses where men and women would mix freely. He continued the welfare programs of the last few Umayyad caliphs, expanding them and including special programs for orphans and the destitute. He would also abolish the Jizya tax for converts to Islam, who were former dhimmis, who used to be taxed even after they had converted under other Umayyad rulers.
Generally, Umar II is credited with having ordered the first collection of hadith material in an official manner, fearing that some of it might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, are among those who compiled hadiths at `Umar II’s behest.
Though Umar did not place as much of an emphasis on expanding the Empire's borders as his predecessors had, he was not passive. He sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man to repel Turks invading Azerbaijan. He faced a Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople. These were led by his cousin Maslama. This Second Arab siege of Constantinople had failed to take the city and was sustaining heavy losses at the hands of allied Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. Its defeat was a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.
Umar's reforms in favor of the people greatly angered the nobility of the Umayyads, and they would eventually bribe a servant into poisoning his food. Umar learned of this on his death bed and pardoned the culprit, collecting the punitive payments he was entitled to under Islamic Law but depositing them in the public treasury. He died in February, 720, in Aleppo. He was succeeded by his cousin Yazid II.
Although Umar's reign was very short (three years), he is very highly regarded in Muslim memory. He is considered one of the finest rulers in Muslim history, second only to the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. In fact, in some circles, he is affectionately referred to as the Fifth and the last Rightly Guided Caliph.
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
Umar II see ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan
‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a (Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah) ('Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi) ('Umar ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi) (November, 644, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] - 712/719, Mecca). Greatest love poet of the Arabs. He was from a wealthy family in Mecca, and served for a time as governor in Yemen. He was the first townsman poet in Arabic.
'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi is known for his love poetry and for being one of the originators of the literary form ghazel in Islamic literature.
ʿUmar belonged to the wealthy merchant family of Makhzūm, a member of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh (of which the Prophet Muhammad was also a member). He spent most of his life in Mecca, also traveling to southern Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Little is known about his life, for the numerous anecdotes related about him are manifestly literary fabrications. The internal evidence of his poetry, however, gives a valuable picture of the social life of the Meccan and Medinan aristocracy of his time.
His poetry centers on his own life and emotions, eschewing the traditional themes of journeys, battles, and tribal lore, and celebrates his love affairs with the noble Arab ladies who came to Mecca on pilgrimage. Although this genre had been sporadically practiced before his time, ʿUmar ibn Abī Rabīʿah was the first to perfect it with a light meter and an accurate emotional perception.
Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
'Umar ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a (Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah) ('Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi) ('Umar ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi) (November, 644, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] - 712/719, Mecca). Greatest love poet of the Arabs. He was from a wealthy family in Mecca, and served for a time as governor in Yemen. He was the first townsman poet in Arabic.
'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi is known for his love poetry and for being one of the originators of the literary form ghazel in Islamic literature.
ʿUmar belonged to the wealthy merchant family of Makhzūm, a member of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh (of which the Prophet Muhammad was also a member). He spent most of his life in Mecca, also traveling to southern Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Little is known about his life, for the numerous anecdotes related about him are manifestly literary fabrications. The internal evidence of his poetry, however, gives a valuable picture of the social life of the Meccan and Medinan aristocracy of his time.
His poetry centers on his own life and emotions, eschewing the traditional themes of journeys, battles, and tribal lore, and celebrates his love affairs with the noble Arab ladies who came to Mecca on pilgrimage. Although this genre had been sporadically practiced before his time, ʿUmar ibn Abī Rabīʿah was the first to perfect it with a light meter and an accurate emotional perception.
Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
'Umar ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Abi Rabi'ah al-Makhzumi see ‘Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a
‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri (Ibn al-Farid) (Ibn Farid) (Sharaf al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar ibn al-Fāriḍ)
( b. March 22, 1181/March 11, 1182, Cairo - 1234/January 23, 1235, Cairo). Sufi poet. The outer and inner meanings of his poems are so interwoven that they may be read as love poems or as mystical hymns. But the collection of his works also contains two purely mystical odes, one on divine love, the other on “the Pilgrim’s Progress.”
Ibn al-Farid was born in Cairo. He lived for some time in Mecca and died in Cairo. His poetry is entirely Sufic, and he was esteemed the greatest mystic poet of the Arabs. Some of his poems are said to have been written in ecstasies.
Son of a Syrian-born inheritance-law functionary, Ibn al-Fāriḍ studied for a legal career but abandoned law for a solitary religious life in the Muqaṭṭam hills near Cairo. He spent some years in or near Mecca, where he met the renowned Sufi al-Suhrawardī of Baghdad. Venerated as a saint during his lifetime, Ibn al-Fāriḍ was buried in the Muqaṭṭam hills, where his tomb is still visited.
Many of Ibn al-Fāriḍ’s poems are qaṣīdah (“odes”) on the lover’s longing for reunion with his beloved. He expresses through this convention his yearning for a return to Mecca and, at a deeper level, a desire to be assimilated into the spirit of Muhammad. He developed this theme at length in Naẓm as-sulūk (The Poem of the Way). Almost equally famous is his “Khamrīyah” (“Wine Ode”). This long qaṣīdah describes the effects of the wine of divine love. Although Ibn al-Fāriḍ’s poetry is mannered in style, with rhetorical embellishments and conventional imagery, his poems contain passages of striking beauty and deep religious feeling.
The poetry of Shaykh Umar Ibn al-Farid is considered by many to be the pinnacle of Arabic mystical verse, though surprisingly he is not widely known in the West. (Rumi and Hafiz, probably the best known in the West of the great Sufi poets, both wrote primarily in Persian, not Arabic.) Ibn al-Farid's two masterpieces are The Wine Ode, a beautiful meditation on the "wine" of divine bliss, and The Poem of the Sufi Way, a profound exploration of spiritual experience along the Sufi Path and perhaps the longest mystical poem composed in Arabic. Both poems have inspired in-depth spiritual commentaries throughout the centuries, and they are still reverently memorized by Sufis and other devout Muslims today.
Ibn al-Farid see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
Ibn Farid see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
Sharaf al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar ibn al-Fāriḍ see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri (Ibn al-Farid) (Ibn Farid) (Sharaf al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar ibn al-Fāriḍ)
( b. March 22, 1181/March 11, 1182, Cairo - 1234/January 23, 1235, Cairo). Sufi poet. The outer and inner meanings of his poems are so interwoven that they may be read as love poems or as mystical hymns. But the collection of his works also contains two purely mystical odes, one on divine love, the other on “the Pilgrim’s Progress.”
Ibn al-Farid was born in Cairo. He lived for some time in Mecca and died in Cairo. His poetry is entirely Sufic, and he was esteemed the greatest mystic poet of the Arabs. Some of his poems are said to have been written in ecstasies.
Son of a Syrian-born inheritance-law functionary, Ibn al-Fāriḍ studied for a legal career but abandoned law for a solitary religious life in the Muqaṭṭam hills near Cairo. He spent some years in or near Mecca, where he met the renowned Sufi al-Suhrawardī of Baghdad. Venerated as a saint during his lifetime, Ibn al-Fāriḍ was buried in the Muqaṭṭam hills, where his tomb is still visited.
Many of Ibn al-Fāriḍ’s poems are qaṣīdah (“odes”) on the lover’s longing for reunion with his beloved. He expresses through this convention his yearning for a return to Mecca and, at a deeper level, a desire to be assimilated into the spirit of Muhammad. He developed this theme at length in Naẓm as-sulūk (The Poem of the Way). Almost equally famous is his “Khamrīyah” (“Wine Ode”). This long qaṣīdah describes the effects of the wine of divine love. Although Ibn al-Fāriḍ’s poetry is mannered in style, with rhetorical embellishments and conventional imagery, his poems contain passages of striking beauty and deep religious feeling.
The poetry of Shaykh Umar Ibn al-Farid is considered by many to be the pinnacle of Arabic mystical verse, though surprisingly he is not widely known in the West. (Rumi and Hafiz, probably the best known in the West of the great Sufi poets, both wrote primarily in Persian, not Arabic.) Ibn al-Farid's two masterpieces are The Wine Ode, a beautiful meditation on the "wine" of divine bliss, and The Poem of the Sufi Way, a profound exploration of spiritual experience along the Sufi Path and perhaps the longest mystical poem composed in Arabic. Both poems have inspired in-depth spiritual commentaries throughout the centuries, and they are still reverently memorized by Sufis and other devout Muslims today.
Ibn al-Farid see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
Ibn Farid see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
Sharaf al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar ibn al-Fāriḍ see ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Misri
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab ('Umar I) (Omar) (Umar the Great) (Farooq the Great) (b.c. 586-592, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] – d. November 3/7, 644, Medina, Arabia). Second Rashidun caliph and founder of the Arab empire (r. 634-644). At first, he was a declared enemy of the Prophet’s message. Hadith places his conversion to Islam in 618 when he was 26 years old. He belonged to the Banu ‘Adi ibn Ka‘b who enjoyed no political influence at Mecca. Due to his strength of will, his influence began in Medina after the Hijra, in perfect agreement with Abu Bakr. He became the Prophet’s father-in-law when the Prophet married his daughter Hafsa. He took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud and later ones, although his part was that of a counsellor rather than of a soldier.
Umar ibn al-Khattab was a devoted companion of Muhammad and was the initiator of the administrative mechanisms which made the Islamic empire possible. Throughout Muhammad’s Medinan career, ‘Umar seems to have been in complete harmony with the policies of both the Prophet and Abu Bakr, the first caliph, with whom he shared the honor of being father-in-law of Muhammad. No military exploits were credited to him, but he was involved in the revelation of portions of the Qur’an {see Sura 2:125; 33:53; and 66:6}.
After the death of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab was recognized as the latter’s successor by the majority of the Companions, there being dissatisfaction only on the side of the party of ‘Ali and of the “Helpers,” who had already suffered defeat when Abu Bakr became caliph two years earlier. At the death of Abu Bakr, there seems to have been no formal designation of ‘Umar as successor, but his rule received almost unanimous acceptance, the only opposition deriving from supporters of Ali. Once in office, he assumed the title Commander of the Faithful, and dared to dismiss Khalid ibn al-Walid, early Islam’s most successful general. Khalid ibn al-Walid had challenged the authority of ‘Umar.
During the great expansion of Muslim conquests, which had already begun, ‘Umar never lost control of his generals. He dismissed Khalid ibn al-Walid and treated ‘Amr ibn al-‘As with tact. He also made use of the powerful family of the Umayyads. All the political institutions by which the Muslim state was later to be ruled had their origin in his caliphate.
‘Umar instituted a system of checks on provincial administrators by dividing the authority between the military and civil commander and the fiscal officer. He established the pension register and the office of judge, regulated worship in the mosques, and established a number of military centers, which later developed into famous Islamic cities.
The regulations for the non-Muslim subjects, the institution of a register of those having right to military pensions, the founding of military centers out of which were to grow the future great cities of Islam, and the creation of the office of judge (qadi), were all the work of ‘Umar ibn Khattab. Religious ordinances, such as the prayer of Ramadan and the obligatory pilgrimage, as well as civic and penal ordinances, such as the era of the hijra, the punishment of drunkenness, and stoning as a punishment for adultery, go back to him.
‘Umar is said to have substituted in 640 the title of “Commander of the Believers” (in Arabic, amir al-mu’minin) for that of khalifa –“deputy.” He fell in 644 by the dagger of Abu Lu’lu’a. As a motive for the murder, hadith gives the very heavy tax against which the slave had appealed in vain to the caliph.
‘Umar was assassinated by the disgruntled slave, Abu Lu’lu’a, before providing for a successor. Despite rumors, there is no indication of a conspiracy to kill him. However, the histories are unanimous that ‘Umar was more feared than liked, particularly because he expected all to adhere to his own severe ascetic standards.
‘Umar really was the second founder of Islam, but the Shi‘a have never concealed their antipathy to him because he was the first to thwart the claims of ‘Ali.
Umar was born in Mecca. A brief timeline of his life reads as follows:
In 615, Umar converted to Islam, but according to some traditions, the coversion may have been as late as 618.
In 622, Umar participated in the hijra, the escape to Medina. By this time, he had become one of Muhammad’s chief advisors.
In 624, Umar participated in the battle of Badr, but judging from the sources, he was not a central figure.
In 625, Umar participated in the battle of Uhud, but again his role was a marginal one. However, in 625, Muhammad married Umar’s daughter Hafsa.
In 632, following the death of Muhammad, Umar campaigned for Abu Bakr to become the leader of the Muslim community. Umar and Abu Bakr worked closely together, and according to some traditions Abu Bakr nominated Umar to be his successor. It is, however, clear that there was no form of formal nomination.
In 634, Abu Bakr died, and Umar became leader of the Muslims.
In 636, Umar founded Basra as a military station.
In 638, Jerusalem was conquered, and Umar promised to protect the Christian population in the city.
In 641, Umar took the title “amir al-mu’minin,” -- “Prince of the true believers.”
On November 3, 644, Umar died in Medina after being assassinated by the Christian Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’a. Umar had not arranged for a successor, but would be succeeded by Uthman, who was appointed by a six man strong council.
Umar’s reign represents one of the most important stages in the early Muslim expansion. Under him, the Muslims developed from being an Arabian principality, into becoming a world power. His armies conquered Mesopotamia and Syria, and by the time of his death campaigns had been launched against Egypt.
Umar was a clever administrator and made sure that conquered lands came under control of men who respected the caliph and worked according to his guidelines. Considering that Muhammad was mainly involved in establishing Islam as a religion, it would be correct to say that Umar is the real founder of the Islamic state. Yet, it must be clarified, Umar made his decisions based upon the revelations received by Muhammad and upon the example of Muhammad.
Umar dealt with his generals in a shrewd manner, and never lost control over them, no matter how much success they might have. He found an important ally in the Ummawiyy clan.
In his work for developing the administration, Umar also laid the foundations for a legal system, which would eventually develop into sharia. Among Umar’s regulations was to ban non-Muslims from the land of Arabia, punishment for drunkenness and it is also claimed by some traditions that it is Umar who made adultery punishable by stoning. Umar institutionalized the prayer, the month of Ramadan, the obligatory pilgrimage, and defined the Hijra calendar system.
Umar was a strict Muslim, hard on himself as well as on offenders. He never claimed to be anything except a representative for the only rightful ruler, Muhammad. He was generally highly respected by his contemporaries, as well as by later generations of Sunni Muslims. The Shi ‘a regard him with suspicion, considering him an opponent of Ali.
A member of the clan of ʿAdi of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh (Koreish), ʿUmar at first opposed Muḥammad but, about 615, became a Muslim. By 622, when he went to Medina with Muḥammad and the other Meccan Muslims, he had become one of Muḥammad’s chief advisers, closely associated with Abū Bakr. His position in the state was marked by Muḥammad’s marriage to his daughter Hafsa in 625. On Muḥammad’s death in 632 ʿUmar was largely responsible for reconciling the Medinan Muslims to the acceptance of a Meccan, Abū Bakr, as head of state (caliph). Abū Bakr (reigned 632–634) relied greatly on ʿUmar and nominated him to succeed him. As caliph, ʿUmar was the first to call himself “commander of the faithful” (amīr al-muʾminīn). His reign saw the transformation of the Islāmic state from an Arabian principality to a world power. Throughout this remarkable expansion ʿUmar closely controlled general policy and laid down the principles for administering the conquered lands. The structure of the later Islāmic empire, including legal practice, is largely due to him. Assassinated by a Persian slave for personal reasons, he died at Medina 10 years after coming to the throne. A strong ruler, stern toward offenders, and himself ascetic to the point of harshness, he was universally respected for his justice and authority.
'Umar was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguishes between right and wrong) and his house as Darul Adal (house of justice). Also, Umar was the first Caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful or Prince of the Believers).
Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. It was Umar who for the first time in 500 years since expulsion of Jews from the Holy Land, allowed the Jews to practice their religion freely and live in Jerusalem.
Religiously a controversial figure in the Shia Muslim world, Umar is regarded by Sunni Muslims as one of the four Rashidun or rightly guided caliphs who were true successors of Muhammad. In stark contrast, 'Umar is regarded by Shi'a Muslims as unjust in his usurpation of Ali's right to the caliphate and is viewed as the principal political architect of the opposition to Ali.
Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history. Under his leadership, the Islamic empire expanded at a unprecedented rate, while at the same time 'Umar also began to build the political structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina. Umar also ordered the expulsion of the Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or Iraq. He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the Hejaz for longer than three days. He was first to establish the army as a state department. Umar was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence. He is regarded by Sunni Muslims to be one of the greatest Faqih. 'Umar as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law (Shari'a). In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowance for Muslims. A year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year after the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Madinah (Medina).
'Umar married a total of 9 women in his lifetime and had 14 children, 10 sons and 4 daughters. The details are as follow:
Wife: Zaynab bint Mazh'un (at the time of Jahiliyyah [Days of Ignorance])
Son: Abdullah ibn Umar
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar (The Older)
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar
Daughter: Hafsa bint Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint Jarwila Khuzima (divorced)
Son: Ubaidullah ibn Umar
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar
Wife: Quraybah bint Abi Umayyah al-Makhzumi (divorced, married by Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr)
Wife: Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham (after her husband, a former ally of 'Umar and a companion Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl was killed in Battle of Yarmouk, later divorced but al-Madaini says he did not divorce her)
Daughter: Fatima bint 'Umar
Wife: Jamilah bint Ashim ibn Thabit ibn Abi al-Aqlah (from the tribe of Aws)
Son: Asim ibn Umar
Wife: Atikah bint Zayd ibn Amr ibn Nifayl (cousin of Umar and former wife of Abdullah ibn Abu Bakr married 'Umar in the year 12 AH and after 'Umar was murdered, she married az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam)
Son: Iyaad ibn 'Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint 'Ali (the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib)
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar, (famously known as Ibnul Khalifatayn; the son of the two Caliphs i.e Umar and Ali).
Daughter: Ruqayyah bint 'Umar
Wife: Luhyah (a woman from Yemen (Yaman) who's marital status with 'Umar is disputed, al-Waqidi said that she was Umm Walad, meaning a slave woman)
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar (the youngest Abdulrehman while some say the middle Abdulrehman from Luhyah)
Wife: Fukayhah (as Umm Walad)
Daughter: Zaynab bint 'Umar (the smallest child of 'Umar from Fukayhah)
Another son is, az-Zubayr ibn Bakkar, called Abu Shahmah, though from which wife is unknown.
'Umar I see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Omar see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq, al- see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab ('Umar I) (Omar) (Umar the Great) (Farooq the Great) (b.c. 586-592, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] – d. November 3/7, 644, Medina, Arabia). Second Rashidun caliph and founder of the Arab empire (r. 634-644). At first, he was a declared enemy of the Prophet’s message. Hadith places his conversion to Islam in 618 when he was 26 years old. He belonged to the Banu ‘Adi ibn Ka‘b who enjoyed no political influence at Mecca. Due to his strength of will, his influence began in Medina after the Hijra, in perfect agreement with Abu Bakr. He became the Prophet’s father-in-law when the Prophet married his daughter Hafsa. He took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud and later ones, although his part was that of a counsellor rather than of a soldier.
Umar ibn al-Khattab was a devoted companion of Muhammad and was the initiator of the administrative mechanisms which made the Islamic empire possible. Throughout Muhammad’s Medinan career, ‘Umar seems to have been in complete harmony with the policies of both the Prophet and Abu Bakr, the first caliph, with whom he shared the honor of being father-in-law of Muhammad. No military exploits were credited to him, but he was involved in the revelation of portions of the Qur’an {see Sura 2:125; 33:53; and 66:6}.
After the death of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab was recognized as the latter’s successor by the majority of the Companions, there being dissatisfaction only on the side of the party of ‘Ali and of the “Helpers,” who had already suffered defeat when Abu Bakr became caliph two years earlier. At the death of Abu Bakr, there seems to have been no formal designation of ‘Umar as successor, but his rule received almost unanimous acceptance, the only opposition deriving from supporters of Ali. Once in office, he assumed the title Commander of the Faithful, and dared to dismiss Khalid ibn al-Walid, early Islam’s most successful general. Khalid ibn al-Walid had challenged the authority of ‘Umar.
During the great expansion of Muslim conquests, which had already begun, ‘Umar never lost control of his generals. He dismissed Khalid ibn al-Walid and treated ‘Amr ibn al-‘As with tact. He also made use of the powerful family of the Umayyads. All the political institutions by which the Muslim state was later to be ruled had their origin in his caliphate.
‘Umar instituted a system of checks on provincial administrators by dividing the authority between the military and civil commander and the fiscal officer. He established the pension register and the office of judge, regulated worship in the mosques, and established a number of military centers, which later developed into famous Islamic cities.
The regulations for the non-Muslim subjects, the institution of a register of those having right to military pensions, the founding of military centers out of which were to grow the future great cities of Islam, and the creation of the office of judge (qadi), were all the work of ‘Umar ibn Khattab. Religious ordinances, such as the prayer of Ramadan and the obligatory pilgrimage, as well as civic and penal ordinances, such as the era of the hijra, the punishment of drunkenness, and stoning as a punishment for adultery, go back to him.
‘Umar is said to have substituted in 640 the title of “Commander of the Believers” (in Arabic, amir al-mu’minin) for that of khalifa –“deputy.” He fell in 644 by the dagger of Abu Lu’lu’a. As a motive for the murder, hadith gives the very heavy tax against which the slave had appealed in vain to the caliph.
‘Umar was assassinated by the disgruntled slave, Abu Lu’lu’a, before providing for a successor. Despite rumors, there is no indication of a conspiracy to kill him. However, the histories are unanimous that ‘Umar was more feared than liked, particularly because he expected all to adhere to his own severe ascetic standards.
‘Umar really was the second founder of Islam, but the Shi‘a have never concealed their antipathy to him because he was the first to thwart the claims of ‘Ali.
Umar was born in Mecca. A brief timeline of his life reads as follows:
In 615, Umar converted to Islam, but according to some traditions, the coversion may have been as late as 618.
In 622, Umar participated in the hijra, the escape to Medina. By this time, he had become one of Muhammad’s chief advisors.
In 624, Umar participated in the battle of Badr, but judging from the sources, he was not a central figure.
In 625, Umar participated in the battle of Uhud, but again his role was a marginal one. However, in 625, Muhammad married Umar’s daughter Hafsa.
In 632, following the death of Muhammad, Umar campaigned for Abu Bakr to become the leader of the Muslim community. Umar and Abu Bakr worked closely together, and according to some traditions Abu Bakr nominated Umar to be his successor. It is, however, clear that there was no form of formal nomination.
In 634, Abu Bakr died, and Umar became leader of the Muslims.
In 636, Umar founded Basra as a military station.
In 638, Jerusalem was conquered, and Umar promised to protect the Christian population in the city.
In 641, Umar took the title “amir al-mu’minin,” -- “Prince of the true believers.”
On November 3, 644, Umar died in Medina after being assassinated by the Christian Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’a. Umar had not arranged for a successor, but would be succeeded by Uthman, who was appointed by a six man strong council.
Umar’s reign represents one of the most important stages in the early Muslim expansion. Under him, the Muslims developed from being an Arabian principality, into becoming a world power. His armies conquered Mesopotamia and Syria, and by the time of his death campaigns had been launched against Egypt.
Umar was a clever administrator and made sure that conquered lands came under control of men who respected the caliph and worked according to his guidelines. Considering that Muhammad was mainly involved in establishing Islam as a religion, it would be correct to say that Umar is the real founder of the Islamic state. Yet, it must be clarified, Umar made his decisions based upon the revelations received by Muhammad and upon the example of Muhammad.
Umar dealt with his generals in a shrewd manner, and never lost control over them, no matter how much success they might have. He found an important ally in the Ummawiyy clan.
In his work for developing the administration, Umar also laid the foundations for a legal system, which would eventually develop into sharia. Among Umar’s regulations was to ban non-Muslims from the land of Arabia, punishment for drunkenness and it is also claimed by some traditions that it is Umar who made adultery punishable by stoning. Umar institutionalized the prayer, the month of Ramadan, the obligatory pilgrimage, and defined the Hijra calendar system.
Umar was a strict Muslim, hard on himself as well as on offenders. He never claimed to be anything except a representative for the only rightful ruler, Muhammad. He was generally highly respected by his contemporaries, as well as by later generations of Sunni Muslims. The Shi ‘a regard him with suspicion, considering him an opponent of Ali.
A member of the clan of ʿAdi of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh (Koreish), ʿUmar at first opposed Muḥammad but, about 615, became a Muslim. By 622, when he went to Medina with Muḥammad and the other Meccan Muslims, he had become one of Muḥammad’s chief advisers, closely associated with Abū Bakr. His position in the state was marked by Muḥammad’s marriage to his daughter Hafsa in 625. On Muḥammad’s death in 632 ʿUmar was largely responsible for reconciling the Medinan Muslims to the acceptance of a Meccan, Abū Bakr, as head of state (caliph). Abū Bakr (reigned 632–634) relied greatly on ʿUmar and nominated him to succeed him. As caliph, ʿUmar was the first to call himself “commander of the faithful” (amīr al-muʾminīn). His reign saw the transformation of the Islāmic state from an Arabian principality to a world power. Throughout this remarkable expansion ʿUmar closely controlled general policy and laid down the principles for administering the conquered lands. The structure of the later Islāmic empire, including legal practice, is largely due to him. Assassinated by a Persian slave for personal reasons, he died at Medina 10 years after coming to the throne. A strong ruler, stern toward offenders, and himself ascetic to the point of harshness, he was universally respected for his justice and authority.
'Umar was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguishes between right and wrong) and his house as Darul Adal (house of justice). Also, Umar was the first Caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful or Prince of the Believers).
Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. It was Umar who for the first time in 500 years since expulsion of Jews from the Holy Land, allowed the Jews to practice their religion freely and live in Jerusalem.
Religiously a controversial figure in the Shia Muslim world, Umar is regarded by Sunni Muslims as one of the four Rashidun or rightly guided caliphs who were true successors of Muhammad. In stark contrast, 'Umar is regarded by Shi'a Muslims as unjust in his usurpation of Ali's right to the caliphate and is viewed as the principal political architect of the opposition to Ali.
Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history. Under his leadership, the Islamic empire expanded at a unprecedented rate, while at the same time 'Umar also began to build the political structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina. Umar also ordered the expulsion of the Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or Iraq. He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the Hejaz for longer than three days. He was first to establish the army as a state department. Umar was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence. He is regarded by Sunni Muslims to be one of the greatest Faqih. 'Umar as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law (Shari'a). In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowance for Muslims. A year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year after the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Madinah (Medina).
'Umar married a total of 9 women in his lifetime and had 14 children, 10 sons and 4 daughters. The details are as follow:
Wife: Zaynab bint Mazh'un (at the time of Jahiliyyah [Days of Ignorance])
Son: Abdullah ibn Umar
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar (The Older)
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar
Daughter: Hafsa bint Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint Jarwila Khuzima (divorced)
Son: Ubaidullah ibn Umar
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar
Wife: Quraybah bint Abi Umayyah al-Makhzumi (divorced, married by Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr)
Wife: Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham (after her husband, a former ally of 'Umar and a companion Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl was killed in Battle of Yarmouk, later divorced but al-Madaini says he did not divorce her)
Daughter: Fatima bint 'Umar
Wife: Jamilah bint Ashim ibn Thabit ibn Abi al-Aqlah (from the tribe of Aws)
Son: Asim ibn Umar
Wife: Atikah bint Zayd ibn Amr ibn Nifayl (cousin of Umar and former wife of Abdullah ibn Abu Bakr married 'Umar in the year 12 AH and after 'Umar was murdered, she married az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam)
Son: Iyaad ibn 'Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint 'Ali (the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib)
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar, (famously known as Ibnul Khalifatayn; the son of the two Caliphs i.e Umar and Ali).
Daughter: Ruqayyah bint 'Umar
Wife: Luhyah (a woman from Yemen (Yaman) who's marital status with 'Umar is disputed, al-Waqidi said that she was Umm Walad, meaning a slave woman)
Son: Abdulrahman ibn 'Umar (the youngest Abdulrehman while some say the middle Abdulrehman from Luhyah)
Wife: Fukayhah (as Umm Walad)
Daughter: Zaynab bint 'Umar (the smallest child of 'Umar from Fukayhah)
Another son is, az-Zubayr ibn Bakkar, called Abu Shahmah, though from which wife is unknown.
'Umar I see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Omar see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq the Great see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
Farooq, al- see ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab
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